CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Indian cement industry is the second largest in the world after china. In terms of quality,
productivity, and efficiency, it compares with the best anywhere. The hardware and
software that run the industry is mostly Indian.

The cement industry is progressively developing, as the demand of cement is expected

to grow due to greater focus on infrastructure and housing. According to the cement
manufacture association (CMA), the industry has an installed capacity of over 137
million tonnes from 124 plants of 56 member companies. Most of the capacity is
modern and based on the energy efficient dry process technology.

The Indian cement industry plays a key role in the national economy generating
substantial revenue for state and central government. The industry employs a work force
of over 1.5 lakhs and support a further complement of 12 lakh people engaged
indirectly. Freight and transport cost has influence on cement cost. Selling prices vary
widely from market to market seasonally, depending on local supply demand balance.

1.1 ROTARY KILN

A rotary kiln is a pyroprocessing device used to raise materials to a high temperature
(calcination) in a continuous process. Materials produced using rotary kilns include:

• Cement

• Lime

• Refractories

• Metakaolin

• Titanium dioxide

• Alumina

• Vermiculite

• Iron ore pellets

They are also used for roasting a wide variety of sulphide ores prior to metal extraction.

1.1.1 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

The kiln is a cylindrical vessel, inclined slightly to the horizontal, which is rotated
slowly about its axis. The material to be processed is fed into the upper end of the
cylinder. As the kiln rotates, material gradually moves down towards the lower end, and
may undergo a certain amount of stirring and mixing. Hot gases pass along the kiln,

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sometimes in the same direction as the process material (co-current), but usually in the
opposite direction (counter-current). The hot gases may be generated in an external
furnace, or may be generated by a flame inside the kiln. Such a flame is projected from
a burner-pipe (or "firing pipe") which acts like a large bunsen burner . The
fuel for this may be gas, oil, pulverized petroleum coke or pulverized coal.

1.1.2 REFRACTORY LINING

The purpose of the refractory lining is to insulate the steel shell from the high
temperatures inside the kiln, and to protect it from the corrosive properties of the
process material. It may consist of refractory bricks or cast refractory concrete, or may
be absent in zones of the kiln that are below around 250 °C. The refractory selected
depends upon the temperature inside the kiln and the chemical nature of the material
being processed. In some processes, such as cement, the refractory life is prolonged by
maintaining a coating of the processed material on the refractory surface. The thickness
of the lining is generally in the range 80 to 300 mm. A typical refractory will be capable
of maintaining a temperature drop of 1000 °C or more between its hot and cold faces.
The shell temperature needs to be maintained below around 350 °C in order to protect
the steel from damage, and continuous infrared scanners are used to give early warning
of "hot-spots" indicative of refractory failure.

Heat exchange in a rotary kiln (3 modes of heat transfer) may be by conduction,

convection and radiation, in descending order of efficiency. In low- temperature
processes, and in the cooler parts of long kilns lacking preheaters, the kiln is often
furnished with internal heat exchangers to encourage heat exchange between the gas and
the feed. These may consist of scoops or "lifters" that cascade the feed
through the gas stream, or may be metallic inserts that heat up in the upper part of the
kiln, and impart the heat to the feed as they dip below the feed surface as the kiln
rotates. The latter are favoured where lifters would cause excessive dust pick-up. The
most common heat exchanger consists of chains hanging in curtains across the gas
stream.

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Fig 1.1 : A typical Rotary Kiln in a Industry

1.1.3 CEMENT KILN

Cement kilns are used for the pyroprocessing stage of manufacture of Portland and
other types of hydraulic cement, in which calcium reacts with silica-bearing minerals to
form a mixture of calcium silicates. Over a billion tonnes of cement are made per year,
and cement kilns are the heart of this production process: their capacity usually defines
the capacity of the cement plant. As the main energy consuming and greenhouse-gas–
emitting stage of cement manufacture, improvement of kiln efficiency has been the
central concern of cement manufacturing technology.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
By understanding various applications of a rotary kiln in many industries we have to
improve the efficiency of the kiln. Under this project we have tried to reduce the loss of
heat through radiation by introducing by a new insulation design. The idea was
mimicked by the insulation provided by thermos flask that is a vacuum layer between
two moderately insulating material. Since normal insulating materials have no ability to
retain at high temperatures we used SiC as an insulating material for the above
mentioned design. The model design was prepared using Autodesk Fusion360 and tried
various thickness for the insulation and selecting the best such that the thickness is less
than the critical radius of thickness. Various papers were reviewed to find a similar
design in any industry. Some papers regarding the design of thermos flask were also
reviewed to empathize a design for kiln.

Calculations were made to find the heat transfer before and after the insulation by
studying various textbooks. Heat balance of the kiln is made by the data collected from
Malabar Cements Limited ,Ooty by our guide Ms.Srilekshmi M and from that the
calculations are done using Cement manufacturer’s handbook by Kurt E Peray .Finally
the percentage change in reduction of loss is calculated and cost analysis is also done

4
 CHAPTER 3

OBJECTIVES
• Calculate the loss of heat due to radiation by overall energy balance

• Proposing an Idea for the reduction of these losses

• Heat loss reduced by the introduction of the design

• Preparing the design using Autodesk Fusion360

• Cost estimation and analysis of the design proposed

5
 CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
In order to reduce the radiation losses in rotary kiln we use vacuum in between two
layers of Silicon Carbide. Silicon Carbide is the only chemical compound of carbon and
silicon. It was originally produced by a high temperature electro-chemical reaction of
sand and carbon. Silicon carbide is an excellent abrasive and has been produced and
made into grinding wheels and other abrasive products for over one hundred years.
Today the material has been developed into a high quality technical grade ceramic with
very good mechanical properties. It is used in abrasives, refractories, ceramics, and
numerous high-performance applications. The material can also be made an electrical
conductor and has applications in resistance heating, flame igniters and electronic
components. Structural and wear applications are constantly developing.

4.1 DATA REQUIRED

4.1.1 Fuel analysis (coal as fired)

A A = Percent ash = 20%

A H = Percent hydrogen = 4%

A C = Percent carbon = 65%

A D = Percent oxygen = 1%

A M = Percent moisture = 4%

A S = Percent sulphur = 0.8%

A Q = Heat value kcal/kg = 5700 kcal/kg

4.1.2 Coal ash analysis

B Si = Percent SiO 2 = 60%

B Al = Percent Al 2 O 3 = 23%

B Fe = Percent Fe 2 O 3 = 8%

B Ca = Percent CaO = 3%

MgO = 1%-1.5%

4.1.3 Kiln Feed Analysis

C Si = Percent SiO 2 = 13%

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C Al = Percent Al 2 O 3 = 3.3%

C Fe = Percent Fe 2 O 3 = 2.5%

C ca = Percent CaO = 44.5%

C Mg = Percent MgO = 0.8%

C Na = Percent Na 2 O = 0.1%

C k = Percent K 2 O = 0.2%

Cs = Percent SO 3 = 0.2%

C lg = Percent loss on ignition = 35%

C m = Percent moisture = 0.2%

C c = Percent organics = 0.2%

4.1.4 Kiln exit gas analysis (By orsat)

Gas wt.

D CO2 = Percent CO 2 (By weight) = 28% 0.28*44

D CO = Percent CO (By weight) = 0.2% 0.002*28

D N = Percent N 2 (By weight) = 62.8% 0.628*28

D o = Percent O 2 (By weight) = 9% 0.09*32

4.1.5 Precipitator outlet gas analysis

E CO2 = Percent CO 2 (By weight) = 24% 0.24*44

E O2 = Percent O 2 (By weight) = 9% 0.09*32

4.1.6 Ambient Air and Location

F T = Ambient air temp = 25 0 C

F ll = Percent relative humidity = 65%

F EL = Elevation (meters above sea level) = 290 MSL

F Bar = Barometric pressure = 10046 mmHg

4.1.7Weight of Materials

W Cl = kiln output = 60000kg/hr

7
W Df = Dry feed rate (kg/kg of clinker) = 1.49 kg/kgcl

W A = Fuel rate, as fired (kg/kg of clinker) = 0.17-0.18 kg/kgcl

4.1.8 Kiln Dust Analysis (Loss free basis)

G Si = percent SiO 2 = 16%

G Al = percent Al 2 O 3 = 6%

G Fe = percent Fe 2 O 3 = 4.5%

G Ca = percent CaO = 48%

G K = percent K 2 O = 0.8%

G ig = percent ignition loss = 25%

G S = percent SO 3 = 0.6%

G = percent of collected dust that is returned to the kiln (decimal)

= 0.06%

4.1.9 Kiln Dimensions

L 1 = Kiln length = 65m

L 2 = Kiln diameter = 4.4m

L 3 = Effective burner tip orifice area = 0.1194m^2

L 4 = Refractory thickness = 200mm

L 5 = Kiln shell thickness = 28mm

L6 = Kiln slope = 30 0 C

4.1.10 Operating Parameters

Ph = Hood draft (mm H 2 O) = 0.9mm

P Be = Feed and draft (mm H2O) = 45mm

P KS = Kiln speed = 1.6 rpm

4.1.11 Clinker Analysis (Loss free Basis)

his = Percent SiO 2 = 22.26%

H Al = percent Al 2 O 3 = 6.97%

HFe = Percent Fe 2 O 3 = 4.03%

8
H Ca = percent CaO = 64.5%

H Mg = percent MgO = 1.04%

H s = percent SO 3 = 0.9%

H Alk = percent alkalies = 0.9%

H lg = Percent moisture = 0.4%

4.1.12 Temperatures

T c = feed entering kiln = 850 0 C

T sa = secondary air = 900 0 C

T pa = primary air = 50 0 C

T Be = kiln exit gas = 60 0 C

T st = cooler stack = 200 0 C

T F = Fuel as fired = 50 0 C

T Z1 = Average shell,lower third = 280 0 C

T Z2 = Average shell, middle third = 269 0 C

T Z3 = Average shell, upper third = 257 0 C

T = Kiln room = 25 0 C

Air volumes standard m 3 /s at 0 0 C, 760mmHg

V pa = primary air flow = 23.4 m 3 /s

V EX = cooler vent stack = 37.5%

V Be = kiln exit = 288000 mill returning

300000millstoppage

V Co = Total air into cooler = 73.62%

4.1.13 Dimensions

X 1 = Cooler length, grates = 19.8m

X 2 = cooler width, grates = 3.3mm

X 3 = total effective area of hood opening = 12.17%

9
Where ambient air is infiltrated

4.2 ENERGY BALANCE

In all the formula given below “Q” denotes the heat content (kcal/kg) and “cm”the mean
specific heat in terms of kcal/kg.Cm value can be found from graphs for the mean
specific heat of gases and solids.

HEAT INPUT

4.2.1 Heat input from combustion of fuel

Q = W A *A Q

= 0.17 * 5770

= 969 kcal/kg

4.2.2Heat input from sensible heat in fuel

Q = W A *C m *T F

= 0.17 * 0.2 *55

= 2.618 kcal/kg

4.2.3 Organic substance in the kiln feed

It is assumed that the organic matter in the kiln feed has a constant heat value of 5028
kcal/kg. Cc is mean specific heat of clinker

Q = g CC/100*5028

= (1.012*0.2)/100*5.28

= 10.25 kcal/kg

4.2.4 Heat input from sensible heat in kiln feed

Q 1 = W df *C m *T c

= 1.49*0.21*850

= 265.96 kcal/kg

4.2.5 Heat input from cooler air sensible heat

Q = Wt*(1/Wcl)*Cm*Ft

= 323250.85*(1/ (60*1000))*0.2*25

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 = 26.93 kcal/kg

4.2.6 Heat input from primary air sensible heat

In this calculation only the amount of primary air which originates from the atmosphere
is included

Q = W A *(1/W cl )*Cm*F T

= 108913.89 *(1/ (60*1000))*0.2*25

= 9.06 kcal/kg

4.2.7 Heat input from infilterd air sensible heat

Q = W s *(1/Wcl)*C m *T

= 160913.4*(1/ (60*1000))*0.179*50

= 24.0029 kcal/kg

HEAT OUTPUTS

4.2.8 Heat required for clinker formation

Q = 407.67 kcal/kg

4.2.9 Loss with kiln exit gas

The heat loss in the exit gas is calculated from the heat content of each individual gas
component

Q co2 = W co2* C m *T Be

= 0.814*0.209*60 0 C

= 10.2075 kcal/kg

QH2O = W H2O *Cm*T Be

= 0.093*0.47*60 0 C

= 2.6226 kcal/kg

Qso2 = W SO2 *C m *T Be

= 0.00135*0.153*60

= 0.01239

Q N2 = W N2 *C m *T B

= 1.17*0.235*60

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 = 0.7191 kcal/kg

Total Q = 31.1116 kcal/kg

4.2.10 HEAT LOSS DUE TO MOISTURE IN FEED

Q = T otal *H 2 O*597.7

= 0.093*597.7

= 55.5861 kcal/kg

4.2.11 HEAT LOSS DUE TO DUST IN KILN EXIT GASES

Q = K 1 *C m *T Be

= 0.417*0.235*60

= 5.87 kcal/kg

4.2.12 HEAT LOSS WITH CLINKER AT COOLER DISCHARGE

Q = C m *T cl

= 0.912*150

=28.8 kcal/kg

4.2.13 HEAT LOSS AT COOLER STACK

Q = w 2 /w cl *C mx *T st

= (174540/60000)*0.196*200

= 114.033 kcal/kg

4.2.14 HEAT LOSS BY RADIATION ON KILN SHELL

In the following equation q m is the heat transfer coefficient (kcal/m 2 hr) for the

average shell temperature Tz, in each zone of kiln

Ss = kiln shell surface area

Ss = 3.14*L 2 *(L 1 /3)

L 1 , kiln length = 65m

L 2 , kiln diameter = 4.4m

Ss = 3.14*4.4*(65/3)

= 299.498 m2

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Q 1 = S s *qm (T z1 -T)*1/W cl

= 299.498*19.30*(280-25)*1/(60*1000)

= 24.5663 kcal /kg

Q 2 = Ss*Qm (T z2 -T)*1/W cl

= 299.498*18.9(269-25)*1/ (60*1000)

= 23.019 kcal/kg

Q 3 = S s *qm (T z3 -T)*1/w cl

= 299.498*18.4(257-25)1/ (60*1000)

= 21.308 kcal /kg

Total Q = 68.8934 kcal/kg

4.2.15 HEAT LOSS DUE TO CALCINATION OF WASTED KILN DUST

Calculate first the % calcinations of the kiln dust

= C lg -G lg /C lg

= 35.5-25/35.5

= 0.2958

Second, calculate the total carbonate in the kiln dust

T c dust = a+b/I W df *k 2

= 0.785+0.017/1.073*1.49*0.28

= 0.3118 kg

Q = % calcinations T c dust*380.6

= 0.2958*0.3118*380.6

= 35.1029 kcal/kg

Table 4.1 HEAT BALANCE

Heat input Kcal/kg Percent

1 Combustion of fuel 969.0 74.09
2 Sensible heat, fuel 2.618 0.15
3 Organics in fuel 10.25 0.78
4 Sensible heat, kiln fuel 265.96 20.34

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5 Sensible heat, cooler air 26.93 2.06
6 Sensible heat, primary air 9.076 0.69
7 Sensible heat, infiltered air 24.003 1.84
Total 1307.837 100
Heat output Kcal/kg Percent
8 Theoretical heat required 407.67 31.17
9 Exit gas losses 31.112 2.38
10 Evaporation 55.586 4.25
11 Dust in exit gas 5.88 0.45
12 Clinker discharge 28.80 2.2
13 Cooler stack 114.033 8.72
14 Kiln shell 68.893 5.27
15 Calcination of waste dust 35.103 2.68
Unaccounted losses 560.76 42.87
Total 1307.837 100

4.3 LOSSES AFTER INSULATION

Heat transfer coefficient in vacuum layer

qr = σ*E*(T14-T24)

qr = h*A*(T1-T2)

Assuming the extreme temperatures are T1 and T2

Assuming emissivity is half (grey body)

E = 0.5 * σ

=5.670373*10-8

qr =2217.0946 Kcal/Kg

h = qr/(2*π∗¿D*L*(T1-T2)

=0.008709 Kcal/m2hr

Thermal conductivity of silicon carbide at different temperatures

K553K= 176.76Kcal/kg

K542K=183.10Kcal/Kg

qm at different sections of clinker

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qm = 1/((1/qm’) + (r2*ln(r0/r1))/k + (1/h0)

553K , qm = 8.7049*10-3 kcal/hr m2

542K, , qm = 8.7049*10-3 kcal/hr m2

494K, , qm = 8.7049*10-3 kcal/hr m2

Therefore vacuum helped in effective reduction of heat loss.

TOTAL Qradiation =SS*qm*(Tavg –T)*1/W

=0.0317Kcal/Kg

Fig 4.1 Dimensions of the insulation

15
Fig4.2 Modified Rotary Kiln design (a) Front view (b) isometric Projection (c)
Isometric Projection of crossection (d) Crossection

16
 CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 PERCENTAGE CHANGE IN LOSSES

Qradiation =0.0317 Kcal/kg

Qradiation before =68.8934Kcal/kg

percentage change =99.95% reduction in heat loss excluding the outermost SiC layer

5.2 COST ESTIMATION AND ANALYSIS

First Area

A1=3.14(r12- r22)

=3.14(2.6482-2.5282)

=1.951306029m2

Second Area

A2=3.14(r32-r42)

=3.14(2.4282-2.2282)

=2.92541079m2

volume= (A1 +A2)h

= (1.951306029+2.925451079)*65

=3160989212 m3

Density=2.22g/cm3

Mass=volume*Density

=3160989212*2.22*106*10-3
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=703716.0507kg

price of SiC =$285/1000kg

=$0.285/kg

Total cost=703716.0507*0.285

=$200559.0744

5.3 CONSTRUCTION

Curved Surface Area of first SiC Layer=2*3.14(2.428-2.528)*65 = 49.0088454m2

Curved Surface Area of second SiC layer=2*3.14(2.4228-20228)*65 = 81.68140899m2

Total CSA=49.0088454+81.68140894 = 130.6902544m2

Rate to construct 1m2 SiC layer ~ $20.91

Total cost = 130.6902544*20.91 = $2732.73322

Table 5.1 Properties of SiC used for construction

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 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS

The efficiency and production of the cement through kiln is reviewed in this article by
considering various design parameters. On assuming that 50% of the heat is absorbed
by the proposed design, it is proved that more components in the feed are processed at a
time. For instance, more amount of Al, Fe, Mg, Si oxides can be processed at a time.
Thereby more feed can be input to the kiln and as a result more cement is produced.
Since the heat is more available than the latter design calcination process of CaCO3 is
done in more efficient manner. Ca content in cement is a critical parameter for the
cement’s quality and can finalize that the design proposed can increase the cement
quality too. From the cost estimation and analysis that construction cost is higher. But
taking into account the above mentioned point thy problem mentioned is insignificant it
is because since the quality from the output of kiln may differ much and needs proper
separation based on quality which is another hard step in terms of industry and costlier
too. Also increase in production may balance the initial cost of design. Since these
techniques are not used in current industry the efficiency of rotary kiln is below 30% the
overall efficiency of industries is also affected. Apart from these methods forced
convective heat transfer can be used by introducing fans or blowers and bypassing this
air into the air input system. Thus initial cost is just a number in terms of industry but
efficiency is a jewel.

19
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