Part1 PDF

University Of Technology
Electrical and Electronics Department
‫اﻟﻤﻜﺎﺋﻦ اﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬
Electrical Drive
4th Class
Dr. Nowfal Mohammed Taher Al Kayat

Electrical Drive 4th Class
‫اﻟﻤﻜﺎﺋﻦ اﻟﻜﻬﺮﺑﺎﺋﻴﺔ‬ Dr. Nowfal M.T. Al Kayat
A drive consist of three main parts : prime mover; energy transmitting

device and actual apparatus (load), which perform the desired job. The
function of first two parts is to import motion and operate the third one. In
electrical drives, the prime mover is an electric motor or an electromagnet.
A block diagram of an electrical drive may be as shown:
Electrical Energy Apparatus

Motor Transmitting (load)
Device
Control
Equipments
The electromagnetic forces or torque developed by the driving motor

tend to propagate motion of the drive system. This motion may be uniform
translational or rotational motion or non-uniform as in case of starting,
breaking or changing load.
In uniform motion the motor torque must be in direction opposite to
that of the load and equal to it, taken on the same shaft (motor or load shaft)
the steady-state condition has a uniform motion.
TL
Electrical
Tm = TL , Tm – TL = 0 Motor
Wm = Const.
W m Tm
For a uniform motion Tm ≠ TL , therefore the system will either in

acceleration if Tm > TL or declaration when Tm < TL and dynamic equation
relating them is given by:
1
Tm − TL = J dw
dt
, where J = moment of inertia of all rotating part
transformed to the motor shaft.
Types of the load: there are two main loads type:
Active load: which provides active torque (gravitational), deformation
in elastic bodies, springs forces, compressed air, …) these
load may cause motion of the system.
Passive loads : are that loads which have a torque all the times opposing
the motion such as Frictional load and Shearing loads.
Also, loads may be subdivided into: Constant loads which are unchanged with
time or with variation of speed.
Linear varying loads TL = a + bw where a, b are constant.
Second varying load (order) TL = a + bw + cw2 where a, b, c are constant
and w is the speed.
The frictional load may be considered constant, which pump load consider
linear and compressor loads may consider second order.
Electrical drive may operate in one of three main modes op operation:

1. Continuous mode: by which the motor is started and operate for
enough time to reach steady-state temperature then when stopped, it
must be left for enough to reach the initial temperature (room
temperature).
Steady-state θ
Temperature
(θ)
θ ≤ θMaz
ON-Time OFF-Time (t) Time
In such operation and to avoid thermal stresses:

TL ≤ rated torque of the motor.
Ts > TL for the normal motor operation.
Ts = starting torque.
2
2. Interruptive operation: in such operation the motor operates and

stops for approximately equal intervals by which at any interval, the
motor will not reach steady-state temperature when started and not
return to initial temperature when stopped. In such operation and
according to the ON and OFF intervals TL < Trated of the motor
(depending on the number of ON and OFF intervals).
Temp.
(θ) ΘMax – limit.
θ3
θ2
θ1
ON OFF ON OFF ON Time (t)
Interruptive Operation
For each interval Ts > TL to insure starting. The number of intervals is limited
by the temperature reached which must not exceed the designed temperature
limit θmax . such operation of drives maybe found in control system.
3. Short time operation: in such operation the motor is started and

operate for small interval of time, then switch-OFF for very long
period.
Temp.
(θ)
θ
ON OFF Time (t)
Short Time Operation

3
θ may reach θMax but the long OFF time will be sufficient to return the
temperature to its initial value.
tON << tOFF
The motor may be overloaded during the ON time so the temperature θ may
reach θMax at small times, but the long OFF period will return it back to its
initial value.
In such drive TL > Trated motor so multi-successive ON (starting) may
damaged the motor.
Such derive maybe found in cars starting system.
For quadrants operation of drives: By the effect of active and passive

loads, and according to the relationship and directions of w, Tm and TL the
electrical drive may operate in any quadrant of 4-quadrants diagram whose
axis is ± T and ± w.
+w
TL
TL Tgb
Tm
w w
Generator Breaking Motor

II I
-T +T
TL
TL Tm
w Tb w
Referencing Breaking
III IV
-w
The first quadrant (I) represent motor operation by which the motor torque
and speed are in the same direction (+ve) and opposing the load torque TL.
The speed of the motor and it's torque is positive (counter clockwise
direction). The speed may be changed from 0 to wo where wo = no-load
4
angular speed and the motor torque change from 0 at no-load to Ts at w=0
(starting torque). For normal motor operation the following relation must be
satisfied:
Tr ≥ TL ≥ 0 For normal thermal operating condition.
0 < w L ≤ w o According to the selective method of speed variation.
Ts > TL For all motor operation to insure starting.
Tr = rated torque of the motor (N.M).

TL = load torque of the motor shaft (N.M).
Ts = starting torque of the motor (N.M).
The normal steady-state operation is when Tm = TL which make the dynamic

dw
torque (Tm-TL)=0 which means = 0 or w = constant = operating speed
dt
⎛ dw ⎞
⎜ Tm − TL = J ⎟.
⎝ dt ⎠
If for any reason the motor speed exceed wo, then the motor back emf (E) will
V−E
be generator then the supply voltage (V) and I a = will be negative
Ra
(return to the supply) and produce a torque opposing the speed (break).
Ia
IF
Ra
V
E M φ
WT
Therefore moving the second quadrant will change the operation from motor
to generator breaking. At generator breaking w is positive but grater than wo
5
and the motor torque oppose the motion (the load torque in the same direction
as the motion).
At no-load speed wo, E=V, Ia = 0, Tm = 0 (Y-axis) the 3rd quadrant represent
also motor operation but in the reverse direction with respect to that in the
first-quadrant (i.e. rotation in the clockwise direction and Tm also in the
clockwise direction and opposing TL).
The 4th quadrant represent break operation by which the motor still taken
current from the supply and producing torque (+ve) but opposing the motion.
The motion is started by the effect of the load which is grater than Ts (active)
and hence the motor move opposite to it's electrical direction causing E to
change it's direction.
V−E V+E
∴ Ia = → Ia = since E = -ve.
Ra Ra
And hence Tm increase as w increase until at certain w:
Tm = TL and the load will break at speed = w wo > w > 0 .
Torque-speed characteristics (mechanical characteristics) and speed

variation methods:
In many applications the rotational speed of the motor maybe much

higher than the required speed or vise verse, as well as, in other applications
multi-speeds are required. To change the load speed there are mechanical and
electrical methods as well as their combination.
In mechanical method, the use of pullies, gear may make the load speed equal
to the required speed from given motor rotational speed.
N1
N2 r2
r1
TL
B
A wL
Load
Motor Tm , wm TL, wL
6
A simple two gears may have radius r1 and r2 and number of tooth N1 and N2
correspondingly may give the following relationship:
Since teeth pitch is the same for both gears:
∴ when gear A moves one revolution, (2πr1), gear B must move the same
length (2πr1) according to the radius.
load speed w
i.e. 1 × 2πr1 = i( 2πr2 ) where i= = L.
motor speed w m
r1 N 1
∴i = = , wL = i wm
r2 N 2
i > 1 if r1 > r2 or N1 > N2.
If the gears have the efficiency of 100%:

∴ Pin = Pout or Tmwm = TLwL.
w m Tm
∴ TL = Tm = .
wL i
And if the efficiency ≠100% (losses) 1 > ι > 0:
Pout w L TL
∴ Pin = or w m Tm =
ι ι
wm 1 ιT
∴ TL = ι × Tm × = ι × Tm × = m
wL i i
If there are multi-stages of gears with Gear ratio = i1, i2, i3, …
∴ w L = (i 1 × i 2 × i 3 × ...) w m
Tm
And TL = for ideal case.
i 1 × i 2 × i 3 × ...
(ι × ι 2 × ι 3 × ...)Tm
And TL = 1 for actual case when ι n represent the
i 1 × i 2 × i 3 × ...
efficiency of stage n.
When the load is transferred to the motor shaft, and hence it's speed will be
wm ∴ the load torque at the motor shaft will be:
PL = w L × TL = w m × TL
w
∴ TL = L TL = i TL for ideal case.
wm Motor
T\
iT
= L for actual case.
ι
wm
Tm
The equivalent system will be as shown:
7
∴ steady-state operation when:

iT
Tm = TL = L .
ι
Electrical Methods: there are many electrical methods which are used to
make the load operate at the required speed by changing wm. To select any
method the following points are taken into consideration:
1. The direction of speed variation: UP; DOWN; UP and DOWN with respect
to operating speed at natural characteristics.
2. The dynamic range of speed variation, i.e. the possible ratio of maximum to
minimum speed achieved
wm
D = dynamic range of speed = .
w min
wmin is taken to be at least 10% of rated speed.
3. The stiffness coefficient of mechanical characteristics ( β ) which is equal to:
dt
β=− . This factor represents the sensitivity of the motor to the load
dw
variation. Ideal motor must keep constant speed when it's load changes, i.e.
β = ∞ and as this factor decrease it means the motor will be much
sensitive to load variation.
4. The value of the load torque.
5. The efficiency, simplicity, cost, ….
Different motors have different electrical method of speed variation, therefore

dc and ac motors will taken each alone with their possible speed variation
methods.
DC Motors Parametric Methods of Speed Variation:

Ia
A) Separate excited or shunt motor IF
The main equation for separate Ra
excited dc motor are: V
V−E E M φ
Ia = Amp ---------(1)
Ra
E = k ϕ w Volt -----------(2) Tm
T = k ϕ I a N.M ------------(3) wm
8
ZP
k = const . =
2πa
Where:
Z = Conductors / Armature.
P = No. of poles.
a = No of parallel paths.
a = 2 for wave and a = P for lap.
The mechanical characteristics (w=f(t)) can be found from equations 1,2 and 3
as:
V Ra
W= − T -------------(4)
kϕ (kϕ )2
For separate or shunt motor interpdes and compensating windings φ can be
considered = constant independent of load.
∴ for natural characteristics φ = constant = φnom
The mechanical characteristics will be a straight line since V, k, φ, Ra are
constants.
If V = Vnom , φ = φnom and no additional elements are inserted the mechanical
characteristics is natural characteristics.
At no-load (T = Ia = 0)
V W rad/sec
w= = no-load speed Wo; E = V
kϕ A
Wo
At w = 0, T = Tso = starting condition
V
wL
wr
.C. B Natural
Tso = k ϕ N.M. ; E = 0. Characteristics
Ra
. Tso T N.M
TL Tr
If the motor is operate directly with the load at its natural characteristics
∴ Tr ≥ TL ≥ 0 , w0 ≥ wL ≥ wr
∴ for any operating load torque, the operating point will lay on the
mechanical characteristics between points A and B, for example at TL , wL
(point C):
dT (kϕ )
2
The stiffness coefficient β = − = .
dw Ra
9
-1- Adding resistance to the armature:
Rd Ra
IF
Ia
Vnom M Φnom
wm
Tm
The mechanical characteristics will be represented by:

Vnom R + Rd
Wi = − a T which give different speed wi.
k ϕ nom (k ϕ nom )2
At different added Rd for give load torque T
Vnom
At T = 0, w i = = w o = constant independent of Rd.
kϕ nom
W rad/sec
wo .
wLo ..
wL1
wL2 . Natural
Characteristics
wL3 .
Rd3 Rd2 Rd1
TL TS3 TS2 TS1 Tso T N.M
Vnom
At w = 0 , Tsi = k ϕ nom
Ra + Rd
Tsi ↓ as Rd ↑
dT (k φ nom )
2
β=− = ↓ as Rd ↑
dw R a + R d
If 0 < Rd1 < Rd2 < Rd3
10
∴ Tso > Ts1 > Ts2 > Ts3

wLo > wL1 > wL2 > wL3
βo > β1 > β2 < β3
The method can decrease the speed only down wLo and the stiffness coefficient
will be wore as Rd increase. The method is simple with low efficiency (high
( )
losses) due to Rd I a2 R d , therefore it can be used only for small motors. Any
operating condition can be achieved by a certain Rd which make the
developed characteristics pass through that points. For example, it is required
to operate a load of TL at speed wL. Given natural characteristics such motor
can drive such load.
W rad/sec
wo .
w .
wL .R ? d
Rd = 0
TL TS Tso T N.M
If TL ≤ Tm rated.
Pr P ( watt )
Tr = = r N.M.
wr 2πN r
60
If the speed is given in R.P.M., the natural characteristics is not suitable if:
Vnom Ra
w= − TL is grater than wL required.
To find Rd such that the load TL operate at wL the characteristics must have
Rd so that it pass through the point (TL, wL). Rd can be found if the point in
the 1st quadrant (motor operation) either by using the equation:
Vnom R + Rd
wL = − a TL .
∴ Rd can be fount if the other parameters are known.
Or by similarity:
wo wo − wL w o TL
= ∴ Ts = ,
Ts TL wo − wL
11
Vnom
Q Ts = k ϕ nom ∴ Rd is found.
Ra + Rd
+w
.w o
Rd=0
. .-T . . .
R
-T .
-Tso -Ts1 s2
T
R
T
s2
d2
s1
d1
Tso
+T
.-w o
-w
For the motor to operate in the four quadrant, each developed characteristics
can be extended to the other quadrant.
∴ for a break operation wL will be negative will TL is +ve.
For generator breaking wL is positive > wo but TL is negative.
For reverse operation:
V Ra − Rd
− wL = − (− TL ) .
kϕ (k ϕ )2
-2- Changing the armature supply voltage: if the armature supply voltage can
vary ∴ Vnom ≥ V > 0 will give a set of mechanical characteristics given by:
V Ra
w= − TL Ia
k ϕ nom (k ϕ nom )2 IF
Ra
At any selected voltage, the V
characteristics is straight line M Φnom
parallel to each other given by:

TL
wL
12
Vi V
w oi = , Tsi = i kϕ nom
k ϕ nom Ra
As Vi ↓, woi ↓ and Tsi ↓.
dT (kϕ )
2
β=− = = const . (∴ The mechanical characteristics is parallel to
dw Ra
each other).
+w
wo .
. .
wL
wo2
. .
wL1
V = Vnom
wo1
wL2 . V1
-T
TL
.
V2
Ts2
.
Ts1
.
Tso
+T
-w
Vnom > V1 > V2

wo > wo1 > wo2
Tso > Ts1 > Ts2
At constant load TL:

wL > wL1 > wL2
∴ The speed variation only down. By the use of power electronic, the
armature supply voltage can be changer. The efficiency of this method is
better than that with Rd and the stiffness coefficient remain constant.
13
-3- Changing the field flux: By adding resistance to the field circuit or by
inserting series winding, the flux of the motor can be changed over and under
φnom of single winding.
+w
wo1 .
φ1 < φnom
wo .
wo2
. φ = φnom
φ2 > φnom
-T
Ts1
. T. so
.
Ts2
+T
-w
Vnom Ra
∴ wi = − TL
k ϕ i (k ϕ i )2
V V
As φi ↑ , w oi = nom ↓ and Tsi = nom ↑.
k ϕi Ra
∴ For φ1 < φnom
wo1 > wo
Ts1 > Tso.
And for φ2 > φnom

wo2 < wo
Ts2 > Tso.
According to the value of TL increasing or decreasing of the flux may give

different results of speed (uncertainty), for example decreasing the flux from
φ1 to φ2 will give increasing of speed if the load torque is T1 from w1 to w2. If
the load torque is T2 the change from the flux from φ1 to φ2 will not change
the speed.
14
At load torque T3 the changing from the flux from φ1 to φ2 will decrease the
speed from w3 to w4 as shown in the diagram.
φ2
w2
w1
w3
φ1
w4
T1 T2 T3 T
(k ϕ i )2
The method affect the stiffness coefficient β = ↓ as φi ↓ but the
Ra
method is more efficient than that with Rd in armature.
Example: A separate excited, 3KW, 150 Volt, 1600 R.P.M, dc motor has an
armature resistance = 1 Ω is to be used in drive through a reducer of
Nm
= 10 . If the load torque is 150 N.M find the required Rd added to the
NL
armature to operate the load at 1 rad/sec? What voltage reduction is used for
such operation if no Rd is added?
Solution:
2π n r 2π × 1600
wr = = = 167.55 rad/sec.
60 60
150
TL\ = = 15 N.M.
10
w L\ = 1 × 10 = 10 rad/sec.
Pr 3 × 10 3
Tmr = = = 17.9 N.M (such motor can drive the load 15 N.M)
w r 167.55
15
For natural characteristics:

V Ra
wr = − Tr
k ϕ (k ϕ )2
150 1
∴ 167.55 = − × 17.9
k ϕ (k ϕ )2
∴ 167.55(kϕ ) − 150(kϕ ) + 17.9 = 0
2
150 ± 150 2 − 4 × 167.55 × 17.9 150 ± 102.4

kϕ = =
2 × 167.55 2 × 167.55
150 + 102.4 150 − 102.4
∴ Either kϕ = = 0.753 or kϕ = = 0.142
2 × 167.55 2 × 167.55
V 150
∴ wo = , either w o = = 199.2 rad/sec or
kϕ 0.753
150
wo = = 1056 rad/sec.
0.142
By neglect very far from wr.
∴ kϕ = 0.753 .
To find Rd required
1 + Rd
∴ 10 = 199.2 − × 15
(0.753) 2
(1 + R d ) 26.45 = 199.2 − 10 = 189.2

189.2
∴1 + Rd = = 7.153 ∴ R d = 6.153Ω .
26.45
V 1
For Rd = 0 → 10 = − × 15
0.753 (0.753 )2
1.33V = 10 + 26.45 = 36.45
36.45
∴V = = 27.4 Volt.
1.33
∴ The reduction of supply voltage = 150 – 27.4 = 122.6 Volt.
16
B. Series Motor:
For series motor the value of RF is added to armature total resistance

and the change of load (torque) will change also φ.
φ
∴ φ is no longer constant but RF Ra

function of the armature current
for example Ia
AI a2 + BI a + C
kϕ =
DI a
TL
wL
Where A, B, C, D are constant whose values gives a linear relationship at

small Ia and constant kφ at very high Ia (saturation) (Ia = IF if no diverter
only).
At no-load ideally φ = 0 and wo = ∞, therefore no-load or high load operation
of series motor is not allowed since the resultant speed is dangerously high.
For the same reason a movement from 1st quadrant (generator braking) is not
allowed also. The mechanical characteristics is given by the same equation
V Ra
w= − T with φ changing with T.
kϕ (kϕ )2
Adding the resistance to the armature or changing the supply voltage will
change the φ also, so the characteristics is no-longer straight line.
17
Example:
A series 100 Volt, 2 KW, 800 R.P.M motor has Ra = 0.5 Ω and RF = 0.3 Ω. The
field is linearly proportional to armature current. Find the required
additional armature resistance to drive a load of 20 N.M at speed of 250
R.P.M.
Solution:
Let kφ = AIa where A = Constant.
Pr 2 × 10 3 2 × 10 3
Tr = = = = 23.87 N.M.
w r 2π × 800 83.8
60
T = kϕI a = AI a2
V Ra + RF
wr = − Tr
kϕ (kϕ )2
100 (0.5 + 0.3 )
∴ 83.8 = − × 23.87
kϕ (kϕ )2
83.8(kϕ ) − 100(kϕ ) + 19.1 = 0
2
100 ± 100 2 − 4 × 83.8 × 19.1 100 ± 59.98

∴ kϕ = =
2 × 83.8 2 × 83.8
∴ kφ = 0.954 or kφ = 0.238 (Neglect since Ts ≈ Tr)
∴ kφ = 0.954 = A Ia
Tr = AI a2 = 23.87
T 23.87 0.954
∴ r = Ia = = 25 Amp, and A = = 0.038
kϕ 0.954 25
To find Rd , TL = 20 = A Ia2 =0.038 Ia2.
20
∴ I a2 = = 526.3 → I a = 22.94 Amp.
0.038
∴ kϕ = AI a = 0.038 × 22.94 = 0.87
250 × 2π
wL = = 26.18 rad/sec.
60
V Ra + RF + Rd
∴ wL = − TL
kϕ (kϕ ) 2
100 (0.5 + 0.3 + R d )

26.18 = − × 20
0.87 (0.87 )2
18
∴ 26.18 = 114.9 − (0.8 + R d ) × 26.4

(0.8 + R d ) × 26.4 = 114.9 − 26.18 = 88.72
88.72
0.8 + R d = = 3.36
26.4
∴ R d = 3.36 − 0.8 = 2.56Ω .
Electrical Breaking of DC Motors:

In order to stop the motor quickly and to absorb the kinetic energy in
the rotating parts the motor will produce a torque which oppose the motion
(breaking) by a certain process and connection called electrical breaking of dc
motor. When the supply is switched OFF, the drive will come to rest under the
effect of frictional force (torque) only which may take a long time especially
for large inertia motors. To increase that time as it is required in control
system electrical breaking method are used.
Separate excited motor electrical breaking:

Separate excited motor can be breaking by one of the following
methods:
1. Generator breaking.
2. Supply reverse breaking.
3. Dynamic breaking.
1. Generator Breaking:
When the speed of a separate excited motor exceed it's no-load speed,
the motor will exert a torque oppose the motion and the direction of the
armature current is reversed.
The current will move from the machine w
to the supply (the machine will
wo
operate as a generator) and the
produced torque is opposing the
motion, hence, it called generator
wL
. V .
Operating
breaking or regenerative breaking. wo .Characteristics
new
V reduced = V1
Tgb TL Ts T
19
Suppose a motor drive a load TL at speed wL according to the mechanical

characteristics as shown in the figure. If the voltage is reduced or φ is increase
such that the new mechanical characteristics has wo < wL as shown.
Then at t = 0 when V is changed the motor will produced a torque = Tgb
opposing the motion. As w reduced from wL to (wo new ) this torque will change
from Tgb to zero.
For the operating characteristics wo > wL and the machine operate as motor
with E = (kφwL) is less than V, the armature current is
V − E v − kϕw
Ia = = from the supply to the motor producing a torque =
Ra ra
⎛ V − kϕw ⎞
kφIa = kϕ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ in the same direction as that of the speed (motor
⎝ R a ⎠
operation).
V1
When the voltage V is changed to V1 , V1 < V such that w o new = < wL.
kϕ
V1 − E V1 − kϕw L
∴ I a new = = = -ve since kφwo new = V1.
Ra Ra
I.e. the current will return to the supply and produced torque will be Tgb =
kφIa new = kφ(-Ia new) = -ve torque i.e. oppose the motion = break.
Similar results when φ increase to give wo new < wL. Notices that the flux is
remain constant in value and direction.
If the motors are shunt motor similar operation can be activated. Series motor
can never be operate in such mode of operation since its speed will be
dangerously high.
2. Supply Reversing Breaking:

Ia IF
If a separate excited dc motor Ra
operate at certain mechanical characteristics A1
at point (TL, wL) as shown. M
V E φ
By changing the polarity of the armature
supply voltage the motor will produce A2
a very large break torque.
t=0 TL
wL IF
Ra
A1
V E M φ
Ib A2
Tb
w
20
wo.
B
wL
. .A
Breaking Operating
Characteristics Characteristics
Tb -T
.C
-TL
. 0
.T
-2Ts s L Ts
T
. -w
.
L
D -wo
-wL . F
Suppose point A is the operating point on the selected characteristics A(TL,

wL).
The armature current will be from the supply to the machine (motor) and
V−E
equal to I a = .
Ra
E = break emf = kφwL , V > E.
When the supply polarity is reversed (φ kept constant in amplitude and

direction).
∴ V → − V (in the same direction as E which remain the same at t = 0).
−V−E V+E
∴ Ia = =− passing through the armature from the supply,
Ra Ra
but in opposite direction to that for motor, (For motor from A1 to A2 while for
supply reversing from A2 to A1).
⎛E+ V⎞
∴ The results torque = kφIa = − kϕ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = − ve which mean opposing the
⎝ R a ⎠
motion (Break).
21
⎛ V + E⎞
∴ The resultant break torque = Tb = kϕ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ at t = 0 and as this break
⎝ R a ⎠
will reduce the speed quickly to zero E = kφw will reduce and the break
torque through breaking process will reduce too.
The maximum possible break torque in such method is the case of breaking
by supply reversing at no-load. i.e. if the motor is at no-load, then V = E, Ia = 0
−V−V V
when V is reversed then I a = = −2 = −2I s .
Ra Ra
Tb = kϕI a = 2kϕI s = 2Ts ( -ve means break).
∴ If the operating point at (0, wo) the break torque at t = 0 = 2Ts and the
armature current = 2Is.
∴ 2Ts ≥ Tb ≥ Ts depending on the position of the operating point A.
At t = 0 the corresponding point on the break characteristic is B and the

corresponding break torque is Tb. As wL reduced E ↓, Tb ↓ and the point will
move on the break characteristics from B to C.
At point C the load speed is zero, therefore if the armature supply V is

switched OFF the system will stop and the time taken for stopping is very
short (with respect to the pervious method and which stopped due to frictional
force only). If the supply is not switched OFF, then the motor will have a
⎛ ⎛ − V ⎞⎞
torque = - Ts ⎜⎜ kϕ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎟ , therefore the motor will be start to operate in
⎟
R
⎝ ⎝ a ⎠⎠
reverse direction. The final operating point such case will be point D(-TL, -wL)
if the load torque TL is passive torque (frictional), otherwise the operating
point will be point (F), F(TL, -wL) and w L > w o (generator breaking). An
example of such case is breaking a lift move up word by supply reversing.
If supply voltage reversing is applied to shunt or series motor
.
F1
.A 1 .
F1
.A 1
Ra Ra
V F M V F M
. .A 2 . .A 2
F2 F2
TL TL
wL wL
22
F F
. . .A 1 . . .A 1
F1 F2 Ra F1 F2 Ra
V M V M
.A 2 .A 2
TL TL
wL wL
The motor will not braked because the supply polarity reversing cause the
armature current and the field current both to change their direction then φ
will change to –φ and Ia will change also to –Ia which give:
T = kϕI a → k (− ϕ )(− I a ) = kϕI a i.e. the shunt and series motor will not
affected by supply reversing. Therefore, for shunt and series motor supply
reversing breaking can be done only if either the direction of armature
current or field current is kept the same (Unchanged). This can be done by the
use of two similar field winding one wound opposite the other and used
alternatively when the supply polarity reversing.
. .F 2
.
A1 . .F 2
.A 1
Ia
. F .F
F 1
2 1
.F . F
F
1
2 1
V M V M
Ia Tb
Ra Ra
A2
. A2
.
TL
wL w
In such case the current of the motor operation pass through the armature
from A1 to A2 and through the upper field winding from F1 to F2 causing a
motor torque TL in same direction as wL. When the supply polarity is reversed
the upper field winding is disconnected and the lower field winding is
connected. ∴ The armature current direction will be reversed (from A2 to A1)
which means –Ia with respect to the first case but the field current in the lower
field winding is still from F1 to F2 which mean φ is not changed.
∴ T = kϕI a ⇒ Tb = kϕ(− I a )
23
3. Dynamic Breaking:
For the separate excited motor operate with a load TL at speed wL at
point A of the selective mechanical characteristics can be breaking by
switching OFF the supply armature voltage and closing the armature
terminal through short circuit or through Rd as shown with field kept
constant (unchanged).
For motor operation: Ia Ra IF

V−E
Ia = ; E = kϕw L
Ra
V E M φ
And TL = kϕI a .
When V = 0 and the terminal of the

TL
armature is short circuited: Either wL
0−E E Ra Ib
Ib = = in the reverse direction. IF
Ra Ra
Since φ is kept the same (constant) E M φ
E
∴ Tb = kϕI b = kϕ Tb
Ra OR
w
As wL ↓ , E ↓ and Tb ↓.
Ra Ib IF
For terminating the armature through
Rd:
Rd E M φ
0−E E
Ib = = in the opposite
Ra + Rd Ra + Rd
direction but less than that with short circuit.
E
∴ Tb = kϕI b = kϕ .
Ra + Rd
As w ↓ , Ia ↓ , Tb ↓.
24
w
Rd1 Rd2
Rd = 0
.w o
. . . .A Rd2 > Rd > 0
-Ts Tb Tb Tb TL Ts T
Rd =0 Rd1 Rd2
V
At w = 0 , Ia = 0 , and Tb = 0. The maximum possible I b = at no-load
Ra
since E = V , and the break torque is (Ts), as Rd ↑ , Ia ↓ , and Tb ↓.
If the load is passive load, the final position is the origin but if the load is
active load the final operating point will move to the 4th quadrant at (TL ,-wL).
. .3
4
. .
F 1 . 2
I
F
. OFF F.
1
2 IF
A1
+ F2 F1
Ia
Relay Relay
V Rd Rd
- A M B
E A2
wL
TL
Contact Ra Contact
B A
25
Operating in position (1) represented motor operation in certain direction,

while operating in position (2) represented also motor operation in the reverse
direction.
Changing from position (1) to position (2) or vise versa through operation will
represent supply reversing breaking.
Changing from position (1) to position (4) or from (2) to (3) will represent
dynamic breaking through Rd which can be selected as required.
Example:
A separate excited 150 Volt, 3 KW, 960 R.P.M dc motor has a total
armature resistance of 1 Ω is used to lift a load of 0.8Tr at speed of 10% of it's
no-load speed. Find:
a) The required additional resistance for such operation?
b) If the supply is reverse breaking is used what will be the initial break
torque and what will be the final operation?
c) If the supply is switched OFF and the armature is terminated through
resistance = 3 Ω what will be the initial break torque and what will be the
final position?
Solution:
2πn r 2π × 960
wr = = = 100.53 rad/sec.
60 60
Pr 3 × 10 3
wL = 10% wo , Tr = = = 29.84 N.M.
w r 100.53
TL = 0.8 Tr = 0.8 × 29.84 = 23.87 N.M.
From natural characteristics:

V Ra
wr = − Tr
kϕ (kϕ )2
150 1
∴ 100.53 = − × 29.84
(kϕ ) (kϕ )2
100.53(kϕ ) − 150(kϕ ) + 29.84 = 0
2
150 ± 150 2 − 4 × 100.53 × 29.84 150 ± 102.47

∴ kϕ = =
2 × 100.53 2 × 100.53
∴ Either kφ = 1.25 Or kφ = 0.236 (Neglect given very high wo and Ts ≈ Tr).
26
V 150
∴ wo = = = 120 rad/sec , wL = 12 rad/sec.
kϕ 1.25
w
. wo = 120
Supply
Reversing Rd = 6Ω
. .
B A
D 12 = wL
-2Ts
Tb
Ts Tb TL = 23.87
.
Ts
T
Dynamic
-wo . Breaking
.
-wL 226.43
Supply
. C
Rev.
-wL 272.7
Dy.B.
. . E
27
To find Rd:
V Ra + Rd
wL = − TL
kϕ (kϕ )2
150 1 + R d
∴ 12 = − × 23.87
1.25 (1.25 )2
120 − 12 = (1 + R d ) × 15.27
108
1 + Rd = = 7Ω
15.27
∴ R d = 7 − 1 = 6Ω
For supply reversing the initial breaking is represented by point B (Tb)

− V − E − 150 − 1.25 × 12
Ib = = = 23.57 (In opposite direction to that for
R at 7
motor operation).
∴ Tb = kϕI b = 1.25 × 23.57 = 29.46N.M
Since the load is the potential load, therefore, final operating position will
represented by point C (General breaking for reverse operation).
V R at 7
∴ −w L = + T = 120 + × 23.87 = 226.93 rad/sec.
kϕ (kϕ )2 (1.25)
L 2
For dynamic breaking through 3 Ω:

0−E − 1.25 × 12
Ib = = = 1.5 Amp. in the opposite direction to motor
Rat + 3 7+3
operation.
∴ Tb = lϕI b = 1.25 × 1.5 = 1.875 N.M. (Point D).
The final operating position will also be generator breaking (pot. load).
V Rat + 3 10
∴ −w L = + T = 120 + × 23.87 = 272.7 rad/sec Pint (E).
(kϕ )2 (1.25)2
L
kϕ
28

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University Of Technology

Electrical and Electronics Department

Dr. Nowfal Mohammed Taher Al Kayat

A drive consist of three main parts : prime mover; energy transmitting

Electrical Energy Apparatus

The electromagnetic forces or torque developed by the driving motor

For a uniform motion Tm ≠ TL , therefore the system will either in

Electrical drive may operate in one of three main modes op operation:

ON-Time OFF-Time (t) Time

In such operation and to avoid thermal stresses:

2. Interruptive operation: in such operation the motor operates and

ON OFF ON OFF ON Time (t)

3. Short time operation: in such operation the motor is started and

ON OFF Time (t)

Short Time Operation

For quadrants operation of drives: By the effect of active and passive

Generator Breaking Motor

Tr = rated torque of the motor (N.M).

The normal steady-state operation is when Tm = TL which make the dynamic

Torque-speed characteristics (mechanical characteristics) and speed

In many applications the rotational speed of the motor maybe much

If the gears have the efficiency of 100%:

∴ steady-state operation when:

Different motors have different electrical method of speed variation, therefore

DC Motors Parametric Methods of Speed Variation:

-1- Adding resistance to the armature:

The mechanical characteristics will be represented by:

∴ Tso > Ts1 > Ts2 > Ts3

parallel to each other given by:

Vnom > V1 > V2

At constant load TL:

And for φ2 > φnom

According to the value of TL increasing or decreasing of the flux may give

For natural characteristics:

150 ± 150 2 − 4 × 167.55 × 17.9 150 ± 102.4

(1 + R d ) 26.45 = 199.2 − 10 = 189.2

For series motor the value of RF is added to armature total resistance

∴ φ is no longer constant but RF Ra

Where A, B, C, D are constant whose values gives a linear relationship at

100 ± 100 2 − 4 × 83.8 × 19.1 100 ± 59.98

100 (0.5 + 0.3 + R d )

∴ 26.18 = 114.9 − (0.8 + R d ) × 26.4

Electrical Breaking of DC Motors:

Separate excited motor electrical breaking:

Suppose a motor drive a load TL at speed wL according to the mechanical

2. Supply Reversing Breaking:

Suppose point A is the operating point on the selected characteristics A(TL,

When the supply polarity is reversed (φ kept constant in amplitude and

At t = 0 the corresponding point on the break characteristic is B and the

At point C the load speed is zero, therefore if the armature supply V is

For motor operation: Ia Ra IF

When V = 0 and the terminal of the

Since φ is kept the same (constant) E M φ

. . . .A Rd2 > Rd > 0

Operating in position (1) represented motor operation in certain direction,

From natural characteristics:

150 ± 150 2 − 4 × 100.53 × 29.84 150 ± 102.47

∴ Either kφ = 1.25 Or kφ = 0.236 (Neglect given very high wo and Ts ≈ Tr).

For supply reversing the initial breaking is represented by point B (Tb)

For dynamic breaking through 3 Ω:

∴ Tb = lϕI b = 1.25 × 1.5 = 1.875 N.M. (Point D).

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