Generation control:

- Objectives
Generating & delivering power in an interconnected system as
economically and reliably as possible, while maintaining voltage
and frequency within permissible limits.
- Control loops
Load Frequency Control
Automatic Voltage Regulator
- Models of sub-systems
Load models
Prime-mover model
Governor model
 Basic Control Loops

Negligible cross-coupling
Load Frequency Control Automatic Voltage Regulator
(LFC) (AVR)
Steam

Excitation
controller

Turbine
Generator

V
Voltage
Steam Frequency f sensor &
valve sensor &
comparator
controller comparator

P + jQ
fref Vref
 Basic Control Loops

Negligible cross-coupling
Load Frequency Control Automatic Voltage Regulator
(LFC) (AVR)

- Directly controls active power - Directly controls Excitation (Voltage)

(indirectly controls frequency) (indirectly controls reactive power)
-Slow acting - Fast acting
(low excitation system time constant)
-.
 Load frequency control “LFC”

Operating principle:
- Change in frequency and change in rotor angle “δ” are sensed as error signals
- LFC accordingly delivers real power demand signal to the prime-mover

Main Goal:
To compensate for frequency drop resulting from high demands

Functions:
- Maintain uniform frequency between specified limits
- Divide the load between paralleled generators
- Control tie-line interchange schedule

Outcomes:
- Ensures constant speed of AC motors
- Preserves power system stability
For generators in large systems: E & V are considered constant

δ Ephase

Ia.χs
Vphase
Iphase θLoad Ia.ra

From Graph : ⇒ E sin δ ≅ IX cos θ

V VE sin δ
Multiply RHS & LHS by ⇒ = VI cos θ
X X
⎛ V ph E ph ⎞
Pph ≅ ⎜ ⎟ sin δ
⎜ X ⎟
⎝ ⎠
 Power balance:

At any instant, energy balance exists:

∑ Pmech = ∑ Pelec + PLosses

If Pmech > Pelec

Excess energy is stored in the machine causing increased velocity
(and frequency)

If Pmech < Pelec

The machine decreases its velocity (and frequency) to regain
balance condition
 Generator model:

ω = rotational speed (rad/sec)

M = angular moment of machine
Pmech = mechanical input power
Pelec = electrical output power
d
∆Pmech − ∆Pelec = M (∆ω )
dt

+ 1
∆ω
∆Pmech Ms
-

∆Pelec
 Load model:

∆Pelec = ∆PLoad + D.∆ω

Non-frequency sensitive Frequency sensitive

load change load change

Prime-mover model:

1
∆Pvalve → → ∆Pmech
1 + sTCh
Where TCh is the charging time constant
& ∆Pvalve is the pu change from nominal in valve position
Speed Governor of the turbine
 Governor Torque –Speed characteristics

Torque depends on “µ”, and speed “ω” at constant power

µ
T = K1 µ
µ

T
µ 1 > µ2 > µ3
µ1
µ2 The governor transfers the operating point
µ3 T = T0 (1 − K 2ω ) from a certain curve (µ) to another,
keeping the speed constant.
ω
ωo
Torque is maximum at synchronous speed “ωo”
 Theory of operation of Governor

Tm1 Point (1):

Te1 approximately equals Tm1
ω T T
T
m Du
e to
Te1 gov T1
e rn
Without governor or
act
ion µ1
Te2 T2
ωo µ2
With governor

t t ωo ω
ω without governor
Point (2):
Te2 approximately equals Tm2
 Governor Speed ⁄ Power drooping characteristics

Different types of governors: Different settings of a certain governor:

(drooping characteristics assumed straight lines)

ω (or ƒ) ωp.u. (or ƒp.u)

1.04
Isochronous
3% droop
6% droop
1
Different
governor
settings
0.96
Po/p P o/p p.u.
P1 P2 P3

Isochronous type is forbidden with

parallel operated generators
 Paralleled generators sharing active power of load

For two paralleled machines 1 & 2:

The power will be shared by a ratio determined by the drooping
characteristics of the governors of both machines. By
adjusting the governors’ settings, the power-speed curves are
transmitted to parallel locations, thus controlling the active
power sharing of load between both generators

ω (or ƒ)

1.08
PLoad = P1 + P2
1.06
1.04
1.02 ω Common
1
P1 P2 Po/p
 Example:
Two paralleled synchronous generators supply a total load of 200 MW. The
capacities of both machines are 100 and 200 MW respectively, and both machines
have governor droop characteristics of 4% from no load to full load. Find the
active power load share of each machine assuming free governor action.
ωpu
PLoad - x Assume x = P1
1.04
0.04 y
y = . . . . . . . . (1)
100 x
0.04 y
= . . . . . . . . (2)
1 200 200 − x
100 P MW
x 200 P1 = x = 66.65 MW
P2 = 200 – x = 133.35 MW
ωcommon= 1.01334 p.u.

Conclusion: When governors’ drooping characteristics are the same,

generators share the active power load in proportion to their capacities.
 Two identical 60 MW synchronous generators are operated in parallel. Their
governors have droops from no load to full load of 2% and 6% respectively.
Find the following:
- The share of each machine if the total load was 100 MW
- The governor’s setting (in terms of % adjustment in no-load speed) needed
to force both machines to share the load equally.

1.06

1.02
y

1 P MW
x 60 MW

0.02 y
= . . . . . . . . (1) 0.02 60 y − x 50
60 x = . . . . . . . . (1) = . . . . . . . . (2)
0.06 y + 0.04 x 60 − 50 0 . 06 60
= . . . . . . . . (2) y = 0.052
60 100 − x x = 2 × 10 −3
P1 = 45MW , P2 = 55MW ω2 = 1.052 ⇒ adjustment = 1.06 − 1.052 = 0.008
y = 0.015 ⇒ ω1 = 1.005 pu % adjustment = 0.8%
 Governor Models
Isochronous (constant speed)
.
Speed
Steam Prime measurement
Steam
valve mover device
∆Pvalve . ω
∆ω +
∫ KG -1 Σ ωref
-

Governor with speed droop feed-back loop

. ∆ω
Speed ω + 1 ∆Pv
Prime Σ
- Σ+ 1 + sTG
Steam measurement 1\R
Steam
valve mover device -
∆Pvalve
. ω
+ ωref Load reference
∆ω ωref
∫ KG Σ set point

- - -
1
Load reference
- Σ+ Governor time constant : TG =
set point R KG R
 1\R

Governor Prime mover Rotating mass & Load

-
1 ∆Pvalve 1 ∆ Pmech + 1
Σ Σ
+
Load reference 1 + sT G 1 + sTCh - Ms + D ∆ω
set point

∆ PLoad

Entire Generator’s Block Diagram

 1 \ R1

-
1 ∆Pvalve1 ∆ Pmech 1 + 1
Σ 1
Σ
+ 1 + sT G 1 1 + sTCh1 - M 1s + D1 ∆ω1
Load reference
-
set point

∆ PLoad 1 +
∆P
T\s Σ
∆ PLoad 2 -

Load reference
-
∆ω 2
set point
1 ∆Pvalve 2 + 1
Σ 1
∆ Σ
+ 1 + sT G 2 1 + sTCh 2 Pmech 2 + M 2 s + D2
-

1 \ R2

Paralleled Generator’s Block Diagram