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Chapter 3

DC to DC CONVERTER
(CHOPPER)
• General
• Single-quadrant converter/ one-quadrant
chopper
• Two-quadrant chopper
• Four-quadrant chopper
• Buck converter
• Boost converter
• Buck-Boost converter
• Switched-mode power supply
• Bridge converter
• Notes on electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) and solutions.
Power Electronics and 1
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Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
DC-DC Converter
(Chopper)
DEFINITION:
Converting the unregulated DC input to a
controlled DC output with a desired
voltage level.

• General block diagram:

DC supply
(from rectifier-
DC output LOAD
filter, battery,
fuel cell etc.)

Vcontrol
(derived from
feedback circuit)

• APPLICATIONS:
– Switched-mode power supply (SMPS), DC
motor control, battery chargers
DC-DC converters

• Vo<VinÆ Buck converter


• Vo>VinÆ Boost converter
• Vo<Vin or Vo>VinÆ Buck-
Boost converter, Cuk converter
• Vin..dc input, fixed voltage
• Vo .. Dc output voltage,
adjustable
• Main functions: a) adjustable dc
output voltage or b) a good
output voltage regulation
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Linear regulator
• Transistor is operated
in linear (active)
mode. + VCEce − IL

+
• Output voltage Vin
RL Vo

Vo = Vin − Vce
LINEAR REGULATOR

• The transistor can be


conveniently + Vce −
IL
modelled by an
RT
equivalent variable +
RL
resistor, as shown. Vin Vo

• Power loss is high at


EQUIVALENT
high current due to: CIRCUIT

Po = I L 2 × RT
or
Po = Vce × I L
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Switching Regulator

• Transistor is operated
in switched-mode:
+ Vce − IL
– Switch closed:
Fully on (saturated) +
– Switch opened: Vin
RL
Vo
Fully off (cut-off)

SWITCHING REGULATOR
– When switch is open,
no current flows in it IL
– When switch is
closed no voltage SWITCH
+
drops across it. Vin
RL Vo

• Since P=V.I, no losses


occur in the switch.
– Power is 100% EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
transferred from Vo
source to load. Vin
– Power loss is zero
(ON) (OFF) (ON)
(for ideal switch): closed open closed

DT T

• Switching regulator is OUTPUT VOLTAGE


the basis of all DC-DC
converters

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Pulse Width Modultion

• Control technique:
• switching period: T
• to turn on switch for ton
• to turn off for toff=(T-ton)
• This switching technique is
known as pulse-width
modulation (PWM)
• The duty ratio D = ton/T

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One-quadrant chopper- RL Load

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Imax and Imin

Vd
( )
−t /τ
i0(t) = 1−e + Imine ;0 ≤ t ≤ ton
R
−t /τ

−(t−ton) /τ
i0(t) = Imaxe ,ton ≤ t <T
io(ton) = Imax; io(T) = Imin
−ton /τ ton /τ
Vd 1−e Vd e −1
⇒Imax = −T /τ
; Imin = T /τ
R 1−e R e −1
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Example

• Given one-quadrant chopper


(step down chopper) with RL
load.
Vd=120V;fsw=1kHz;L=4.5mH;
R=1.5 Ω, D=0.75. Find a)
inductor’s current ripple ;b)
average Io and Vo.

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Solution
• Step 1: τ=L/R=4.5x10 -3 /1.5=3ms
- Step 2: T=1/fsw=1/1000=1ms
- Step 3: ton=DxT=0.75x1=0.75ms
- Step 4:

Vd 1 − e − ton / τ 120 1 − e −0.75 / 3


I Max = −T / τ
= −1 / 3
= 62.4 A
R 1− e 1.5 1 − e
Vd eton / τ − 1 120 e 0.75 / 3 − 1
I Min = T /τ
= = 57.5 A
R e − 1 1.5 e − 1 1/ 3

- Step 5: ∆iL=Imax-Imin=62.4A-
57.5A=4.9A
- Vo=D.Vd=0.75x120=90V
- Io=Vo/R=90/1.5=60A
- Note: (Imax+Imin)/2=60A !
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One-quadrant chopper- RLE load

Load: DC motor equivalent circuit


L- armature winding inductance
R- armature winding resistance
E- back emf
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Imax and Imin-RLE load -
Continuous conduction mode

Vd − E
i0 (t) =
R
( −t / τ
) −t / τ
1−e + Imine ;0 ≤ t ≤ ton

E −(t−ton) / τ −(t−ton) / τ
i0 (t) = − (1−e ) + Imaxe ,ton ≤ t < T
R
io (ton) = Imax; io (T) = Imin
Vd 1−e−ton /τ E Vd eton /τ −1 E
⇒ Imax = −T / τ
− ; Imin = T /τ

R 1−e R R e −1 R

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RLE load- Imax-Discontinuous
Conduction Mode

Imin=0;
Vd −E −t /τ
i0(t) =
R
( )
1−e ; 0≤t ≤ton

E −(t−ton)/τ −(t−ton)/τ
i0(t) =− (1−e )+Imaxe ,ton ≤t <tx
R
io(ton) =Imax; io(tx) =0
Vd −E
t
− on ⎧

ton
⎡ V − E⎛ −
ton ⎫
⎞ ⎤⎪
⇒Imax= (1−e τ ); tx =τln⎨eτ ⎢1+ d ⎜1−e τ ⎟⎥⎬
⎜ ⎟
R ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ E ⎝ ⎠⎥⎦⎪⎭
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One-quadrant chopper- - RLE
load -Summary
For CCM :
Vo = D.Vd
Vo − E
Io =
R
ton ton

Vd 1− e τ E Vd e τ −1 E
I max = T
− ; I min = T

R − R R τ R
1− e τ
e −1

For DCM
T − tx
V o = D .V d + E
T
Vo − E
Io =
R
Vd − E
t
− on
I max = (1 − e τ ) ; I min = 0
R
⎧⎪ t on ⎡ V − E ⎛ t
− on ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
t x = τ ln ⎨ e τ ⎢ 1 + d ⎜1 − e τ ⎟⎥⎬
⎜ ⎟
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ E ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
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Example

• Given one-quadrant chopper


(step down chopper) with RLE
load. Vd=110V; fsw=400Hz;
L=0.2mH; R=0.25 Ω, D=0.5
and E=40V. Find a) operation
mode (continuous or
discontinuous) b) Imax and
Imin and ;c) average Io and Vo.

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Solution
• Step 1: Assume continuous mode
• Step 2: τ=L/R=0.2x10 -3 /0.25=0.8ms
- Step 3: T=1/fsw=1/400=2.5ms
- Step 3: ton=DxT=0.5x2.5=1.25ms
- Step 4:
Vd eton/τ −1 E 110 e1.25/ 0.8 −1 40
IMin = T /τ
− = − = −84A
R e −1 R 0.25 e 2.5/ 0.8
−1 0.25

- Imin<0 .. Discontinuous Mode

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For DCM:
1.25
Vd − E 110− 40
t
− on −
Imax = (1− e ) =
τ
(1− e 0.8
) = 221.2A
R 0.25
Imin = 0A
⎧⎪ ton ⎡ V − E ⎛ −ton ⎞⎤⎫⎪
tx = τ ln⎨e τ ⎢1+ d ⎜1− e τ ⎟⎥⎬
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ E ⎜⎝ ⎟
⎠⎥⎦⎪⎭


1.25
⎡ 110 − 40⎛ −
1.25 ⎫
⎞⎤⎪
−3
tx = 0.8X10 ln⎨e ⎢1+ 0.8 ⎜1− e ⎟⎥⎬ = 1.94ms
0.8
40 ⎜ ⎟
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ ⎝ ⎠⎥⎦⎪⎭
T −tx 1.25 2.5 −1.94
Vo = D.Vd + E= X110+ X 40 = 64V
T 2.5 2.5
Vo − E 64− 40
Io = = = 96A
R 0.25

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Two-quadrant chopper- RLE load

•A two-quadrant chopper has the ability


to operate in two quadrants of the (v–i)
plane. Therefore, input and output
voltages are positive; however, input and
output currents can be positive or
negative. Thus, these converters are also
named current reversible choppers.
•Applications: a) battery control: charge
or discharge battery b) dc motor drives:
provide fast dynamic braking
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Two-quadrant chopper-Waveforms

When S1 / D1 is ON :
dio
vo = Vd = Rio + L +E
dt
Vd − E
⇒ i0 (t ) =
R
( )
1 − e −t /τ + I mine−t /τ

When S2 / D2 is ON :
dio
0 = vo = Rio + L +E
dt
E⎛ ⎞
t −ton t −t
− − on

⇒ i0 (t ) = − ⎜1 − e τ ⎟ + I maxe τ ;
R⎝ ⎟

τ = L/ R
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•0<t<t1: The energy stored in L is releasing
to Vd, D1 is ON.
•At t1: energy stored in L is fully released.
•t1<t<ton: The energy from Vd is stored in
L, io increases, S1 is ON.
• ton<t<t2: The energy stored in L is
releasing to R and E. D2 is ON.
•At t2: The energy stored in L is fully
released.
•t2<t<T: The energy from E is stored in L,
abs(io) increases. S2 is ON.
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Two-quadrant chopper- Imax, Imin

Vd − E
i0(t) =
R
( )
1−e−t /τ + Imine−t /τ ; 0 ≤ t ≤ ton

E
i0(t) = − (1−e−(t−ton) /τ ) + Imaxe−(t−ton) /τ ,ton ≤ t < T
R
io (ton) = Imax; io (T) = Imin
t ton
− on
Vd 1−e τ E Vd e τ −1 E
⇒ Imax = T
− ; Imin = T

R − R R τ R
1−e τ
e −1
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Four-Quadrant Choppers

• In four-quadrant choppers, not only


can the output current be positive
and negative, but the output voltage
also can be positive and negative.
• The main advantage of these
converters is that the average of the
output voltage can be controlled in
magnitude as well as in polarity.
• A four-quadrant chopper is a
combination of two two-quadrant
choppers in order to achieve
negative average output voltage
and/or negative average output
current.
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Converter for DC-Motor Drives

• Four quadrant operation is possible

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Converter
Waveforms

• Bi-polar voltage
switching

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Converter
Waveforms

• Uni-polar voltage
switching

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Buck Converter

• A buck converter is a step-down DC to


DC converter.
• - Converts DC to a lower DC voltage: Vo
= DVd
• - It is a switched-mode power supply
that uses two switches (a transistor and a
diode) and an inductor and a capacitor.
• - The simplest way to reduce a DC voltage
is to use a voltage divider circuit, but
voltage dividers waste energy, they operate
by bleeding off excess voltage as heat;
also, output voltage is not regulated (varies
with input voltage).
• - A buck converter, on the other hand, can
be remarkably efficient (easily up to 95%
for integrated circuits) and self-regulating,
• - useful for tasks such as converting the
12-24V typical battery voltage in a laptop
down to the few volts needed by the
processor.

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Buck converter- Circuit
configuration- Principle of operation
• There are only four main
components: switching power
MOSFET S, flywheel diode D,
inductor L and output filter capacitor
C.
• A control circuit (often a single IC)
monitors the output voltage, and
maintains it at the desired level by
switching S on and off at a fixed rate
(the converter’s operating
frequency), but with a varying duty
cycle (the proportion of each
switching period that S is turned on).

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Buck converter- Assumptions

• High efficiency: L,C and D loss


negligible, switching device
loss is nearly equal to zero.
• Small size: high switching
frequency: small size of L and
C.
• Assumptions: a) ideal switches
and b) large value of CÆ
vo=const, no voltage ripple

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Buck (step-down) converter

S L

+
Vd D C RL
Vo

CIRCUIT OF BUCK CONVERTER


iL
S + vL −
+
Vd D RL Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

S iL

+ vL −
+
Vd
D RL Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

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Buck converter

- When S is turned on, current begins


flowing from the input source through S and
L, and then into C and the load. The
magnetic field in L therefore builds up,
storing energy in the inductor -- with the
voltage drop across L opposing or “bucking”
part of the input voltage.

- When S is turned off, the inductor opposes


any drop in current by suddenly reversing
its EMF, and now supplies current to the
load itself via D. Without going too deeply
into its operation, the DC output voltage
which appears across the load is a fraction of
the input voltage, and this fraction turns out
to be equal to the duty cycle.

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Buck converter

-Voltage ratio:
So we can write:
Vout/Vin = D, or Vout = Vin x D
Where, D is the duty cycle, and equal to Ton/T, where
T is the inverse of the operating
frequency.
-So by varying the switching duty cycle, the buck
converter’s output voltage can be varied as a fraction
of the input voltage. A duty cycle of 50% gives a
step-down ratio of 2:1, for example, as needed for a
24/12V step-down converter.
- The current ratio between output and input not
surprisingly that turns out to be the reciprocal of the
voltage ratio —ignoring losses for a moment, and
assuming our converter is perfectly efficient. So a
quick rule of thumb is:
Iout/Iin = Vin/Vout
So when we are stepping down the voltage by 2:1, the
input current is only half the value of the output
current. Or it would be, if it were not for the
converter’s losses. Because real-world converters are
not perfect the input current is typically at least 10%
higher than this.

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Buck converter -Switch is turned
on (closed)
• Diode is reversed + vL -
biased.
S iL +
+
C RL Vo
• Switch conducts Vd VD
− −
inductor current

vL
• This results in
positive inductor Vd − Vo
voltage, i.e: opened opened
closed closed
t
v L = Vd − Vo

• It causes linear − Vo
increase in the iL
inductor current
iLmax
di IL
vL = L L iLmin
dt
1
⇒ iL = ∫ v L dt DT T
t
L
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Buck converter - Switch turned
off (opened)
+ vL -
• Because of inductive
energy storage, iL S iL +
continues to flow. Vd C RL Vo
D

• Diode is forward
biased vL

Vd−Vo
• Current now flows opened opened
(freewheeling) closed closed

through the diode. t

• The inductor voltage


can be derived as: −Vo
iL

vL = −Vo iLmax
IL
iLmin

(1-D)T
t
DT T

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Buck converter - Analysis
When the switch is closed (on) :
di
v L = Vd − Vo = L L vL
dt
di V − Vo Vd− Vo
⇒ L= d closed
dt L t
Derivative of iL is a positive
constant.Therefore iL must
increased linearly. iL

From Figure iL max


diL ∆iL ∆iL Vd − Vo
= = = IL ∆i L
dt ∆t DT L
⎛ V − Vo ⎞
⇒ (∆iL )closed = ⎜ d
iL min
⎟ ⋅ DT
⎝ L ⎠ t
DT T
For switch opened,
di
v L = −Vo = L L
dt
di −V
⇒ L= o
dt L
di ∆i ∆iL −V
∴ L= L= = o
dt ∆t (1 − D )T L
⎛ −V ⎞
⇒ (∆iL )opened = ⎜ o ⎟ ⋅ (1 − D)T
⎝ L ⎠
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Buck converter - Steady-state
operation
iL
Unstable current

iL Decaying current

iL Steady-state current

Steady - state operation requires that iL at the


end of switching cycle is the same at the
begining of the next cycle. That is the change
of iL over one period is zero, i.e :
(∆iL )closed + (∆iL )opened = 0
⎛ Vd − Vo ⎞ ⎛ − Vo ⎞
⎜ ⎟ ⋅ DT −
s ⎜ ⎟ ⋅ (1 − D )Ts = 0
⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ L ⎠
⇒ Vo = DVd
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Buck converter -Average,
Maximum and Minimum
iL
Inductor Current
Imax
IL ∆iL

Imin

Average inductor current = Average current in R L


V
⇒ IL = IR = o
R
Maximum current :
∆iL Vo 1 ⎛ Vo ⎞
I max = I L + = + ⎜ (1 − D)T ⎟
2 R 2⎝ L ⎠
⎛ 1 (1 − D ) ⎞
= Vo ⎜ + ⎟
⎝ R 2 Lf ⎠
Minimum current :
∆iL ⎛ 1 (1 − D) ⎞
I min = I L − = Vo ⎜ − ⎟
2 ⎝R 2 Lf ⎠
Inductor current ripple :
∆iL = I max − I min
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Buck converter - Continuous
Current Mode (CCM)
iL

Imax

Imin t
0

From previous analysis,


∆iL ⎛ 1 (1 − D) ⎞
I min = I L − = Vo ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟
2 ⎝R 2 Lf ⎠
For continuous operation, I min ≥ 0,
⎛ 1 (1 − D) ⎞
Vo ⎜⎜ − ⎟⎟ ≥ 0
⎝R 2 Lf ⎠
(1 − D)
⇒ L ≥ Lmin = ⋅R
2f
This is the minimum inductor current to
ensure continuous mode of operation.
Normally L is chosen b be >> Lmin

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Buck converter - Output voltage
ripple

•Filter capacitance is not infinite, practical value


•Ripple ∆Vo/Vo is usually less than 1%
•Assume: a) all the ripple current flows through
the load resistor and b) the dc component of
inductor current flows through the load resistor
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Buck converter - Output voltage
ripple
KCL, Capacitor current :
ic = iL + iR L iL iR

The charge can be written as : iC


+

Q = CVo Vo

⇒ ∆Q = C ∆V −

∆Q
⇒ ∆Vo =
C iL i m ax
Use triangle area formula : iL= IR
1 ⎛ T ⎞⎛ ∆i ⎞
∆Q = ⎜ ⎟⎜ L ⎟ V o/R i m in
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠
T∆iL iC
=
8
Ripple voltage (Peak - to peak)
T∆iL (1 − D)Vo
∴ ∆Vo = =
8C 8 LCf 2
So, the ripple factor,
∆Vo (1 − D)
r= =
Vo 8 LCf 2
Note : Ripple can be reduced by :
1) Increasing switching frequency
2) Increasing inductor size
3) Increasing capacitor size.

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Buck converter- Reduce voltage
ripple

• Decrease the corner frequencyÆ


C,L increaseÆ larger size of
converter
• Increase the frequency of switching
frequencyÆ switching loss increases
Æefficiency decreases
• How to reduce switching loss: a) use
low switching loss device as
MOSFET; b) use soft switching
topology (ZCS,ZVS)
• Fs..(10-100)fc Æ∆Vo/Vo less than
1%

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Basic design procedures
SWITCH L

Lmin= ?
RL
L = 10Lmin
Vd Po = ?
f=? D
(input C Io = ?
D=? ripple ?
spec.)
TYPE ?

• Calculate D to obtain required output voltage.

• Select a particular switching frequency (f) and device


– preferably f>20KHz for negligible acoustic noise
– higher fs results in smaller L and C. But results in higher losses.
Reduced efficiency, larger heat sink.
– Possible devices: MOSFET, IGBT and BJT. Low power MOSFET can
reach MHz range.
• Calculate Lmin. Choose L>>10 Lmin
• Calculate C for ripple factor requirement.
– Capacitor ratings:
• must withstand peak output voltage
• must carry required RMS current. Note RMS current for
triangular w/f is Ip/3, where Ip is the peak capacitor current given
by ∆iL/2.
• ECAPs can be used

• Wire size consideration:


– Normally rated in RMS. But iL is known as peak. RMS value
for iL is given as:
2
2 ⎛ ∆i 2 ⎞
I L, RMS = I L + ⎜ L ⎟
⎝ 3 ⎠

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Examples

• A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery source.


Given L=400uH, C=100uF, R=20 Ohm, f=20kHz and
D=0.4. Calculate: (a) output voltage (b) maximum and
minimum inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple.

• A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and output


of 25V. The switching frequency is 10kHz. The power
output is 125W. (a) Determine the duty cycle, (b) value
of L to limit the peak inductor current to 6.25A, (c) value
of capacitance to limit the output voltage ripple factor to
0.5%.

• Design a buck converter such that the output voltage is


28V when the input is 48V. The load is 8Ohm. Design
the converter such that it will be in continuous current
mode. The output voltage ripple must not be more than
0.5%. Specify the frequency and the values of each
component. Suggest the power switch also.

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•ILB… average inductor current IL at boundary
•IoB …average load current Io at boundary
Power Electronics and 47
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Buck Converter- Discontinuous
conduction mode

Power Electronics and 48


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Discontinuous current mode-
Output voltage

D
(Vd − Vo ) DT = Vo ∆1T ⇒ Vo = Vd
D + ∆1
Vo ∆1T
∆iL = VL .∆t / L ⇒ iL , peak =
L
L.iL , peak Io
⇒ ∆1 = =
VoT 4 I LB ,max D
D2
⇒ Vo = Vd
1
D + ( I o / I LB ,max ) 2
2

4
Power Electronics and 49
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Buck converter- Key Equations

∆iL = Vd .∆t / L
TVd D(1− D)
I LB =
2L
TV
I LB,Max = d
8L
1) I L > I LB → Continuous− conduction− mode..CCM
Vo = D.Vd
2) I L > I LB → Discontinu
ous− conduction− mode..DCM
D2
Vo = Vd
1
D + (Io / I LMax)
2

Power Electronics and 50


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Boost Converter

• A boost converter (step-up


converter) is a power converter
with an output dc voltage greater
than its input dc voltage.
• It is a class of switching-mode
power supply containing at least
two semiconductor switches (a diode
and a transistor) and at least one
energy storage element.
• To improve the performance of
the converter’s output we use filters
made inductor and capacitor
combination.

Power Electronics and 51


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Boost Converter

• . The output voltage is therefore higher than the


input voltage, and it turns out that the voltage step-
up ratio is equal to:
• Vout/Vin = 1/ (1-D).
• Where 1-D is actually the proportion of the
switching cycle that S is off, rather than on. So the
step-up ratio is also equal to:
• Vout/Vin = T/Toff.
• If we work it out, we find that a 2:1 step-up ratio is
achieved with a duty cycle of 50% (Ton= Toff),
while a 3:1 step-up needs a duty cycle of 66%.
• Again, if we assume that the converter is 100%
efficient the ratio of output current to input current
is just the reciprocal of the voltage ratio:
• Iin/Iout = Vout/Vin
• So if we step up the voltage by a factor of 2, the
input current will be twice the output current. Of
course in a real converter with losses, it will be
higher.

Power Electronics and 52


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Boost converter- Circuit and
assumptions

•Assumptions:
• a) Ideal switches
• b) large C (infinite)Æ v0=const, no voltage
ripple

Power Electronics and 53


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Boost (step-up) converter
L D

Vd
S C +
RL Vo


CIRCUIT OF BOOST CONVERTER
iL L D
+ vL −

Vd +
S C
RL Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED


L
D
+ vL -
+
Vd C RL
S Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

Power Electronics and 54


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Boost Converter

• . Again the operation consists of using S


as a high speed switch, with output voltage
control by varying the switching duty
cycle.
• When S is switched on, current flows
from the input source through L and S, and
energy is stored in the Inductor’s magnetic
field. There is no current through D, and
the load current is supplied by the charge
in C.
• Then when S is turned off, L opposes any
drop in current by immediately reversing
its EMF -- so that the inductor voltage
adds to (i.e., ‘boosts’) the source voltage,
and current due to this boosted voltage
now flows from the source through L, D
and the load, recharging C as well.

Power Electronics and 55


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Boost analysis:switch closed
iL
L D
+ vL −
+
Vd C vo
S

v L = Vd Vd

di
=L L v L
CLOSED
dt
t
diL Vd
⇒ = Vd− Vo
dt L
diL ∆iL ∆iL
= = i ∆iL
∆t DT
L

dt
di V
⇒ L = d
dt L DT T t

V DT
(∆iL )closed = d
L
Power Electronics and 56
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Boost converter - Switch opened
iL
D
+ vL -
+
Vd C
S vo
-

v L = Vd − Vo
diL
=L Vd
dt
di V − Vo vL
⇒ L= d OPENED

dt L t

diL ∆iL Vd− Vo


=
dt ∆t
∆i L ∆iL
= iL
(1 − D)T
( 1-D )T
t
diL Vd − Vo DT T

⇒ =
dt L
(Vd − Vo )(1 − DT )
⇒ (∆iL )opened =
L
Power Electronics and 57
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Boost converter - Steady-state
operation
(∆iL )closed + (∆iL )opened = 0
Vd DT (Vd − Vo )(1 − D)T
+ =0
L L
Vd
⇒ Vo =
1− D

• Boost converter produces output voltage that is


greater or equal to the input voltage.
• Alternative explanation:
– when switch is closed, diode is reversed. Thus
output is isolated. The input supplies energy to
inductor.
– When switch is opened, the output stage
receives energy from the input as well as from
the inductor. Hence output is large.
– Output voltage is maintained constant by
virtue of large C.

Power Electronics and 58


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Boost converter -Average,
Maximum, Minimum Inductor
Current
Input power = Output power
Vo 2
Vd I d =
R
2
⎛ Vd ⎞
⎜ ⎟ 2
(1 − )
Vd I L = ⎝ ⎠ =
D V d
R (1 − D) 2 R
Average inductor current :
Vd
⇒ IL =
(1 − D) 2 R
Maximum inductor current :
∆i L Vd Vd DT
⇒ I max = I L + = +
2 (1 − D ) 2 R 2L
Minimum inductor current :
∆iL Vd Vd DT
⇒ I min = I L − = −
2 (1 − D) 2 R 2L

Power Electronics and 59


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
L and C values

For CCM,
I min ≥ 0 Vd
vL
Vd Vd DT
− ≥0
(1 − D) R
2
2L
D(1 − D ) TR
2
Lmin = Vd − Vo
2 Imax

D(1 − D ) R
2 iL
= Imin
2f

Ripple factor iD Imax

⎛V ⎞
∆Q = ⎜ o ⎟ DT = C∆Vo Imin
⎝R⎠
Io=Vo / R
V DT Vo D
∆Vo = o =
RC RCf ic

∆Vo D
r= =
Vo RCf
∆Q

DT T
Power Electronics and 60
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Examples
• The boost converter has the following parameters: Vd=20V,
D=0.6, R=12.5ohm, L=65uH, C=200uF, fs=40KHz. Determine
(a) output voltage, (b) average, maximum and minimum
inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple.

• Design a boost converter to provide an output voltage of 36V


from a 24V source. The load is 50W. The voltage ripple factor
must be less than 0.5%. Specify the duty cycle ratio, switching
frequency, inductor and capacitor size, and power device.

Power Electronics and 61


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Buck-Boost converter- Circuit
and assumptions

•Assumptions:
• a) Ideal switches
• b) large C (infinite)Æ v0=const, no voltage
ripple

Power Electronics and 62


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Buck-Boost converter

S
D
+
C
Vd L RL Vo

CIRCUIT OF BUCK-BOOST CONVERTER

S D
+ +

Vd iL vL Vo
− −

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS CLOSED

S D
+ +
Vd iL vL
Vo

CIRCUIT WHEN SWITCH IS OPENED

Power Electronics and 63


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Buck-boost analysis
Vd
Switch closed vL
di
v L = Vd = L L
dt
diL Vd Vd−Vo
⇒ =
dt L Imax

∆iL ∆iL Vd iL
= = Imin
∆t DT L
V DT
⇒ (∆iL ) closed = d Imax
L iD
Switch opened Imin

di
v L = Vo = L L Io=Vo / R
dt
diL Vo
⇒ = i c
dt L
∆iL ∆iL Vo ∆Q
= =
∆t (1 − D)T L DT T
Vo (1 − D )T
⇒ (∆iL ) opened =
L
Power Electronics and 64
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Buck-Boost Converter - Output
voltage
Steady state operation :
∆ iL (closed ) + ∆ iL (opened ) = 0
V DT Vo (1 − D )T
⇒ d + =0
L L
Output voltage :
⎛ D ⎞
⇒ Vo = −Vs ⎜ ⎟
⎝1 − D ⎠

• NOTE: Output of a buck-boost converter either be


higher or lower than input.
– If D>0.5, output is higher than input
– If D<0.5, output is lower input

• Output voltage is always negative.

• Note that output is never directly connected to load.

• Energy is stored in inductor when switch is closed


and transferred to load when switch is opened.

Power Electronics and 65


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Average inductor current

Assuming no power loss in the converter,


power absorbed by the load must equal
power supplied the by source, i.e.
Po = Ps
Vo2
= Vd I s
R
But average source current is related to
average inductor current as :
Is = ILD
Vo2
⇒ = Vd I L D
R
Substituting for Vo ,
Vo2 Po Vd D
⇒ IL = = =
Vd RD Vd D R (1 − D ) 2

Power Electronics and 66


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Buck-boost converter - L and C
values
Max and min inductor current,
∆iL Vd D Vd DT
⇒ I max = I L + = +
2 R(1 − D) 2
2L
∆iL Vd D Vd DT
⇒ I min = I L − = −
2 R(1 − D ) 2
2L
For CCM
Vd D Vd DT
− =0
R(1 − D) 2
2L
(1 − D ) 2 R
⇒ Lmin =
2f
Output voltage ripple,
⎛ Vo ⎞
∆Q = ⎜ ⎟ DT = C∆Vo
⎝R⎠
V DT Vo D
∆Vo = o =
RC RCf
∆Vo D
r= =
Vo RCf
Power Electronics and 67
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Converters in CCM: Summary
Buck
Vo
S L =D
V + Vd
D C RL
Vo ∆Vo 1 − D
=
d

− Vo 8LCf 2
(1 − D) R
Lmin =
2f

L Boost
D
Vo 1
=
V + Vd 1 − D
S C Vo
∆Vo D
=
d
RL − Vo RCf
D(1 − D) 2 R
Lmin =
2f

S Buck − Boost
Vo D
D + =−
V C Vo
Vd 1− D
L RL
d
− ∆Vo D
=
Vo RCf
(1 − D ) 2 R
Lmin =
2f
Power Electronics and 68
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Control of DC-DC converter:
pulse width modulation (PWM)

Vo (desired)
+ Vcontrol Switch control
signal
Vo (actual) Comparator
-
Sawtooth
Waveform Sawtooth
Waveform

Vcontrol 1
Vcontrol 2

Switch
control
ton 2 signal

ton 1
T

Power Electronics and 69


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Examples

• The boost converter has the


following parameters: Vd=20V,
D=0.6, R=12.5ohm, L=65uH,
C=200uF, fs=40KHz. Saw-
tooth waveform: amplitude =1.
Determine control signal Vref1
and Vref2 if corresponding
output voltages Vo are equal to
10[V] and 25[V], respectively.

Power Electronics and 70


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Isolated DC-DC Converter

• Isolated DC-DC requires isolation transformer


• Two types: Linear and Switched-mode

• Advantages of switched mode over linear power


supply
-Efficient (70-95%)
-Weight and size reduction

• Disadvantages
-Complex design
-EMI problems

• However above certain ratings,


SMPS is the only feasible choice

• Types of SMPS
-Flyback
-forward
-Push-pull
-Bridge (half and full)

Power Electronics and 71


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Linear and SMPS block
diagram
Basic Block diagram of linear power supply
C E
Vce=Vd-Vo +Vo DC Regulated
DC Unregulated
B +
+
Base/gate RL
Vd Drive Vo
Line
Input -
1φ / 3φ -
Rectifier/ Error Vo
50/60 Hz Filter Amp.
Isolation
Transformer
Vref

Basic Block diagram of SMPS


DC-DC CONVERSITION AND
DC ISOLATION
DC
Unregulated Regulated
High
RECTIFIER Frequency
EMI
AND
FILTER rectifier Vo
FILTER
and
filter
Vref

Base/
PWM error
gate
Controller Amp
drive

Power Electronics and 72


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
High frequency transformer
Basic function :
1) Input - output electrical isolation
2) step up/down time - varying voltage
Basic input - output relationship
v1 N1
= ;
v2 N 2
i1 N 2
=
i2 N1
Models :
i1 N1 N2 i2
+ +
V1 V2 Ideal model
− −

i1 N1 N2 i2
+ +
Lm Model used for
V1 V2

most PE application

Power Electronics and 73


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Flyback Converter

+
C R Vo
Vd LM

Flyback converter circuit

iD
iS i1 N1 N2
+
+ − + vD −
iLM v2 iC iR Vo
v1
Vd
− + −
+ vSW − i2

Model with magnetising


inductance

Power Electronics and 74


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Operation: switch closed
0 N1 N2
is=iLM
− +
+
iLM v2
v1 Vo
Vd +
− −
v1=Vs 0

diLm
v1 = Vd = Lm
dt
diLm ∆iLm ∆iLm Vd
= = =
dt dt DT Lm

(
⇒ ∆iLm
closed
= )
Vd DT
Lm
On the load side of the transformer,
⎛ N2 ⎞ ⎛ N2 ⎞
v2 = v1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = Vd ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ N1 ⎠ ⎝ N1 ⎠
⎛N ⎞
v D = −Vo − Vd ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ < 0, i.e. diode turned off
⎝ N1 ⎠
Therefore,
i2 = 0 and i1 = 0
Power Electronics and 75
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Switch opened
iD
N1 N2
+ +

iLM v1 v2= −VS Vo
Vs − + −
+ vSW −

⎛N ⎞
v1 = −Vo ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ N2 ⎠
But v2 = −Vo
⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞
⇒ v1 = v2 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = −Vo ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ N2 ⎠ ⎝ N2 ⎠
di ⎛N ⎞
v1 = Lm L m = −Vo ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
dt ⎝ N2 ⎠
diL m ∆iL m ∆iL m − Vo ⎛ N1 ⎞
= = = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
dt dt (1 − D )T Lm ⎝ N 2 ⎠
V (1 − D)T ⎛ N1 ⎞
⇒ (∆iL m )open = − o ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Lm ⎝ N2 ⎠
Voltage across the switch :
⎛N ⎞
vSW = Vd + Vo ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ N2 ⎠
Power Electronics and 76
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Output voltage

For steady - state operation,


(
∆iLm )closed (
+ ∆iLm )opened
=0

Vd DT Vo (1 − D )T ⎛ N1 ⎞
⇒ − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0
Lm Lm ⎝ N2 ⎠
⎛ D ⎞⎛ N 2 ⎞
⇒ Vo = Vd ⎜ ⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 1 − D ⎠⎝ N1 ⎠

• Input output relationship is similar to buck-boost


converter.

• Output can be greater of less than input,depending


upon D.

• Additional term, i.e. transformer ratio is present.

Power Electronics and 77


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Flyback waveforms

Ps = P0 Vs

V0 2 v1
Vd I s =
R
I s is related to I Lm as : -V(N 1 /N 2 )

Is =
I Lm DT
T
( )
= I Lm D
i Lm
∆ iL

Solving for I Lm

V02
is

( )
Vd I Lm D =
R
t
2
V0
⇒ I Lm =
Vd DR iD

I Lm can written as :
2 iC
Vd D ⎛ N2 ⎞
I Lm = ⎜
2 ⎜N ⎟

(1 − D) R ⎝ 1 ⎠
− V o/ R
V0 ⎛ N 2 ⎞
DT T t
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
(1 − D) R ⎝ N1 ⎠

Power Electronics and 78


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Max, Min inductor current
∆iLm
I Lm = I Lm +
,max 2
2
Vd D ⎛ N 2 ⎞ V d DT
= ⎜
2 ⎜N ⎟
⎟ +
(1 − D) R ⎝ 1 ⎠ 2 Lm
∆iLm
I Lm ,min = I Lm −
2
2
Vd D ⎛ N 2 ⎞ Vd DT
= ⎜
2 ⎜N ⎟
⎟ −
(1 − D) R ⎝ 1 ⎠ 2 Lm
For CCM, I Lm , min = 0
2
Vd D ⎛ N2 ⎞ Vd DT Vd D

2 ⎜N ⎟
⎟ = =
(1 − D) R ⎝ 1 ⎠ 2 Lm 2 Lm f
2 2
V (1 − D) R ⎛ N1 ⎞
⇒ ( Lm )min = d ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
2f ⎝ N2 ⎠
Ripple calculation is similar to boost,
∆V0 D
r= =
V0 RCf
Power Electronics and 79
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Example
The Flyback converter has these specifications:
DC input voltage: 40V
Output voltage: 25V
Duty cycle: 0.5
Rated load: 62.5W
Max peak-peak inductor current ripple:
25% of the average inductor current.
Maximum peak-peak output voltage: 0.1V
Switching frequency: 75kHz

Based on the abovementioned specifications, determine


a) Transformer turns ratio
b) Value of magnetizing inductor Lm.
c) Maximum and minimum inductor current.
d) Value of capacitor C.

Power Electronics and 80


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Full-bridge converter

SW1 SW3
Lx
+ + +
NS vx Vo
C R
− −
vp
VS
NS

SW4 SW2

SW1,SW2

DT T
SW3,SW4

T T
+ DT
VP 2 2
VS

-VS
Vx
⎛N ⎞
VS ⎜⎜ S ⎟⎟
⎝ NP ⎠

DT T T T
+ DT
2 2

Power Electronics and 81


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Full bridge: basic operation
• Switch “pair”: [S1 & S2];[S3 & S4].

• Each switch pair turn on at a time as shown. The


other pair is off.

• “AC voltage” is developed across the primary.


Then transferred to secondary via high frequency
transformers.

• On secondary side, diode pair is “high frequency


full wave rectification”.

• The choke (L) and (C ) acts like the “buck


converter” circuit.

• Output Voltage

⎛ Ns ⎞
Vo = 2Vs ⎜ ⎟⋅ D
⎜Np ⎟
⎝ ⎠

Power Electronics and 82


Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB

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