Professional Documents
Culture Documents
DC to DC CONVERTER
(CHOPPER)
• General
• Single-quadrant converter/ one-quadrant
chopper
• Two-quadrant chopper
• Four-quadrant chopper
• Buck converter
• Boost converter
• Buck-Boost converter
• Switched-mode power supply
• Bridge converter
• Notes on electromagnetic compatibility
(EMC) and solutions.
Power Electronics and 1
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
DC-DC Converter
(Chopper)
DEFINITION:
Converting the unregulated DC input to a
controlled DC output with a desired
voltage level.
DC supply
(from rectifier-
DC output LOAD
filter, battery,
fuel cell etc.)
Vcontrol
(derived from
feedback circuit)
• APPLICATIONS:
– Switched-mode power supply (SMPS), DC
motor control, battery chargers
DC-DC converters
+
• Output voltage Vin
RL Vo
Vo = Vin − Vce
LINEAR REGULATOR
Po = I L 2 × RT
or
Po = Vce × I L
Power Electronics and 4
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Switching Regulator
• Transistor is operated
in switched-mode:
+ Vce − IL
– Switch closed:
Fully on (saturated) +
– Switch opened: Vin
RL
Vo
Fully off (cut-off)
−
SWITCHING REGULATOR
– When switch is open,
no current flows in it IL
– When switch is
closed no voltage SWITCH
+
drops across it. Vin
RL Vo
−
DT T
• Control technique:
• switching period: T
• to turn on switch for ton
• to turn off for toff=(T-ton)
• This switching technique is
known as pulse-width
modulation (PWM)
• The duty ratio D = ton/T
Vd
( )
−t /τ
i0(t) = 1−e + Imine ;0 ≤ t ≤ ton
R
−t /τ
−(t−ton) /τ
i0(t) = Imaxe ,ton ≤ t <T
io(ton) = Imax; io(T) = Imin
−ton /τ ton /τ
Vd 1−e Vd e −1
⇒Imax = −T /τ
; Imin = T /τ
R 1−e R e −1
Power Electronics and 9
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Ω
Example
- Step 5: ∆iL=Imax-Imin=62.4A-
57.5A=4.9A
- Vo=D.Vd=0.75x120=90V
- Io=Vo/R=90/1.5=60A
- Note: (Imax+Imin)/2=60A !
Power Electronics and 11
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
One-quadrant chopper- RLE load
Vd − E
i0 (t) =
R
( −t / τ
) −t / τ
1−e + Imine ;0 ≤ t ≤ ton
E −(t−ton) / τ −(t−ton) / τ
i0 (t) = − (1−e ) + Imaxe ,ton ≤ t < T
R
io (ton) = Imax; io (T) = Imin
Vd 1−e−ton /τ E Vd eton /τ −1 E
⇒ Imax = −T / τ
− ; Imin = T /τ
−
R 1−e R R e −1 R
Imin=0;
Vd −E −t /τ
i0(t) =
R
( )
1−e ; 0≤t ≤ton
E −(t−ton)/τ −(t−ton)/τ
i0(t) =− (1−e )+Imaxe ,ton ≤t <tx
R
io(ton) =Imax; io(tx) =0
Vd −E
t
− on ⎧
⎪
ton
⎡ V − E⎛ −
ton ⎫
⎞ ⎤⎪
⇒Imax= (1−e τ ); tx =τln⎨eτ ⎢1+ d ⎜1−e τ ⎟⎥⎬
⎜ ⎟
R ⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ E ⎝ ⎠⎥⎦⎪⎭
Power Electronics and 16
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
One-quadrant chopper- - RLE
load -Summary
For CCM :
Vo = D.Vd
Vo − E
Io =
R
ton ton
−
Vd 1− e τ E Vd e τ −1 E
I max = T
− ; I min = T
−
R − R R τ R
1− e τ
e −1
For DCM
T − tx
V o = D .V d + E
T
Vo − E
Io =
R
Vd − E
t
− on
I max = (1 − e τ ) ; I min = 0
R
⎧⎪ t on ⎡ V − E ⎛ t
− on ⎞ ⎤ ⎫⎪
t x = τ ln ⎨ e τ ⎢ 1 + d ⎜1 − e τ ⎟⎥⎬
⎜ ⎟
⎪⎩ ⎢⎣ E ⎝ ⎠ ⎥⎦ ⎪⎭
Power Electronics and 17
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Ω
Example
When S1 / D1 is ON :
dio
vo = Vd = Rio + L +E
dt
Vd − E
⇒ i0 (t ) =
R
( )
1 − e −t /τ + I mine−t /τ
When S2 / D2 is ON :
dio
0 = vo = Rio + L +E
dt
E⎛ ⎞
t −ton t −t
− − on
⎜
⇒ i0 (t ) = − ⎜1 − e τ ⎟ + I maxe τ ;
R⎝ ⎟
⎠
τ = L/ R
Power Electronics and 22
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
•0<t<t1: The energy stored in L is releasing
to Vd, D1 is ON.
•At t1: energy stored in L is fully released.
•t1<t<ton: The energy from Vd is stored in
L, io increases, S1 is ON.
• ton<t<t2: The energy stored in L is
releasing to R and E. D2 is ON.
•At t2: The energy stored in L is fully
released.
•t2<t<T: The energy from E is stored in L,
abs(io) increases. S2 is ON.
Power Electronics and 23
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Power Electronics and 24
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Two-quadrant chopper- Imax, Imin
Vd − E
i0(t) =
R
( )
1−e−t /τ + Imine−t /τ ; 0 ≤ t ≤ ton
E
i0(t) = − (1−e−(t−ton) /τ ) + Imaxe−(t−ton) /τ ,ton ≤ t < T
R
io (ton) = Imax; io (T) = Imin
t ton
− on
Vd 1−e τ E Vd e τ −1 E
⇒ Imax = T
− ; Imin = T
−
R − R R τ R
1−e τ
e −1
Power Electronics and 25
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Four-Quadrant Choppers
• Bi-polar voltage
switching
• Uni-polar voltage
switching
S L
+
Vd D C RL
Vo
S iL
+ vL −
+
Vd
D RL Vo
-Voltage ratio:
So we can write:
Vout/Vin = D, or Vout = Vin x D
Where, D is the duty cycle, and equal to Ton/T, where
T is the inverse of the operating
frequency.
-So by varying the switching duty cycle, the buck
converter’s output voltage can be varied as a fraction
of the input voltage. A duty cycle of 50% gives a
step-down ratio of 2:1, for example, as needed for a
24/12V step-down converter.
- The current ratio between output and input not
surprisingly that turns out to be the reciprocal of the
voltage ratio —ignoring losses for a moment, and
assuming our converter is perfectly efficient. So a
quick rule of thumb is:
Iout/Iin = Vin/Vout
So when we are stepping down the voltage by 2:1, the
input current is only half the value of the output
current. Or it would be, if it were not for the
converter’s losses. Because real-world converters are
not perfect the input current is typically at least 10%
higher than this.
vL
• This results in
positive inductor Vd − Vo
voltage, i.e: opened opened
closed closed
t
v L = Vd − Vo
• It causes linear − Vo
increase in the iL
inductor current
iLmax
di IL
vL = L L iLmin
dt
1
⇒ iL = ∫ v L dt DT T
t
L
Power Electronics and 36
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Buck converter - Switch turned
off (opened)
+ vL -
• Because of inductive
energy storage, iL S iL +
continues to flow. Vd C RL Vo
D
−
• Diode is forward
biased vL
Vd−Vo
• Current now flows opened opened
(freewheeling) closed closed
vL = −Vo iLmax
IL
iLmin
(1-D)T
t
DT T
iL Decaying current
iL Steady-state current
Imin
Imax
Imin t
0
Q = CVo Vo
⇒ ∆Q = C ∆V −
∆Q
⇒ ∆Vo =
C iL i m ax
Use triangle area formula : iL= IR
1 ⎛ T ⎞⎛ ∆i ⎞
∆Q = ⎜ ⎟⎜ L ⎟ V o/R i m in
2 ⎝ 2 ⎠⎝ 2 ⎠
T∆iL iC
=
8
Ripple voltage (Peak - to peak)
T∆iL (1 − D)Vo
∴ ∆Vo = =
8C 8 LCf 2
So, the ripple factor,
∆Vo (1 − D)
r= =
Vo 8 LCf 2
Note : Ripple can be reduced by :
1) Increasing switching frequency
2) Increasing inductor size
3) Increasing capacitor size.
Lmin= ?
RL
L = 10Lmin
Vd Po = ?
f=? D
(input C Io = ?
D=? ripple ?
spec.)
TYPE ?
D
(Vd − Vo ) DT = Vo ∆1T ⇒ Vo = Vd
D + ∆1
Vo ∆1T
∆iL = VL .∆t / L ⇒ iL , peak =
L
L.iL , peak Io
⇒ ∆1 = =
VoT 4 I LB ,max D
D2
⇒ Vo = Vd
1
D + ( I o / I LB ,max ) 2
2
4
Power Electronics and 49
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Buck converter- Key Equations
∆iL = Vd .∆t / L
TVd D(1− D)
I LB =
2L
TV
I LB,Max = d
8L
1) I L > I LB → Continuous− conduction− mode..CCM
Vo = D.Vd
2) I L > I LB → Discontinu
ous− conduction− mode..DCM
D2
Vo = Vd
1
D + (Io / I LMax)
2
•Assumptions:
• a) Ideal switches
• b) large C (infinite)Æ v0=const, no voltage
ripple
Vd
S C +
RL Vo
−
CIRCUIT OF BOOST CONVERTER
iL L D
+ vL −
Vd +
S C
RL Vo
−
v L = Vd Vd
di
=L L v L
CLOSED
dt
t
diL Vd
⇒ = Vd− Vo
dt L
diL ∆iL ∆iL
= = i ∆iL
∆t DT
L
dt
di V
⇒ L = d
dt L DT T t
V DT
(∆iL )closed = d
L
Power Electronics and 56
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Boost converter - Switch opened
iL
D
+ vL -
+
Vd C
S vo
-
v L = Vd − Vo
diL
=L Vd
dt
di V − Vo vL
⇒ L= d OPENED
dt L t
⇒ =
dt L
(Vd − Vo )(1 − DT )
⇒ (∆iL )opened =
L
Power Electronics and 57
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Boost converter - Steady-state
operation
(∆iL )closed + (∆iL )opened = 0
Vd DT (Vd − Vo )(1 − D)T
+ =0
L L
Vd
⇒ Vo =
1− D
For CCM,
I min ≥ 0 Vd
vL
Vd Vd DT
− ≥0
(1 − D) R
2
2L
D(1 − D ) TR
2
Lmin = Vd − Vo
2 Imax
D(1 − D ) R
2 iL
= Imin
2f
⎛V ⎞
∆Q = ⎜ o ⎟ DT = C∆Vo Imin
⎝R⎠
Io=Vo / R
V DT Vo D
∆Vo = o =
RC RCf ic
∆Vo D
r= =
Vo RCf
∆Q
DT T
Power Electronics and 60
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Examples
• The boost converter has the following parameters: Vd=20V,
D=0.6, R=12.5ohm, L=65uH, C=200uF, fs=40KHz. Determine
(a) output voltage, (b) average, maximum and minimum
inductor current, (c) output voltage ripple.
•Assumptions:
• a) Ideal switches
• b) large C (infinite)Æ v0=const, no voltage
ripple
S
D
+
C
Vd L RL Vo
−
S D
+ +
Vd iL vL Vo
− −
S D
+ +
Vd iL vL
Vo
−
−
∆iL ∆iL Vd iL
= = Imin
∆t DT L
V DT
⇒ (∆iL ) closed = d Imax
L iD
Switch opened Imin
di
v L = Vo = L L Io=Vo / R
dt
diL Vo
⇒ = i c
dt L
∆iL ∆iL Vo ∆Q
= =
∆t (1 − D)T L DT T
Vo (1 − D )T
⇒ (∆iL ) opened =
L
Power Electronics and 64
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Buck-Boost Converter - Output
voltage
Steady state operation :
∆ iL (closed ) + ∆ iL (opened ) = 0
V DT Vo (1 − D )T
⇒ d + =0
L L
Output voltage :
⎛ D ⎞
⇒ Vo = −Vs ⎜ ⎟
⎝1 − D ⎠
− Vo 8LCf 2
(1 − D) R
Lmin =
2f
L Boost
D
Vo 1
=
V + Vd 1 − D
S C Vo
∆Vo D
=
d
RL − Vo RCf
D(1 − D) 2 R
Lmin =
2f
S Buck − Boost
Vo D
D + =−
V C Vo
Vd 1− D
L RL
d
− ∆Vo D
=
Vo RCf
(1 − D ) 2 R
Lmin =
2f
Power Electronics and 68
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Control of DC-DC converter:
pulse width modulation (PWM)
Vo (desired)
+ Vcontrol Switch control
signal
Vo (actual) Comparator
-
Sawtooth
Waveform Sawtooth
Waveform
Vcontrol 1
Vcontrol 2
Switch
control
ton 2 signal
ton 1
T
• Disadvantages
-Complex design
-EMI problems
• Types of SMPS
-Flyback
-forward
-Push-pull
-Bridge (half and full)
Base/
PWM error
gate
Controller Amp
drive
i1 N1 N2 i2
+ +
Lm Model used for
V1 V2
−
most PE application
−
+
C R Vo
Vd LM
−
iD
iS i1 N1 N2
+
+ − + vD −
iLM v2 iC iR Vo
v1
Vd
− + −
+ vSW − i2
diLm
v1 = Vd = Lm
dt
diLm ∆iLm ∆iLm Vd
= = =
dt dt DT Lm
(
⇒ ∆iLm
closed
= )
Vd DT
Lm
On the load side of the transformer,
⎛ N2 ⎞ ⎛ N2 ⎞
v2 = v1 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = Vd ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ N1 ⎠ ⎝ N1 ⎠
⎛N ⎞
v D = −Vo − Vd ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ < 0, i.e. diode turned off
⎝ N1 ⎠
Therefore,
i2 = 0 and i1 = 0
Power Electronics and 75
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Switch opened
iD
N1 N2
+ +
−
iLM v1 v2= −VS Vo
Vs − + −
+ vSW −
⎛N ⎞
v1 = −Vo ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ N2 ⎠
But v2 = −Vo
⎛N ⎞ ⎛N ⎞
⇒ v1 = v2 ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ = −Vo ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ N2 ⎠ ⎝ N2 ⎠
di ⎛N ⎞
v1 = Lm L m = −Vo ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
dt ⎝ N2 ⎠
diL m ∆iL m ∆iL m − Vo ⎛ N1 ⎞
= = = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
dt dt (1 − D )T Lm ⎝ N 2 ⎠
V (1 − D)T ⎛ N1 ⎞
⇒ (∆iL m )open = − o ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
Lm ⎝ N2 ⎠
Voltage across the switch :
⎛N ⎞
vSW = Vd + Vo ⎜⎜ 1 ⎟⎟
⎝ N2 ⎠
Power Electronics and 76
Drives (Version 3-2003)
Dr. Zainal Salam, UTM-JB
Output voltage
Vd DT Vo (1 − D )T ⎛ N1 ⎞
⇒ − ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = 0
Lm Lm ⎝ N2 ⎠
⎛ D ⎞⎛ N 2 ⎞
⇒ Vo = Vd ⎜ ⎟⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
⎝ 1 − D ⎠⎝ N1 ⎠
Ps = P0 Vs
V0 2 v1
Vd I s =
R
I s is related to I Lm as : -V(N 1 /N 2 )
Is =
I Lm DT
T
( )
= I Lm D
i Lm
∆ iL
Solving for I Lm
V02
is
( )
Vd I Lm D =
R
t
2
V0
⇒ I Lm =
Vd DR iD
I Lm can written as :
2 iC
Vd D ⎛ N2 ⎞
I Lm = ⎜
2 ⎜N ⎟
⎟
(1 − D) R ⎝ 1 ⎠
− V o/ R
V0 ⎛ N 2 ⎞
DT T t
= ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
(1 − D) R ⎝ N1 ⎠
SW1 SW3
Lx
+ + +
NS vx Vo
C R
− −
vp
VS
NS
−
SW4 SW2
SW1,SW2
DT T
SW3,SW4
T T
+ DT
VP 2 2
VS
-VS
Vx
⎛N ⎞
VS ⎜⎜ S ⎟⎟
⎝ NP ⎠
DT T T T
+ DT
2 2
• Output Voltage
⎛ Ns ⎞
Vo = 2Vs ⎜ ⎟⋅ D
⎜Np ⎟
⎝ ⎠