CHAPTER FOUR

DC-DC CONVERTERS

4.1. Introduction

DC-DC Converters are also called chopper and it converts fixed DC voltage to variable
(controllable DC voltage). These are widely used in industries. Applications of choppers are
battery operated vehicles, battery charging, DC motor control in industries, etc. Chopper can be
treated as DC transformer as it can step up the voltage and step down the voltage. Chopper control
offer smooth control, high efficiency, fast response and regeneration when used with DC drives.
Chopper requires high frequency switching devices. Since the source (or input) voltage is DC, line
(natural) commutation is not possible like in rectifiers. If thyristor devices are used in chopper
circuit, it requires a forced commutation circuit. Hence to avoid commutation circuit, it is better
to use transistor devices if required power rating devices are available. Ex: - BJT, MOSFET, GTO,
IGBT, etc.

Principle Of Operation: A chopper is an ON-OFF device with high switching frequency. It

connects source to load and disconnects the load from source at a fast rate. Its principle can be
understood from the following diagram. Here the power electronic device is represented with a
switch. When the switch is closed, the load voltage is equal to the source voltage. When switch is
opened, load current continuous through freewheeling diode (FD) because of stored energy in the
inductance and the load voltage is zero. On (TON) and Off (TOFF) time intervals are very small and
the switching frequency [f = 1/T = 1/(TON+TOff)] is very high.

From the waveforms shown above, the average voltage is given by

𝑇𝑂𝑛 𝑇𝑂𝑛
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉 = 𝛼𝑉𝑠
𝑇𝑂𝑛 + 𝑇𝑂𝑓𝑓 𝑇 𝑠

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Since 𝛼 ≤ 1 always, the average output voltage 𝑉𝑜 ≤ 𝑉𝑠 . Hence this type of chopper is called as
step-down chopper or buck converter

Where TOn = On period of the switch TOff = Off period of the switch
T = Chopping period α = TOn/T = Duty cycle
𝑇𝑂𝑛
Chopping frequency f = 1 / T and 𝑉𝑜 == 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑓 ∗ 𝑇𝑂𝑛 ∗ 𝑉𝑠
𝑇

Examples

1. A DC chopper is connected to an inductive load with a resistance of 5 ohm. On time and off
time of the chopper is 20ms 10ms respectively. The DC supply voltage is 300V. Estimate
(i) Duty ratio (ii) Chopping frequency (iii) Average load voltage (iv) Average load current.

2. A DC chopper has an input voltage of 200V and a load of 20ohm resistance. When chopper
is on, its voltage drop is 1.5V and the chopping frequency is 10KHz. If the duty cycle is
80%, find (a) average output voltage (b) RMS output voltage (c) Chopper on time

4.2. Control Strategies

In order to control a chopper usually the following three control strategies are used.

• Constant frequency system

• Variable frequency system and
• Current limit control.

Constant frequency system: In constant frequency system, TOn is varied to vary the output
voltage and the chopping frequency (T) is kept constant as shown in the figure below. The duty
cycle (TOn/T) is 0.25 in figure (a) and it is 0.75 in figure (b), keeping the chopping period (T)
constant. This scheme is called pulse width modulation (PWM) or time ratio control (TRC).

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Variable frequency system: In variable frequency system, the chopping period T (or chopping
frequency f) is varied keeping either TOn or TOff constant. This scheme is also called as frequency
modulation.

Comparing the above two methods, the frequency modulation scheme (variable frequency
system) has the following disadvantages.

1. Filter design is difficult for variable as the frequency is varying

2. Variable frequency may cause interference in the neighbouring communication lines.
3. Large Off times may result in discontinuous conduction in the load circuit.

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Current limit control: In this control, current is controlled between two set values of IO.min &
IO.max. When the load current reaches maximum value, the chopper is off and the load current
decreases. When the current falls to minimum value, chopper is ON and the load current is
beginning to rise. The load current fluctuates between IO.min & IO.max and it results in continuous
load current. If the difference between IO.min & IO.max is less, the circuit demands high frequency
switching devices and more cause more switching losses. It requires closed loop control and
usually PWM control is used to control the duty ratio of chopper.

Classifications of DC-DC Converter

• Regulated DC power supply can be obtained in either of the following ways.
o Linear regulated power supply
o Switch mode power supply
• When we say DC/DC converter, by default it is to mean Switch mode power supply (SMPS)
• Hence main focus of the topic is on SMPS.

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Linear regulator power supply
• Transistor is operated in linear (active) mode.
• Output voltage Vo =Vin –Vce
• Modeled by an equivalent variable resistor, as shown.
• Power loss is high at high current due to:

Switching Regulator Power regulator

• Transistor is operated in switched-mode:

o Switch closed: Fully on (saturated)
o Switch opened: Fully off (cut-off)
o When switch is open, no current flow in it
o When switch is closed no voltage drop across it.

• Since P=V.I, no losses occur in the switch.

o Power is 100% transferred from source to load.
o Power loss is zero (for ideal switch):

• Switching regulator is the basis of all DC-DC converters

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Comparison of Linear mode and switch mode power supply

Linear power supply

• It operates in low frequency.

• The transistor operates in active region (as an amplifier).
• Since it operates in low frequency, the magnetic circuit are heavy & Bulky.
• Used for low power application.
Switch mode power supply

• It operates in high frequency.

• The transistor operates in saturation or cut off region (as a switch).
• Since it operates in high frequency, the magnetic circuits are light.
• Can be used for High Power applications
Continuous conduction mode (CCM) and Discontinuous conduction mode (DCM)

Continuous conduction mode

The current across inductor is continuous.

Discontinuous conduction mode

The inductor current is not continuous throughout the period.

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Duty cycle (D)

4.3. Switched Mode Converters

4.3.1. Buck converter analysis

• Diode is reversed biased.
• Switch conducts inductor current
• This results in positive inductor voltage, i.e: vL =Vd –Vo
• It causes linear increase in the inductor current
The inductor voltage can be expressed as

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 • Because of inductive energy storage, iL continues to flow.
• Diode is forward biased
• Current now flows (freewheeling) through the diode.
• The inductor voltage can be derived as:
vL = -Vo

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 Where D = ton / T, and T = time period for one cycle

Form the energy balance at steady state the summation of these two currents is zoo

Steady state requires that iL at the end of switching cycle is the same at the beginning of the next
cycle. That is the change of iL over one period is zero, i.e:

Average, Maximum and Minimum Inductor Current

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Continuous Current Mode (CCM)
From the previous analysis,

This is the minimum inductor current to ensure continuous mode of operation. Normally L is
chosen to be >> Lmin.

Output voltage ripple

Note: To decrease the voltage ripple

• Increasing capacitor size, increasing inductor size, and increasing switching frequency
Examples
1. A buck converter is supplied from a 50V battery source. Given L=400uH, C=100uF, R=20
Ohm, f=20KHz and D=0.4. Calculate:
(a) Output voltage,
(b) Maximum and minimum inductor current,
(c) Output voltage ripple.

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2. A buck converter has an input voltage of 50V and output of 25V. The switching frequency is
10KHz. The power output is 125W. Calculate:
(a) Determine the duty cycle,
(b) Value of L to limit the peak inductor current to 6.25A,
(c) Value of capacitance to limit the output voltage ripple factor to 0 .5%.

4.3.2. Step-Up Chopper (Boost Converter)

This chopper produces average output voltage greater than input voltage and is called as step-up
chopper. In this chopper, large inductance in series with source voltage is essential as shown in
figure. When switch s is on, the load is short circuited by the switch and no current flows through
the load. During this period (Ton), energy is stored in the inductance, L and the current will keep
on increasing. When the switch is opened, the inductor forces the current through the load because
𝑑𝑖
of stored energy. The source voltage and inductor voltage (𝑉𝑑 + 𝐿 ) appears across the load and
𝑑𝑡

the load voltage will be greater than the input voltage.

When CH is ON, the inductor current increases from I1 to I2 and source voltage appears across the
inductance. When CH is OFF, the inductor current decreases from I2 to I1 and the voltage across
the inductance is Vo – Vs. Assuming the system to be lossless, the energy stored in the inductor
during CH is ON must be equal to energy released by the inductor when CH if OFF.

𝑊𝑖𝑛 = 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝑉𝑠 ( ) 𝑇𝑜𝑛 = (𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑠 ) ( ) 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓
2 2
𝑉𝑠 (𝑇𝑜𝑛 + 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓 ) = 𝑉𝑜 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓
𝑉𝑠 𝑇 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓

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 𝑇
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓
1
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉
𝑇𝑜𝑛 𝑠
1− 𝑇
1
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉
1−𝛼 𝑠
Where α is called duty ratio. As duty ratio (Ton/T) is always less than unity, the output voltage is
greater than input voltage.

Step up chopper is best employed for regenerative breaking of DC motor. For regeneration, the
armature voltage must be greater than source voltage, this is achieved by step up chopper and the
power flow is made reverse and the power is transferred from machine to the supply system.

Derivation of output voltage, transient analysis, and over all circuit analysis

When switch closed: the source is disconnected from the load

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When switch Opened: the source is
connected with the load

Steady-state operation
Boost converter produces output voltage that is greater or equal to the input voltage.
Alternative explanation:

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 • When switch is closed, diode is reversed. Thus, output is isolated. The input supplies
energy to inductor.
• When switch is opened, the output stage receives energy from the input as well as from
the inductor. Hence output is large.
• Output voltage is maintained constant by virtue of large C.

Average, Maximum, Minimum Inductor Current

L and C values

Examples

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 1. The boost converter has the following parameters: Vd=20V, D=0.6, R=12.5ohm, L=65uH,
C=200uF, fs=40KHz.
(a) Determine output voltage,
(b) average, maximum, and minimum inductor current,
(c) output voltage ripple.
2. Design a boost converter to provide an output voltage of 36V from a 24V source. The load
is 50W. The voltage ripple factor must be less than 0.5%.
(a) Specify the duty cycle ratio,
(b) (b) switching frequency,
(c) (C)inductor and capacitor size, and power device.

4.3.3. Step-Up/ Step-Down Chopper (Buck-Boost Converter)

This circuit can be used either to step up the voltage or to step down the voltage. Its circuit diagram
is shown in the figure. It can be observed from the figure that voltage polarity is opposite to source
voltage polarity. When chopper CH is ON, current flows through the inductor and it increases
from I1 to I2. The voltage across inductor is same as source voltage. When chopper Ch is OFF,
the inductor current decrease from I2 to I1 and the voltage across inductor is same as load voltage.

Assuming the system to be lossless, writing the energy balance equation for the inductor,

𝐼1 + 𝐼2 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝑉𝑠 ( ) 𝑇𝑜𝑛 = 𝑉𝑜 ( ) 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓
2 2
𝑇𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑛 1 1 𝛼
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠
𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑜𝑛 𝑇 1 1−𝛼
𝑇𝑜𝑛 − 1 𝛼−1

For (i) α = 0.5, Vo= Vs.

(ii) α < 0.5, Vo < Vs and it will act as step down chopper
(iii) α > 0.5, Vo > Vs and it will act as step-up chopper

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Derivation of output voltage, transient analysis, and over all circuit analysis

When switch opened: the source is disconnected from the load

When switch opened: the source is again disconnected from the load

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Summary

• Output of a buck-boost converter either be higher or lower than input.

• If D > 0.5, output is higher than input
• If D < 0.5, output is lower than input
• Output voltage is always negative.
• Note that output is never directly connected to load.
• Energy is stored in inductor when switch is closed and transferred to load when switch is opened

Average Inductor Current

Types of chopper circuits: Chopper circuits are unidirectional devices and polarities of Vo and
Io are restricted. However, with proper arrangements, it can be operated to have desired voltage
and current polarities. Bases on the quadrant of operation, choppers are classified as follows

(i) Type A or class A or first quadrant chopper

(ii) Type B or class B or second quadrant chopper
(iii) Two quadrant type A or type C or class C chopper
(iv) Two quadrant type B or type D or class D chopper
(v) Four quadrant chopper or Type E or class E chopper

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First quadrant or type A chopper: Type A chopper is shown in figure. And this is same as step
down chopper discussed earlier. When chopper CH1 is ON, vo = Vs and io flows in the load in
arrow direction. When CH1 is OFF, the load voltage vo = 0 and the load current continues to flow
through the freewheeling diode FD due to stored energy in the inductor. It can be observed that
the average load voltage and current are always positive and the operating area is restricted to first
quadrant of Vo – Io plane as shown in the figure. The power flow is always from source to load.

Second quadrant or type B chopper: Type B chopper is shown in figure. Note that load must
contain a DC voltage source like battery or a Dc motor in this chopper. When CH2 is ON, Vo = 0
and E drives current through L and CH2. Inductance L stores energy when CH2 is ON. When
CH2 is OFF, V0 (= E + L *di/dt) exceeds source voltage Vs. As a result, diode D2 is forward
biased and it starts conducting. Power flow is from load to source. In this circuit current is always
negative (current flowing opposite to the reference current indicated on the circuit) and the voltage
is always positive, hence its operation is restricted to second quadrant of operation on Vo – Io
plane.

Two quadrant type A chopper or Type C chopper: This chopper is obtained by connecting type
A & type B chopper in parallel as shown in figure. The output voltage is always positive because
of the presence of freewheeling diode across the load. CH1 and diode FD operates together as type
A chopper. CH2 and D1 operate as type B chopper. When CH2 is ON or FD conducts, the output
voltage is zero. When CH1 is ON or D2 conducts, the output voltage is equal to source voltage.

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When CH1 is ON, the current is positive in the load and the power flow is from source to load.
When D2 is in conduction, current is reversed in the load and the power flow is from load to
source. The load voltage is always positive and the load current may be either positive or negative,
hence this chopper operation is possible in first and second quadrant of Vo – Io plane as shown in
figure.

CH1 & CH2 should not be ON simultaneously as it leads to short circuit of source voltage. This
type of chopper is used for motoring and regenerative braking of DC motors. The waveforms for
first quadrant operation are shown below.

Waveforms of type C chopper for first quadrant operation

Two quadrant type B chopper or type D chopper: The power circuit is shown below. The
output voltage Vo = Vs if both CH1 and CH2 are ON. The output voltage Vo = - Vs if diodes are in
conduction. The current is always positive as the devices are unidirectional devices. The average
output voltage is positive if Ton > Toff, the operation is in first quadrant and the power flow is from
source to load. The average output voltage is negative of Toff > Ton, the operation is in fourth

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quadrant and the power flow is from load to the source. Various waveforms for first and fourth
quadrants are shown below.

(a) And (b) Type D chopper (c) waveforms for Ton > Toff, Vo is positive, first quadrant
operation (d) waveforms for Toff > Ton, Vo is negative, second quadrant operation

The average output voltage is given by

𝑉𝑠 𝑇𝑜𝑛 − 𝑉𝑠 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑇𝑜𝑛 − 𝑇𝑜𝑓𝑓

𝑉𝑜 = = 𝑉𝑠
𝑇 𝑇
Four quadrant chopper or Type E chopper: the power circuit diagram is shown in figure. It
consists of choppers from CH1 to CH4 and four anti parallel diodes from D1 to D4. Choppers are
numbered corresponds to their quadrant of operation. Working of this circuit is explained in the
four quadrants as follows.

First quadrant: In this mode, CH4 is ON and CH1 is operated (controlled). When CH1 and CH4
are ON, the output voltage vo = Vs. With this load current io begins to flow. Both vo and io are
positive, the operation is in first quadrant. If CH1 is off, load current freewheels through CH4 and

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D2. In this manner both load current and voltage are controlled in first quadrant. Chopper operated
as step down chopper.

Second quadrant: This mode is possible when load is having sufficient energy to fed back to the
source. In this mode, CH2 is operated and CH1, CH3 and CH4 are kept OFF. When CH2 is ON,
current flow through L, CH2, D4 and E. Inductance stores energy during the tiem CH2 is ON.
𝑑𝑖
When CH2 is OFF, the voltage (𝐸 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡) is greter than the supply voltage and power is fed back

to the source through D1 and D4. As load voltage is positive and load current is negative, the
operation is in second quadrant. Chopper operated as step up chopper.

Third quadrant: In this mode of operation, CH2 is ON and CH3 is operated (controlled). Polarity
of E must be revesed for this quadrant working. When CH3 is ON, load gets connected to the
source Vs, the load voltage vo and current io are negative leadign to third quadrant operation. When
CH3 is off, load current freewheel through CH2 and D4. In this manner load voltage and current
can be controlled in third quadrant. Chopper operated as step down chopper.

Fourth quadrant: In this mode Ch4 is operated(controlled) and the other devices are kept OFF.
Load emf E is revesred for the operation in fourth quadrant. With CH4 is ON, positive current
flows through CH4, D2, L and E. During this period inductance L stores energy and when CH4
is OFF, energy is fed back to the source through diodes D2 and D3. Here load voltage is alwyas
negative and load current is positive. The operatio is in fourth quadrant and the power is fed abck
to the source. Chopper operates as step-up chopper.

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Problems:

A DC to DC chopper operates from a 48 V battery source into a resistive load of 24 Ohm. The
frequency of the chopper is set to 250 Hz. Determine the average and rms load current and load
power values when (a) chopper on-time is 1ms, (b) chopper on-tiem 3ms.
Solution:

A type A chopper has DC input voltge of 230 V, load resistance of 10 Ohm. Take a volateg drop
of 2 V across chopper when it is ON. For a duty cycle of 0.4, calculate (a) Average and rms values
of output voltage and (b) Chopper effficeny.

A step-up chopper has input voltage of 220 V and output voltage of 660 V. If the non-conducting
time of thyristor chopper is 100 micro second, compute the pulse width of output voltage. In case
pulse width is halved for constant frequency operation, find the new output voltage.

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Exercise Problems:

1. A type A chopper has input DC voltage of 200 V and a load resistance of R =10 Ohm in
series with L = 80 mH. If the load current varies linearly between 12 A & 16 A, find the
time ratio Ton/Toff for this chopper. (Answer: 2.333)
2. A step –up chopper with a pulse width of 100 𝜇𝑆𝑒𝑐 is operating from 230 V DC supply.
Compute the average value of load voltage for a chopping frequency of 2000 Hz.
(Answer: 287.5 V)
3. A step-up/step-down chopper has input DC voltage of 220 V and output voltage of 660 V.
If the conduction time of thyristor chopper is 120 𝜇𝑆𝑒𝑐, compute the pulse width of load
voltage.
In case pulse width of the load voltage increased to three times its previous width, for
constant frequency operation, calculate the new value of average output voltage.
(Answer: 40 𝝁𝑺𝒆𝒄, 73.33 V)

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