LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL

LOAD FREQUENCY PROBLEMS:

If the system is connected to numerous loads in a power system, then the
system frequency and speed change with the characteristics of the governor as
the load changes. If it’s not required to maintain the frequency constant in a
system then the operator is not required to change the setting of the
generator. But if constant frequency is required the operator can adjust the
velocity of the turbine by changing the characteristics of the governor when
required. If a change in load is taken care by two generating stations running
parallel then the complex nature of the system increases. The ways of sharing
the load by two machines are as follow:
1) Suppose there are two generating stations that are connected to each other
by tie line. If the change in load is either at A or at B and the generation of A is
regulated so as to have constant frequency then this kind of regulation is called
as Flat Frequency Regulation.
2) The other way of sharing the load is that both A and B would regulate their
generations to maintain the frequency constant. This is called parallel
frequency regulation.
3) The third possibility is that the change in the frequency of a particular area is
taken care of by the generator of that area thereby maintain the tie-line
loading. This method is known as flat tie-line loading control.
4) In Selective Frequency control each system in a group is taken care of the
load changes on its own system and does not help the other systems, the
group for changes outside its own limits.
5) In Tie-line Load-bias control all the power systems in the interconnection
aid in regulating frequency regardless of where the frequency change
originates.

MATHEMATICAL MODELLING FOR GOVERNOR:

When the electrical load is increased suddenly then the electrical power exceeds
the input mechanical power. This deficiency of power in the load side is
compensated from the kinetic energy of the turbine. Due to this reason the
energy that is stored in the machine is decreased and the governor sends signal
for supplying more volumes of water, steam or gas to increase the speed of the
prime mover to compensate deficiency in speed.

1
∆ P g=∆ P ref ∆f
R

In S-domain

1
∆ P g=∆ P ref − ∆f
R

The command ΔPg is transformed through amplifier to the steam valve position
command ΔPV. We assume here a linear relationship and considering simple
time constant we get this s-domain relation

1
∆ PV = ∆ Pg (S )
1+ τg
Combining all the above block diagrams, for a isolated area system we get the
following:

Fig: complete block diagram of single area system

The closed loop transfer function that relates the load change ∆ P L to the frequency deviation

∆ Ω is

∆ Ω(s) ( 1+ τ g s ) (1+ τ T s)
=
−∆ P L ( 2 H s+ D )( 1+ τ g s ) ( 1+τ T s ) +1/ R

Automatic Generation Control

Automatic Generation Control is a system to adjust multiple generators of the
power plant of electric system load changes. Since the generation of a power
grid is required and the load is intensely balanced with the moment, so
compatible adjustments at the generator's output. Balance can be judged by
measuring the frequency of the system, if it increases, then the use of more
electricity is being generated, so that all machines of the system increase. If
the system's frequency decreases, the immediate generation can provide more
loaded systems than that, all the generators are slow down.

The need of Automatic generation control

As our development has increased, so has the demand for electricity in
industrial plants.  As the demand for electricity increases, it is important to
manage the frequency fluctuations and voltage drops properly.  And there are
two ways to control it properly.

 Automatic Voltage regulator system (AVR)

 Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC)

The main function of the ALFC system is to evaluate and correct the power and
frequency.  When the AVR system controls the voltage and reactive power.

Reasons for limiting frequency deviations:

1.  Utility is a major control function of the power control center.

2.  When a few utilities are interconnected, each will perform its own AGC
independently of the other.

3.  The blades of steam turbines and water turbines are designed to operate at
a certain speed and the speed at which the frequency changes must change. 
This will cause excessive vibration and damage to the turbine blades.
4.  Frequency errors can cause damage to digital storage and recovery
processes.

Automatic Generation Control Block

Diagram:

Automatic Voltage Regulator Systems

The exciter is the main component in the AVR loop. It delivers the DC power to
the generator field. It must have Adequate Power capacity and sufficient speed
of response. The basic role of the AVR is to provide constancy of the voltage
generator terminal voltage during normal and slow changes in the load.
Exciter modeling: -
Mathematical modeling of the exciter and its controls follows:
∆I𝑉I𝑟𝑒𝑓−∆I𝑉I=∆𝑒

And
Δ v R =¿K A Δⅇ ¿

Where K A is amplifier gain

Laplace Transformation of these two equations yields
∆I𝑉I𝑟𝑒𝑓 (s)−∆I𝑉I (s)=∆𝑒(s)
Δv R (s )
And G A = =K A
Δe ( s )

Where G A is amplifier transfer function

In reality the amplifier will have a delay that can be represented by a time constant
T A and its transfer function will be of the form

Δ v R (5 ) K
G A= = +s A
Δe ( s ) 1 T A

If Re and Le represent respectively the resistance and inductance of the exciter field
we have for voltage equilibrium in the latter
Δ vR

Measured across the main field the exciter produces K 1 armature volts per ampere
of field current i e, that is , we have the proportionality
Δ v f K 1 Δi e

Upon Laplace Transformation of the last two equations and elimination of Δ i wee

obtain the transfer function of the exciter

Δv f ( s ) Ke
Ge ≜ =
Δ v R ( s ) 1+s T e

Where
K1 Le
Ke ≜ and T e ≜
Re Re
The time constants T A and T e have values in the ranges 0.02 – 0.10 and 0.5- 1.0
seconds respectively.

Linear model of the AVR loop

Generator Modeling:
We need to close the loop in fig. By establishing the missing dynamic link
between the field voltage and the generator terminal voltage equals the
internal EMF minus the voltage drop across the internal impedance it is
clear that the relationship between and depends on the generator loading.
The simplest possible relationship exists at low zero loading in which case
V equals approximately the internal EMF

Where
T do=¿ open circuit time constant

Lff
T do=
Rf
Lff =¿ rotor winding self-inductance

R f = rotor winding resistance

T do typically have values in the ranges 5-10 seconds

Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC):

Basic role of ALFC is:

● To maintain desired megawatt output of a generator unit matching

with the changing load
● To assist in controlling the frequency of larger interconnection
● To keep the net interchange power between pool members at the
predetermined value

The ALFC loop will maintain control only during normal changes in loads
and frequency. It is typically unable to provide adequate control during
emergency situations, when large megawatt imbalance occurs. Then more
drastic emergency control must be applied.

Speed Governing System:

The system consists of the following components:

1. Fly ball speed governor

2. Hydraulic amplifier
3. Linkage Mechanism
4. Speed Changer

Fly ball speed governor:

This is the heart if system which senses the change in speed frequency. As
the speed increases the fly balls move outwards and the point B on linkage
mechanism moves downwards. The reverse happens when the speed
decreases.

Hydraulic amplifier:
It comprises a pilot value and main piston arrangement. Low power level
pilot value movement is converted into high power level piston value
movement. This is necessary in order to open or close the stem value
against high pressure steam.

Linkage Mechanism:
ABC is rigid link pivoted at B and CDE is another rigid link pivoted at D.
This link mechanism provides a movement to the control value in
proportion to change in speed, It also provide a feedback from the steam
value movement.

Speed Changer:
It provides a steady state power output setting for the turbine. Its
downward movement opens the upper pilot value so that more steam is
admitted to the turbine under steady conditions. The reverse happens for
upward movement of speed changer.

Modeling of Automatic Load Frequency Control:

Automatic Generation Control in Single Area:
With the main LFC loop, change in the system load will result in a steady state
frequency deviation, depending on the speed regulation of the governor. To
reduce the frequency deviation to zero we need to provide a reset action by
using an integral controller to act on the load reference setting to alter the
speed set point. This integral controller would increase the system type by 1
which forces the final frequency deviation to zero. The integral controller gain
needs to be Adjusted for obtaining satisfactory transient response. The closed
loop transfer function of the control system is given by:

SIMULATIONS
WITHOUT THE USE OF AGC:
To obtain the time domain specifications and the step response following command is used:
Pl= 0.2; num= [0.1 0.7 1];
den= [1 7.08 10.56 20.8];
t= 0:.02:10;
c= -pl* step(num,den,t);
plot(t, c), xlabel(‘t, sec’), ylabel(‘pu’)
title(‘Frequency deviation step response’),grid
timespec(num, den)