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• Where, , ω are positive and real, this is the super critical case
• F(s) has complex conjugate pole pair in s-plane
• The time response f(t) contains damped oscillatory terms of
the type
• In either of the above cases, f(t) will approach zero and the
system will be stable
1. For the isolated area, the following data are available:
Rated capacity of the area = 1500 MW
Nominal operating load = 750 MW
Inertia constant of the area = 5 sec
Speed regulation of all
Regulating generators = 3 percent
Nominal frequency = 50 Hz
Assume linear load-frequency characteristic which
means the connected system load increases by one
percent if the system frequency increases by one
percent.
If the area is to be controlled by an integral
controller, find the critical magnitude of its gain
2. For the p-f control of a single area system have the
following data :
KP = 120 Hz / p.u MW ; TP = 10 sec ; Tg = Tt = 0 ;
R = 2.5 Hz / p.u MW; KI = 0.1 ; PD = 0.1 p.u MW.
Compute the time error and the steady state
frequency caused by a step disturbance of
magnitude given in the data.
Express the error in seconds and cycles if the
system frequency is 50 Hz
Integration of Economic Dispatch Control
with LFC
• Load frequency control with integral controller achieves zero steady
state frequency error and a fast dynamic response,
• But it exercises no control over the relative loadings of various
generating stations (i.e. economic dispatch) of the control area.
• For example, if a sudden small increase in load (say, 1 ) occurs in
the control area, the load frequency control changes the speed
changer settings of the governors of all generating units of the
areas
• In the process of this change, the loadings of various generating
units change in a manner independent of economic loading
considerations
• Some units in the process may even get overloaded
• Some control over the loading of individual units can be done by
adjusting the gain factors (Ki)
• But this is not the satisfactory solution..
• A satisfactory solution is achieved by using independent
controls for load frequency and economic dispatch
• While the Load frequency controller is a fast acting control
(2-20 sec), the economic dispatch controller is a slow acting
control (1 min)
• The signal to change the speed changer setting is constructed
in accordance with economic dispatch error [PG(desired)-
PG(actual)]
• Then modified suitably by the signal representing integral ACE
• The signal PG(desired) is computed by the Central Economic
Dispatch Computer (CEDC) and is transmitted to the Local
Economic Dispatch Controller (EDC)
• The system thus operates with economic dispatch error only
for very short periods of time before it is adjusted
TWO AREA SYSTEM OR
MULTI AREA SYSTEM
TWO AREA SYSTEM OR
MULTI AREA SYSTEM
• An interconnected power system is divided into a number of
"control areas" for the purpose of load frequency control.
• When subjected to disturbances, all the generator — turbine
units in a control area swing together with the other groups
in other areas.
• Hence, all the units in a control area are represented by a
single unit of equivalent inertia and characterized by a single
(area) frequency.
• Since all the network is strong, all the bus loads in a control
area are assumed to act at single load point and characterized
by a single equivalent load parameter.
• The different control areas are connected by relatively "weak"
tie lines.
TWO AREA SYSTEM OR
MULTI AREA SYSTEM
Advantages:
• Under normal operating condition, each control area
should have the capacity to meet its own load from its own
spinning generator, plus the scheduled interchange
between the neighbouring areas.
• Under emergency condition, the energy can be drawn from
the spinning reserves of all the neighbouring areas
immediately due to the sudden loss of generating unit
• During normal operation of interconnected power system,
load frequency controller for each area drives the area
frequency deviation to zero and also the "net interchange"
of that area to zero under steady state condition.
• Net interchange of area is defined as the algebraic sum of
tie line flows between area ‘i’ and other connected areas
with tie line flow out of area.
Two Area Load Frequency Control
System Modeling
→ (1)
• Where,
→ (3)
→ (4)
• On taking Laplace transform of eqn.(4) and on rearranging,
→ (5)
• Where,
→ (6)
→ (7)
• Block diagram representation of eqns. (6) and (7) are,
• Block diagram for two area Load Frequency Control is,
Static Analysis – Uncontrolled Case
• PC1 = PC2 = 0
• Suppose there is a sudden increase in load demand in the two
area by incremental steps PD1 and PD2
• Then frequency drops in the steady state will be equal
• f1stat = f2stat = fstat
• At steady state, the incremental generation is,
→ (1)
• From Block diagram for two area load frequency control
1
1
1
1
1 → (2)
• Similarly for area 2,
1
→ (3)
• Substituting eqn. (1) in (3),
→ (4)
→ (5)
• Substituting eqn. (4) in (5),
• For two identical areas,
• Suppose a step load change occurs at Area 1,
Hence
1. Two 750 KW alternators operates in parallel. The speed
regulation of 1 set is 100% to 103% from full load to no load
and that of other is 100% to 104%. How will the two
alternators share a load of 1000 KW and at what load will
one machine cease to supply any portion of the load.
K K
2. Two turbo alternators are rated at 25 MW each. They are running
in parallel. The speed-load characteristics of the driving turbines
are such that the frequency of alternator 1 drops uniformly from
50 Hz on no load to 48 Hz on full load, and that of alternator 2
from 50 Hz to 48.5 Hz. (a) How will the two machines share a load
of 30 MW and find the bus-bar frequency at this load? (b)
Compare the maximum load that these two units can deliver
without overloading either of them
3. Two generators rated at 400 MW and 700 MW are running in
parallel. The droop characteristics of their governors are 3% and
4% respectively from no load to full load. Assuming that the
generators are operating at 50 Hz at no load, how would a load of
1000 MW be shared between them? What will be the system
frequency at this load? Assume free governor operation.
Solution:
• Assume B is negligible compared with 1/R, the frequency of
generator 1 drops from 50 Hz at no load to (50 – 4%) of 50 = 48 Hz
at its full load of 700 MW
• Similarly frequency of generator 2 drops from 50 Hz to (50 – 3%)
of 50 = 48.5 Hz when its load increases from no load to its full load
of 400 MW
4. Two generators rated at 120 MW and 250 MW are operating in
parallel. The governor settings on the machines are such that they
have 4 % and 3 % drops. Determine (i) the load taken by each
machine for a total load of 200 MW; (ii) the percentage no load
speed and rated output of machine 1 to be made by the speeder
motor if the machines are to share the load equally
Types of Load Frequency Control
• Three methods are available for LFC of
interconnected systems
1. Flat Frequency Control
2. Flat Tie-line Control
3. Flat Tie-line with Frequency Bias Control
• The load on the tie line is measured by a thermal
converter which operates the tie line load recorder-
controller
• A knob on this controller sets the scheduled
amount of power transfer
1. Flat frequency control:
– Frequency is maintained constant
– There is no control on tie line power
2. Flat tie line load control:
– Tie line power is maintained constant irrespective
of load demands
– The increase in demands of an area is met by
increase in generation in that area
3. Tie line with Frequency bias control
• This is the most widely used method on large inter
connections
• Solid line yy represents flat frequency characteristic
(tie line load would change over wide limits)
• Line zz – flat tie line load characteristic (tie line load
constant)
• Line xx – actual characteristic (adjustable)
• Line aa – less drooping
• Line bb – parallel to line xx
• This method provides more flexibility for a wide
range of operating conditions
• In case of an isolated control area, ACE is the change in
area frequency which when used in integral control loop
forces the steady state frequency error to zero
• In a two area control, the steady state tie line power error
can be made zero by introducing another control loop (one
for each area)
• It integrates the incremental tie line power signal and feed
it back to the speed changer
• This is accomplished by a single integrating block by
redefining ACE as a linear combination of incremental
frequency and tie line power
• Thus for control area 1,
ACE1 = Ptie,1 + b1f1
Where, the constant b1 is called area frequency bias
• Similarly, for the control area 2
ACE2 = Ptie,2 + b2f2
• On taking Laplace transform,
ACE1(s) = Ptie,1(s) + b1f1(s)
ACE2(s) = Ptie,2(s) + b2f2(s)
• Combining the basic block diagrams of the two control
areas of single area LFC, with Pc1(s) and Pc2(s)
generated by integrals of respective ACEs, the complete
block diagram can be obtained as shown in Fig.
• Speed changer commands are
Pc1 = -KI1(Ptie,1 + b1f1) dt
Pc2 = -KI2(Ptie,2 + b2f2) dt
• The constants KI1 and KI2 are integrator gains
• The minus sign must be included, since each area should
increase its generation if either its frequency error or its tie
line power increment is negative
State Variable Model
• The design of Automatic LFC has to fulfill many
objectives like fast response, stability, etc.
• The Optimum Linear Regulator (OLR) design meets
these objectives satisfactorily
• The design of OLR requires the ALFC equations to be
expressed in state variable form
• State variables are defined as the outputs of all blocks
having either an integrator or a time constant
• Fig. shows the block diagram of ALFC loop
• To simply the analysis the effect of reheat stage of
turbine is neglected
Pv(S)
• From Fig., we can write the following equations in frequency
domain (Assume KGKT = 1)
C
C
• A significant part of the DG units will be connected to the grid with power
electronic converters, as shown in Figure.
• Some types of DG units supply a dc current (fuel cells, solar cells), which is
converted to ac by the converter.
• They are ‘inertia-less’ and have no direct relation between power and
frequency.
Frequency Control with DG
• Other types of DG unit are based on machines (wind turbines,
micro turbines), but the converter decouples their rotational
speed from the grid frequency to make variable speed
operation possible.
• And therefore they also do not have the direct relation
between their inertia and the grid frequency.
• So, all these DG units will not contribute to the inertial
response.
• To make a contribution of DG units possible, they should be
able to increase their output power.