1.

The load frequency dynamics of a single area power system

whose data are given below:
Rated capacity of the area (Pr) = 1500 MW
Nominal operating load = 750 MW
Nominal frequency = 50 Hz
Inertia constant of the area = 5.0 s
Speed regulation (governor droop)
of all regulating generators =3%
Governor time constant =0s
Turbine time constant =0s
Assume linear load frequency characteristic, which means, the
connected system load increases by one percent if the system
frequency increases by one percent
The area has a governor control, but not a load frequency
controller. The area is subjected to a load increase of 30 MW
Simulate the load frequency dynamics of this area and
determine steady-state frequency deviation in Hz using “AFRC”
2. For an isolated single area, consider the following data :
Area capacity = 1000 MW
Nominal operating load = 500 MW
Nominal frequency = 50 Hz
Inertia constant of the area = 5.0 s
Regulation = 5 Hz/p.u MW
Load increases by 1% for a decrease in frequency by 1%
(a) Find the gain and time constants of power system
represented with a first order transfer function. If it is an
uncontrolled area, then find out the change in frequency
due to an increase of load by 75 MW
(b) Determine steady state frequency by changing
regulation = 4 Hz/p.u MW; nominal operating load = 750
MW; and compare with the results of (a)
3. A 100 MVA synchronous generator is running on full load at
50 Hz frequency. A 40 MW load is suddenly removed. Due to
time lag in governor system, the steam valve of the turbine
begins to close after 0.5 sec. Determine the change in
frequency that occurs in this time. Given H = 5 MW sec/MVA
of generator rating
4. A single area consists of two generating units with the
following characteristics

Unit Rating Speed Regulation in p.u

1 700 MVA 7%
2 500 MVA 4%

The units are operating in parallel, sharing 1000 MW at

the nominal frequency. Unit 1 supplies 600 MW and unit 2
supplies 400 MW at 50 Hz. The load is increased by 100 MW
Find the steady state frequency deviation and the new
generation on each unit when (a) There is no frequency-
dependent load (b) The load varies 1.5% for every 1%
change in frequency.
 Dynamic Analysis of Uncontrolled Case
• A static response of ALFC loop will inform about “frequency”
accuracy, whereas the dynamic response of ALFC loop will inform
about the “stability” of the loop
• To obtain the dynamic response representing the change in
frequency as a function of time (PC = 0) for a step change in load
• Taking Inverse Laplace transform is tedious (3rd order
denominator)
• The analysis is simplified by making the following
assumptions
1. Tt = TG = 0
2. kGkt = 1
Applying Partial fraction method,
Comparing the coefficients,

f(t) = Inverse Laplace Transform of F(s)

Let PD = 0.01 p.u, R = 2.4 Hz/p.u MW, Kp = 120 and Tp = 20 sec

f(t) = -0.0235 (1-e-2.55t) Hz

The dynamic response to step load change is shown below

 Dynamic Analysis of Controlled Case
• PD(s) = 0
• Let kGkt = 1 and Tt = TG = 0
After applying Partial fraction method, and taking Inverse Laplace Transform
of F(s)
 Important Points for Uncontrolled Single
Area
• By reducing value of ‘R’, it is possible to increase
AFRC , hence static frequency error may be reduced
and the system may be made still faster.
• With smaller time constant TG and Tt, the system
response shows some oscillations. But if these time
constants are neglected, response is purely
exponential.
• For the uncontrolled system there exists a small
steady state frequency error as a result of increase in
load demand.
 Integral Control of Single Area System
• The single area control technique discussed so far can result in
considerable steady state frequency drop from no load to full load.
• The steady state frequency can be adjusted to the desired value by
adjusting the speed changer setting of the governor.
• In this (integral) control, speed changer setting is adjusted automatically
by a signal obtained by amplifying and integrating the frequency error.
• For this purpose, a signal from f is fed through an integrator to the
speed changer as shown in Fig.
• In LFC application, the frequency change in an area is known as Area
Control Error (ACE).
• The Integral controller actuates the speed governor reference point until
the frequency deviation becomes zero.
• Integral controller gives zero steady state error.
• The main Aim:
– To provide stability
– To get zero steady state or frequency error
– To minimize deviation in frequency
• Primary LFC loop: Initial adjustment of frequency
• Secondary LFC loop: Fine adjustment of frequency

PC = -kI  f dt = -kI  ACE dt

• On taking Laplace Transform,

• The negative polarity means positive frequency error to give

rise to a negative or decrease command, PC
 Static Analysis (Uncontrolled Case)
• Put PC = 0
• By addition of the integral controller, the frequency error has
been reduced to zero
• But we cannot eliminate the transient frequency error
• Hence we have to minimize  ACE dt
• Time error =
 Dynamic Response of Uncontrolled Case
• A static response of ALFC loop will inform about frequency
accuracy, whereas the dynamic response of ALFC loop will
inform about the tracking ability and stability of the loop
• Assumptions: (kGkt = 1 and Tt = TG = 0)
1. Neglect the turbine dynamics
2. The speed changer action is instantaneous
• Put, PC = 0
• The response is not correct since the device is
electromechanical and will therefore have a non-
zero response time
• The error in the analysis affect only the transient, not
the static response
• Since Inverse Laplace of second order function in the
denominator is difficult, the time response f(t) is analysed
by using poles
• The poles of the characteristic equation is:
For the critical case, the two roots are equal. To find kI critical
• Clearly, the nature of poles depends upon the magnitude of KI.
If KI  KIcritical, we can write denominator polynomial in the form

• Where, , ω are positive and real, this is the super critical case
• F(s) has complex conjugate pole pair in s-plane
• The time response f(t) contains damped oscillatory terms of
the type

• If KI  Kicritical (subcritical case), we can write the polynomial in

the form

• Where, 1t and 2 are both positive and real

• F(s) has a real pole pair in s-plane

• f(t) will contain terms of the type e -1t and e -2t

• In either of the above cases, f(t) will approach zero and the
system will be stable
1. For the isolated area, the following data are available:
Rated capacity of the area = 1500 MW
Nominal operating load = 750 MW
Inertia constant of the area = 5 sec
Speed regulation of all
Regulating generators = 3 percent
Nominal frequency = 50 Hz
Assume linear load-frequency characteristic which
means the connected system load increases by one
percent if the system frequency increases by one
percent.
If the area is to be controlled by an integral
controller, find the critical magnitude of its gain
2. For the p-f control of a single area system have the
following data :
KP = 120 Hz / p.u MW ; TP = 10 sec ; Tg = Tt = 0 ;
R = 2.5 Hz / p.u MW; KI = 0.1 ; PD = 0.1 p.u MW.
Compute the time error and the steady state
frequency caused by a step disturbance of
magnitude given in the data.
Express the error in seconds and cycles if the
system frequency is 50 Hz
 Integration of Economic Dispatch Control
with LFC
• Load frequency control with integral controller achieves zero steady
state frequency error and a fast dynamic response,
• But it exercises no control over the relative loadings of various
generating stations (i.e. economic dispatch) of the control area.
• For example, if a sudden small increase in load (say, 1 ) occurs in
the control area, the load frequency control changes the speed
changer settings of the governors of all generating units of the
areas
• In the process of this change, the loadings of various generating
units change in a manner independent of economic loading
considerations
• Some units in the process may even get overloaded
• Some control over the loading of individual units can be done by
adjusting the gain factors (Ki)
• But this is not the satisfactory solution..
• A satisfactory solution is achieved by using independent
controls for load frequency and economic dispatch
• While the Load frequency controller is a fast acting control
(2-20 sec), the economic dispatch controller is a slow acting
control (1 min)
• The signal to change the speed changer setting is constructed
in accordance with economic dispatch error [PG(desired)-
PG(actual)]
• Then modified suitably by the signal representing integral ACE
• The signal PG(desired) is computed by the Central Economic
Dispatch Computer (CEDC) and is transmitted to the Local
Economic Dispatch Controller (EDC)
• The system thus operates with economic dispatch error only
for very short periods of time before it is adjusted
TWO AREA SYSTEM OR
MULTI AREA SYSTEM
 TWO AREA SYSTEM OR
MULTI AREA SYSTEM
• An interconnected power system is divided into a number of
"control areas" for the purpose of load frequency control.
• When subjected to disturbances, all the generator — turbine
units in a control area swing together with the other groups
in other areas.
• Hence, all the units in a control area are represented by a
single unit of equivalent inertia and characterized by a single
(area) frequency.
• Since all the network is strong, all the bus loads in a control
area are assumed to act at single load point and characterized
by a single equivalent load parameter.
• The different control areas are connected by relatively "weak"
tie lines.
 TWO AREA SYSTEM OR
MULTI AREA SYSTEM
Advantages:
• Under normal operating condition, each control area
should have the capacity to meet its own load from its own
spinning generator, plus the scheduled interchange
between the neighbouring areas.
• Under emergency condition, the energy can be drawn from
the spinning reserves of all the neighbouring areas
immediately due to the sudden loss of generating unit
• During normal operation of interconnected power system,
load frequency controller for each area drives the area
frequency deviation to zero and also the "net interchange"
of that area to zero under steady state condition.
• Net interchange of area is defined as the algebraic sum of
tie line flows between area ‘i’ and other connected areas
with tie line flow out of area.
 Two Area Load Frequency Control
System Modeling

• An extended power system can be divided into a number of load

frequency control areas interconnected by means of tie lines.
• Without loss of generation, consider a two-area system connected
by a single tie line as illustrated in Fig.
• The control objective now is to regulate the frequency of each area
and to simultaneously regulate the tie-line power as per inter-area
power contracts.
• To regulate frequency, proportional plus integral controller will be
installed so as to give zero steady state error in the tie line flow
• It is conveniently assumed that each control area can be
represented by an equivalent turbine, generator and governor
system
• Symbols used with suffix ' 1' refers to area '1' and those with suffix
'2' refers to area '2'.
• In an isolated control area case, the incremental power (PG—
PD) was accounted for by the rate of increase of stored kinetic
energy
• Since a tie line transports power in or out of an area, this fact must
be accounted for in the incremental power balance equation of
each area.
• Power transported out of area 1 is given by,
• For incremental changes in 1 and 2, the incremental tie line
power can be expressed as,

→ (1)

• T12 is called synchronizing power coefficient or electric

stiffness (slope of the power angle curve at the initial
operating angle)
• Incremental frequency f is related to the phase angle
deviation as,

• Eqn. (1) becomes

→ (2)

• Where f1 and f2 are incremental changes in frequency of

areas 1 and 2 respectively
• Similarly,

• Where,

→ (3)

• The incremental power balance equation for area 1 can be

written as (From Generator-Load model)

→ (4)
• On taking Laplace transform of eqn.(4) and on rearranging,

→ (5)
• Where,

• Kps1 = Power System Gain for Area 1

• Tps1 = Power System Time Constant for Area 1
• Block diagram representation of eqn. (5) is
• On taking Laplace transform of eqn. (2),

→ (6)

• For the control area 2,

→ (7)
• Block diagram representation of eqns. (6) and (7) are,
• Block diagram for two area Load Frequency Control is,
 Static Analysis – Uncontrolled Case
• PC1 = PC2 = 0
• Suppose there is a sudden increase in load demand in the two
area by incremental steps PD1 and PD2
• Then frequency drops in the steady state will be equal
• f1stat = f2stat = fstat
• At steady state, the incremental generation is,

→ (1)
• From Block diagram for two area load frequency control
1
1
1
1

1 → (2)
• Similarly for area 2,

1
→ (3)
• Substituting eqn. (1) in (3),

→ (4)

• From eqn. (2)

→ (5)
• Substituting eqn. (4) in (5),
• For two identical areas,
• Suppose a step load change occurs at Area 1,

• For interconnected power system, the steady state frequency

error is reduced by 50% and the change in tie line power is
also reduced by 50%
 Speed-Load characteristics
• The isochronous governors cannot be used when there are two
or more units connected to the same system since each
generator would have precisely the same speed setting
• For stable load sharing between two or more units operating in
parallel, the governors are provided with a characteristics so
that the speed drops as the load in increased (Drooping)
• Percent Speed Regulation or Droop:
➢ The value of ‘R’ determine the steady state speed versus
load characteristics of generating unit.
➢ The ratio of speed deviation (Δω) or frequency deviation
(Δf) to change in valve/gate position (ΔY) or power output
(ΔP) is equal to ‘R’

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 66

 Speed-Load characteristics
• The parameter ‘R’ (-ve slope) is referred to as speed regulation or
droop (similar to voltage regulation), it can be expressed in percent as

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 67

 Speed-Load characteristics

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 68

 Load sharing between two synchronous
machines in parallel
• If two or more generators with drooping governor characteristics are
connected to a power system, there will be a unique frequency at which
they will share a load change

Fig. Load sharing by parallel units with drooping characteristics

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 69

 Load sharing between two synchronous
machines in parallel
• Consider two units with droop characteristics as shown in Fig.
• They are initially at nominal frequency f0, with outputs P1 and
P2
• When a load increase by ΔPL causes the units to slow down,
the governors increase output until they reach a new common
operating frequency, f’
• The amount of load picked up by each unit depends on the
droop characteristics
• If the percentage of regulation of the units are nearly equal, the
change in the outputs of each unit will be nearly in proportion
to its rating

17-Apr-21 Power System Operation and Control 70

 Load sharing between two
synchronous machine in parallel

Hence
1. Two 750 KW alternators operates in parallel. The speed
regulation of 1 set is 100% to 103% from full load to no load
and that of other is 100% to 104%. How will the two
alternators share a load of 1000 KW and at what load will
one machine cease to supply any portion of the load.

K K
2. Two turbo alternators are rated at 25 MW each. They are running
in parallel. The speed-load characteristics of the driving turbines
are such that the frequency of alternator 1 drops uniformly from
50 Hz on no load to 48 Hz on full load, and that of alternator 2
from 50 Hz to 48.5 Hz. (a) How will the two machines share a load
of 30 MW and find the bus-bar frequency at this load? (b)
Compare the maximum load that these two units can deliver
without overloading either of them
3. Two generators rated at 400 MW and 700 MW are running in
parallel. The droop characteristics of their governors are 3% and
4% respectively from no load to full load. Assuming that the
generators are operating at 50 Hz at no load, how would a load of
1000 MW be shared between them? What will be the system
frequency at this load? Assume free governor operation.

Solution:
• Assume B is negligible compared with 1/R, the frequency of
generator 1 drops from 50 Hz at no load to (50 – 4%) of 50 = 48 Hz
at its full load of 700 MW
• Similarly frequency of generator 2 drops from 50 Hz to (50 – 3%)
of 50 = 48.5 Hz when its load increases from no load to its full load
of 400 MW
4. Two generators rated at 120 MW and 250 MW are operating in
parallel. The governor settings on the machines are such that they
have 4 % and 3 % drops. Determine (i) the load taken by each
machine for a total load of 200 MW; (ii) the percentage no load
speed and rated output of machine 1 to be made by the speeder
motor if the machines are to share the load equally
 Types of Load Frequency Control
• Three methods are available for LFC of
interconnected systems
1. Flat Frequency Control
2. Flat Tie-line Control
3. Flat Tie-line with Frequency Bias Control
• The load on the tie line is measured by a thermal
converter which operates the tie line load recorder-
controller
• A knob on this controller sets the scheduled
amount of power transfer
1. Flat frequency control:
– Frequency is maintained constant
– There is no control on tie line power
2. Flat tie line load control:
– Tie line power is maintained constant irrespective
of load demands
– The increase in demands of an area is met by
increase in generation in that area
3. Tie line with Frequency bias control
• This is the most widely used method on large inter
connections
• Solid line yy represents flat frequency characteristic
(tie line load would change over wide limits)
• Line zz – flat tie line load characteristic (tie line load
constant)
• Line xx – actual characteristic (adjustable)
• Line aa – less drooping
• Line bb – parallel to line xx
• This method provides more flexibility for a wide
range of operating conditions
• In case of an isolated control area, ACE is the change in
area frequency which when used in integral control loop
forces the steady state frequency error to zero
• In a two area control, the steady state tie line power error
can be made zero by introducing another control loop (one
for each area)
• It integrates the incremental tie line power signal and feed
it back to the speed changer
• This is accomplished by a single integrating block by
redefining ACE as a linear combination of incremental
frequency and tie line power
• Thus for control area 1,
ACE1 = Ptie,1 + b1f1
Where, the constant b1 is called area frequency bias
• Similarly, for the control area 2
ACE2 = Ptie,2 + b2f2
• On taking Laplace transform,
ACE1(s) = Ptie,1(s) + b1f1(s)
ACE2(s) = Ptie,2(s) + b2f2(s)
• Combining the basic block diagrams of the two control
areas of single area LFC, with Pc1(s) and Pc2(s)
generated by integrals of respective ACEs, the complete
block diagram can be obtained as shown in Fig.
• Speed changer commands are
Pc1 = -KI1(Ptie,1 + b1f1) dt
Pc2 = -KI2(Ptie,2 + b2f2) dt
• The constants KI1 and KI2 are integrator gains
• The minus sign must be included, since each area should
increase its generation if either its frequency error or its tie
line power increment is negative
 State Variable Model
• The design of Automatic LFC has to fulfill many
objectives like fast response, stability, etc.
• The Optimum Linear Regulator (OLR) design meets
these objectives satisfactorily
• The design of OLR requires the ALFC equations to be
expressed in state variable form
• State variables are defined as the outputs of all blocks
having either an integrator or a time constant
• Fig. shows the block diagram of ALFC loop
• To simply the analysis the effect of reheat stage of
turbine is neglected
Pv(S)
• From Fig., we can write the following equations in frequency
domain (Assume KGKT = 1)

• We can rewrite the above equations as,

• When converted to time domain (Inverse LT),

• Let us define the control input, Pc = u and disturbance

factor, PD = P
• The state vector X consisting of state variables x1, x2 and x3
(Pv, PT and F) can be written as,

• When re-arranged and put in matrix form,

• In compact form, = AX + BU + CP (Standard State variable form)

• Block diagram of linear state variable model is shown in Fig.

C
C

• For a two area system, we have two control and disturbing

forces.
• The control forces are u1 and u2 and
• Disturbing forces are PD1 and PD2
 Frequency Control with DG
• Currently DG units do not contribute to frequency control.
• With increasing penetration of DG it will become necessary,
however, that they also contribute to frequency control.
• A significant part of the DG units are connected to the grid by
a power electronic converter.
• It is possible to implement additional control in this converter
to let the DG unit contribute to frequency control.
 Frequency Control with DG

• A significant part of the DG units will be connected to the grid with power
electronic converters, as shown in Figure.
• Some types of DG units supply a dc current (fuel cells, solar cells), which is
converted to ac by the converter.
• They are ‘inertia-less’ and have no direct relation between power and
frequency.
 Frequency Control with DG
• Other types of DG unit are based on machines (wind turbines,
micro turbines), but the converter decouples their rotational
speed from the grid frequency to make variable speed
operation possible.
• And therefore they also do not have the direct relation
between their inertia and the grid frequency.
• So, all these DG units will not contribute to the inertial
response.
• To make a contribution of DG units possible, they should be
able to increase their output power.