PSOC-Unit-IV UC & ED

UNIT IV
UNIT COMMITMENT AND

ECONOMIC DISPATCH
EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

Formulation of economic dispatch problem
I/O cost characterization
Incremental cost curve
Co-ordination equations without and with loss (No derivation

of loss coefficients)
Solution by direct method and λ-iteration method
Statement of unit commitment problem - Constraints
Unit commitment solution methods: Priority-list method
Forward dynamic programming
Unit commitment in deregulated environment

Formulation of Economic Dispatch Problem
• The main aim of economic dispatch problem is to minimize

the total cost of generating real power (production cost) at
various stations while satisfying the loads and the losses in
the transmission links
• For simplicity, only the thermal plants are considered
• But hydro plants operating in conjunction with the thermal
plants are also considered
• While there is negligible operating cost at a hydro plant, there
is a limitation of availability of water over a period of time
which must be used to save maximum fuel at the thermal
plants

Formulation of Economic Dispatch Problem
• To start with the economic factor in the power system

operation, the main focus is allocation of real power at
generator buses
• This problem can be partitioned into two sub-problems, viz.
optimum allocation (commitment) of generators at each
generating station at various station load levels and optimum
allocation of generation to each station for various system
load levels
• The first problem is called the “Unit Commitment (UC)”
problem and the second is called the “Economic Dispatch (ED)
or Load Scheduling (LS)” problem

I/O Cost Characterization
• The total generator operating cost includes fuel cost, cost of
transmission loss, labour and maintenance costs
• For simplicity, Fuel Cost is the only one considered to be
variable
• The fuel cost is meaningful in case of thermal and nuclear
stations, but for hydro stations, where the energy storage is
apparently free, it is not meaningful
• Cost of generation depends on the following Operating or
System Constraints
i. Equality constraint
ii. Inequality constraints

I/O Cost Characterization
• The Inequality constraints are further subdivided into
a) Generator constraints
b) Voltage constraints
c) Running space capacity constraints
d) Transformer tap settings
e) Transmission line constraints
f) Network security

Incremental Cost Curve
• The Input-output curve of a generating unit specifies the input
energy rate, Fi(PGi) (kcal/hr) or cost of fuel used per hour Ci (PGi)
(Rs/hr) as a function of generator power output Pgi (MW).

• The input-output curve can be determined
experimentally
• It is convenient to express the input-output curves
interms of input energy rate (kcal/hr) rather than fuel
cost per hour (Rs/hr) because fuel cost can change
monthly or daily
• In Fig. MWmin is the minimum loading limit below which
it is uneconomical (or may be technically infeasible) to
operate the unit and MWmax is the maximum output limit
• [NOTE: Power or Energy Units can be in Mega (M) or Kilo
(k) units]

Heat rate Curve
• Heat-rate curve Hi(PGi) is the heat energy (obtained by

combustion of fuel) in (Kcal) needed to generate one unit of
electric energy (KWhr), can be determined experimentally
• The generating unit is most efficient at the minimum heat-
rate which corresponds to a particular Pgi
• The heat-rate (and hence efficiency) varies with the output
power Pgi and the curve indicates the increase in the heat-rate
(or drop in efficiency) at low or high power limits
• The input-output curve can be obtained from the heat-rate
curve as
Fi(PGi) = PGiHi(PGi) (kcal/hr)
Where, Hi(Pgi) is the heat-rate in kcal/kWhr
• Let the cost of the fuel be ‘K’ Rs/kcal
• Then the input fuel-cost, Ci(PGi) is
Ci(PGi) = KFi(PGi) = KPGiHi(PGi) (Rs/hr)

• The heat-rate curve may be approximated in the form,
Hi(Pgi) =
(because the initial portion of curve decreases, reaches minimum point

and then increases)
• Where ai’, bi’, ci’ are positive coefficients
• Input energy rate,
• So, the input fuel-cost becomes,
→ (1)

• The slope of the fuel-cost curve, i.e. dCi(PGi)/dPGi is called the
Incremental Fuel Cost (IC),  and is expressed in Rs/MWh
• A typical plot of the IC vs Power output is shown in Fig.

The assumptions of incremental cost theory are:
➢ Input-output curves are continuous
➢ First derivative of input-output curves are also continuous
➢ The incremental rate increases with increase in input
• From eqn. (1) Ci(PGi) = ai PGi2 + bi PGi + ci Rs/hr
• Slope of the fuel-cost curve,  = dCi(PGi)/dPGi
= 2aiPGi + bi (Rs/MWh)
• This is a linear relationship (shown as dotted line in Fig.)
• The economic optimum load distribution is obtained when all
the generator units operate at the “equal incremental rate”

• The incremental cost curve for a thermal power plant is

• The input-output curve and incremental cost curve for hydro
power plant is


• The fuel-cost curve and the incremental cost curve may have
a number of discontinuities, as shown in Fig.
• The discontinuities occur when the output power has to be
extended by using additional boilers, steam condensers or
other equipments.
• Discontinuities also appear if the cost represents the
operation of an entire power station, so that the cost has
discontinuities on paralleling of generators
• Within the continuity range the IC may be expressed by a
number of short line segments (piecewise linearization)
• Alternatively, we can fit a polynomial of suitable degree to
represent the IC curve in the inverse form as,

Co-ordination Equations without Loss
Optimal division of load between Two machines:
• Let PT be the total output of the two machines
• The problem is to find the optimal division of load between
the two machines
• Let P1 = Power output of machine 1 (MW)
P2 = Power output of machine 2 (MW)
C1 = Fuel cost of machine 1 (Rs/hr)
C2 = Fuel cost of machine 2 (Rs/hr)
CT = Total Fuel cost (Rs/hr)

• If the losses in the transmission network are neglected
Total output, PT = P1 + P2
Total cost, C T = C1 + C2
• The total power output PT is equal to active power demand
and is constant
• It is desired to find the values of P1 and P2 such that CT is
minimum for a given value of PT
→ (1)

• As P1 = PT – P2
dP1 = -dP2 (since dPT = 0) → (2)
• For minimum total cost CT

→ (3)
• Substituting eqns. (2) and (3) in (1)
• Thus, the input or cost will be a minimum for a specified load

when the two units have the same incremental cost ()

Large no. of Units:
• Here the loads should be so allocated among the different
units that every unit operates at the same incremental cost
• For a plant with ‘k’ units
• Since total load PT is constant

• Our aim is to find P1, P2 ….. Pk such that CT is minimum
• The input or cost of a unit is dependent only on the output of
that unit

• This equation is satisfied only if each term is zero
• For n = 2, 3, ….., k
• Thus optimum economy is achieved if every unit operates at

the same incremental cost

1. The incremental cost in Rs./MWhr of two 250 MW units are
as under:
• The minimum load of each unit is 20 MW. Find the division

between the units as the total load varies from 40 MW to
500 MW

• Solution: When the total load is 40 MW, it will be shared

equally by the two units.
• The IC of unit 1: Rs.34/MWhr and that of unit 2: Rs.43/MWhr
• As load increases more load will be added to unit 1 till IC of
unit 1 also becomes Rs.43/MWhr.
• This will happen when load on unit 1 is 65 MW and total load
is 85 MW.
• After this, load division is calculated by assuming successively
higher values of IC and finding P1, P2 and the total load.
• The results are given in the table.

2 4

• When IC reaches a value of 77.5, unit 2 will supply its

maximum load of 250 MW
• At this point, unit 1 will supply 237.5 MW.
• After this unit 2 will continue to supply 250 MW and
the unit 1 will meet the remaining requirement.

Solution by Direct Method
1. Analytical Method
• Cost function, Ci = aiPGi2 + biPGi + ci
• Using equal incremental cost, find  = dCi/dPGi
= 2aiPGi + bi (Rs/MWhr)
• Substitute PGi in the power balance equation (without loss),

• Substitute  in PGi and obtain the optimal generation

2. Graphical Method
• In this method, the incremental cost of each generator is
plotted on the same graph as shown in fig.

• Various values of  (increase or decrease  line) are tried till
PGi = total load to be supplied (PD)

3. Iterative technique using the Gradient method
• Let f() = PD, expand using Taylor’s series,
• This process is continued until Pk  specified accuracy

Significance of Equality and Inequality
Constraints
Equality constraints:
• Significance: Total generation = Power demand

Inequality constraints:
• Since each generator must not be operated above its rating or
below some minimum value,
PGi,min  PGi  PGi, max for i = 1, 2,……………, N
• If a particular generator loading PGi reaches the limit PGi,min or
PGi,max, its loading from now on is held fixed at this value and the
balance load is then shared between the remaining generators on
equal incremental cost basis

Solution by -Iteration Method
without Loss
Case (i): Operating limits for power generation are not specified
• Step 1: Calculate  using
• Step 2: Compute PGi corresponding to  using
• Step 3: Compute

without Loss
• Step 4: Check the power balance equation,
• If the power balance equation is satisfied, then optimum

solution is obtained, otherwise go to the next step
• Step 5:

without Loss
• Case (ii) Operating limits for power generation and the
production cost function are given
• Step 1: Calculate  using
• Step 2: Compute Pgi corresponding to  using

without Loss
• Step 3: If the computed PGi satisfy the operating limits,
PGi,min  PGi  PGi, max for i = 1, 2,……………, N
then the optimum solution is obtained, otherwise go to the
next step
• Step 4: If PGi violates the operating limits, then fix the
generation at the respective limit
• Step 5: Re-distribute the remaining the system load PD

PD new = PD old - sum of the fixed generations

without Loss
• Step 6: Compute new using PD new and compute the remaining
generations using
• Step 7: Check whether the optimality condition is satisfied, i.e.,

without Loss
• If the condition is satisfied, then stop. Otherwise release the
generation schedule fixed at PGi,min or PGi, max of those units
not satisfying the optimality condition
• Include these units in the remaining units and modify the new
power demand (PD new)
and go to step (6)

PGi,min & PGi, max

1. The fuel cost of two units are given by,
F1 = 0.1 PG12 + 25PG1 + 1.6 Rs/hr
F2 = 0.1 PG22 + 32PG2 + 2.1 Rs/hr
If the total demand on the generators is 250 MW, find the
economic load scheduling of the two units

→ (1)
→ (2)

2. Determine the economic generation schedules of three
generating units in a power system to meet the system load
of 925 MW. The operating limit and cost function are given
below:
Operating limits 250 MW  PG1  450 MW
200 MW  PG2  350 MW
125 MW  PG3  225 MW
Cost function is F1 = 0.0045 PG12 + 5.2 PG1 + 580
F2 = 0.0056 PG22 + 4.5 PG2 + 640
F3 = 0.0079 PG32 + 5.8 PG3 + 820

→ (1)
→ (2)
→ (3)

3. Resolve the previous problem (2) and determine the
economic dispatch by changing the limit for the third unit is
180 MW  PG3  225 MW

→ (1)
→ (2)

4. The fuel inputs per hour of plants 1 and 2 are given as
F1 = 0.2 P12 + 40 P1 + 120 Rs/hr
F2 = 0.25 P22 + 30 P2 + 150 Rs/hr
Determine the economic operating schedule and the
corresponding cost of generation. The maximum and
minimum loading on each unit is 100 MW and 25 MW.
Assume the transmission losses are ignored and the total
demand is 180 MW. Also determine the saving obtained if the
load is equally shared by both the units.

= 88.8889 MW

Effect of Transmission Loss
• The optimum scheduling for different power stations situated
close to each other can be done without considering the
losses in the transmission network
• However the power stations are far from each other, the
economic scheduling must take transmission losses into
account
• Consider the system shown in Fig., two generating units have

identical incremental cost characteristics

Effect of Transmission Loss
• Neglecting the losses means that each unit should
supply half the load.
• However it is evident that if unit 2 supplies more
load, the transmission line would have to carry less
current resulting in lower transmission loss
• Thus the economic scheduling obtained by neglecting
the transmission loss may not be the most economic
arrangement in actual practice.

Coordination Equation with Loss
EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE → (1)

• For maximum objective function, differentiate equation (1)
with respect to PGi , and equate it to zero
d
d
d
d

d
IC – Incremental Fuel Cost
d
ITL – Incremental Transmission Loss
→ (2)
Where, Li = Penalty factor of plants =

• Equation (2) is called as exact coordination equation when
transmission losses are considered
• For optimum generation, plants causing lower ITL (or lower penalty
factor) may be allowed to operate with higher IC

Optimum Allocation of Generator
• Consider a two bus system shown in Fig.
• To include the effect of transmission losses in deciding the

load allocation, it is necessary to represent the loss as a
function of the plant loading.
• The general form of loss equation is
Where,
• PL = Transmission Losses in p.u.
• PG = Plant loading in p.u.
• B = Loss coefficients in p.u
• indicate independent summation to include all sources

• For a two generator source system (N = 2)
• For a three generator source system (N = 3)

• In matrix form
• Let the cost function be


• For optimum operating condition, coordination equation is
→ (1)
• Further we have equality constraint

→ (2)
• By solving equations (1) and (2), we get PG1 and PG2

• In general, for N bus system,
• Equality constraint is
• We have ‘N’ non-linear equations, the solution of which gives the

optimum generations PG1,PG2, ………….., PGN
Computational Approach for Optimum
Allocation of Generator
• Assume quadratic cost function,


• Power balance equation,
• Thus optimum generation is found by itertive method

Solution by -Iteration Method with Loss
• Step 1: Choose Lagrange multiplier  as  or (IC) (OR)
(Initial value of  is obtained by neglecting losses)

• Step 2: Assume PGj = 0, j = 1,2,………..,N (by neglecting losses)
• Step 3: Solve for PGi using

• Step 4: Check if any PGi is beyond or below the inequality

constraint PGi,min  PGi  PGi, max
• Step 5: Calculate transmission loss,
• Step 6: Check for power balance equation,

Value of PGi gives the optimum generation otherwise go to

next step
• Step 7: Increase  by , if
• or decrease  by , if
• Repeat from step (3), till the optimum solution is achieved

, N

1. A two bus system is shown in Fig. If 50 MW is transmitted
from plant 1 to the load, a transmission loss of 10 MW is
incurred. Find the required generation for each plant and
the power received by load when the system  is
Rs.22/MWhr. The cost function is given by,

• Since the load is at bus 2 alone, PG2 will not have any effect on
power loss, B22 = 0, B12 = B21 = 0
• Transmission loss will depend on PG1 only,

Aliter:
• Power generation is given by,

2. A system consists of two plants connected by a line as shown
in Fig. A load is at plant 1 and 180 MW is transmitted from
plant 2 to the load, a transmission loss of 18 MW is incurred.
Find the optimum schedule considering transmission losses
to supply a load of 200 MW. Also evaluate the amount of loss
that may be incurred, if at the time of scheduling, losses are
not coordinated. Fuel costs are given by,

• Since the load is connected at bus 1, the transmission loss will
depend on PG2, Let  = 1
i. Transmission losses are considered and coordinated:

• Iteration 1: Power generations are given by,

• Iteration 2:

• Iteration 3:

ii. Transmission losses are considered and NOT coordinated:
• Iteration 1:

• Iteration 2:

• Iteration 3:

3. For a two unit system, the loss coefficients are
Incremental cost of the two units are given by,
Find the optimal generations PG1 and PG2 for  = 20. Also
compute the transmission loss and received power.

Power generations are given by,
→ (1)
→ (2)

Assume initial generations, (since power transmitted to load is not given)
Iteration 1: Substitute PG2 = 100 in eqn.(1)
Substitute PG1 = 50 in eqn.(2)

Iteration 2: Substitute PG2 = 51.136 in eqn.(1)
Iteration 3:
Iteration 4:

From the results of iteration 3 and 4, we got the same values of PG1
and PG2
Since load demand is not given, need not to find P and check  < 1

4. The incremental costs of two units are:
Power loss is given by,
Determine the Optimum scheduling for a load demand of

100 MW

• Step 1: Determine  using,
• Step 2: Assume initial value of generations,
• Step 3: Using this initial generation, determine the generation

by iterative method

• From the equation of PL,
• Iteration 1:

• Repeating this until the previous and current (PGk = PGk-1)
generations are same
>1

• Iteration 2:
• Determine  and 

Base Point and Participation Factors
• The economic dispatch problem has to be solved repeatedly
by moving the generators from one economically optimum
schedule to another as the load changes
• We start from a schedule obtained from equal incremental
cost as base point.
• Next, the scheduler assumes a load change and investigates
how much each generating unit needs to be moved (i.e.,
participate in the load change) in order that the new load be
served at the most economic operating point.
• Assume that both the first and second derivatives in the cost
versus power output function are available (i.e., both Fi' and
Fi" exist)

• The incremental cost curve of the ith unit is given in Fig.

• As the unit load is changed by an amount Pi, the system
incremental cost moves from  to  + 
• For a small change in power output on the single unit,
→ (1)
• This is true for each of the N units on the system, so that

• Let PD be the total demand on the generation

• The total change in generation = Total change in demand

• Change in demand,
→ (2)
Participation Factor for each unit:

• Combining equations (1) and (2), we get the participation
factor as,

• Suppose PD increases to PD+PD, the new value of generation is
calculated using,
• Where, PD = Change in load demand

Pbase,i = Old value of generation
Advantages of using Participation Factor:
1. Computer implementation of economic dispatch is straight
forward.
2. Execution time for the economic dispatch is short
3. It will always give consistent answers when units reach limits.
4. It gives linear incremental cost functions or have non-convex cost
curves.

UNIT COMMITMENT
• The total load in any power system varies from instant to instant
• During certain time of the day the load is at peak value, during certain
times it is very low and during certain other times is it is at some
intermediate value
• It is not economical to run all the units available all the time.
• The load division between the generating units in operation is
determined from the principle of equal incremental costs.
• The topic of unit commitment deals with specifying the units which
should be operated for a given load (which units should be committed
to supply a given load)
• It is possible that it may be economical to decommit certain units when
load is low or when they are not needed.
• To commit a unit means to bring the boiler to the required operating
temperature, bring the turbine and generator to synchronous speed
and synchronise the generator to the system
Statement of Unit Commitment Problem
• To select the generating units that will supply the forecasted (estimated
load in advance) load of the system over a required period of time at
minimum cost as well as provide a specified margin of the operating
reserve (spinning reserve). This procedure is known as unit
commitment.
Unit Commitment (UC) problem may be stated as follows:
• Given: The expected system demand levels for the 24 hours and the
inflating, start-up and shut-down costs as well as constraints on
minimum up time/down time of the available N units.
• To determine: If N-generating units are available then (2N - I) number
of combinations will be obtained.
• From many feasible subsets, determine the subset of units that would
satisfy the expected demand at minimum operating cost.
• Loads vary from time to time, so determine all the 24 subsets to satisfy
the 24 consecutive hour demands per day.
Constraints in Unit Commitment
• Spinning Reserve
• Thermal Unit Constraints
– Minimum up time
– Minimum down time
– Crew constraint
• Other constraints
– Hydro constraint
– Must run constraint
– Fuel constraint

Spinning Reserve
• Spinning reserve is the total amount of generation available
from all units synchronized on to the system minus the
present load and losses being supplied.
• Spinning Reserve = {Total amount of generation} — [Present
load + Losses]
• Spinning reserve must be established, so that the loss of one
or more units does not cause drop in system frequency.
• Spinning reserve is the reserve generating capacity running at
zero load or no load.

Spinning Reserve
❑ Reserve Capacity:
• Capacity in excess of that required to carry peak load.
❑ Reserve Generating Capacity:
• The amount of power that can be produced at a given point in
time by generating units that are kept available in case of
special need
• This capacity may be used when unusually high power
demand occurs or when other generating units are off-line for
maintenance, repairs or refuelling.
• Reserve generating capacity include quick-start diesel or gas
turbine unit, or hydro units and pumped-storage hydro-units
that can be brought on-line, synchronized and brought up to
full capacity quickly.
Spinning Reserve
❑ Reserve Margin:
• The percentage of installed capacity exceeding the expected
peak demand during a specified period.
• Typical Rules for Spinning Reserve Set by Regional Reliability
Council:
➢ Reserve must be available for percentage of forecasted peak
demand.
➢ Reserve must be capable of making up the loss of the most
heavily loaded unit in a given period of time.
➢ Calculate reserve requirements as a function of the
probability of not having sufficient generation to meet the
load.

Thermal Unit Constraints
• A thermal unit can withstand only gradual temperature changes and is
required to take some hours to bring the unit on-line.
• For thermal plants, one hour is the smallest time period that should be
considered for unit commitment solution as the start-up and shut-
down time for many units are of this order.
• The thermal unit constraints are:
❑ Minimum up time:
• Once the unit is running it should not be turned off immediately.
❑ Minimum down time:
• Once the unit is decommitted, there is a minimum time before it can
be recommitted.
❑ Crew constraints:
• If a plant consists of two or more units, they cannot both be turned on
at the same time. Since there are not enough crew members to attend
both units while starting up.
Start-up cost:
• It is dependent upon the down-time of the unit i.e., the time interval
between shut-down and restart.
• Start-up cost = 0, if unit is stopped and started immediately.
a) Start-up cost when cooling: During down time period, the unit's
boiler has to cool down and then heat back up to operating
temperature in time for a scheduled turn on.
Start-up cost  Cooling of the unit
Start-up cost when cooling =
where Cc = Cold start cost
F = Fuel cost
Cf = Fixed cost (crew expenses, maintenance expenses)
 = Thermal time constant for the unit
t = Time in which the unit was cooled
b) Start-up cost when banking (Shut-down cost): During the
shut-down period, the boiler may be allowed to cool down
and thus no shut down cost will be incurred.
• Banking requires that sufficient energy be input to the boiler
to just maintain operating temperature and pressure.
• Start-up cost when banking =
where
Ct = Cost of maintaining unit at operating temperature.

• Fig. shows the start-up cost Vs time during cooling and banking period.
• Upto point 'p', cost of banking < Cost of cooling
• When the shut down cost is incurred, the unit may be said to be in hot-
reserve.
• Finally, the capacity limits of thermal units may change frequently, so
we must consider the thermal constraints for solving unit
commitment.
Other Constraints
❑ Hydro Constraints:
• Unit commitment problem involves only thermal units.
• In hydro-thermal scheduling, to allocate maximum hydro units during
rainy seasons and to allocate thermal units during remaining periods.
• We are not considering hydro units for unit commitment because
start-up and shunt-down time, operating costs are negligible.
• So we couldn't get the optimal solution.
❑ Must Run Constrains:
• Some units like nuclear units are given a must-run status during certain
times of the year to maintain the voltage in the transmission system.
❑ Fuel Constraints:
• If thermal and hydro sources are available, a combined operation is
economic and advantageous. i.e., to minimize the fuel cost of thermal
unit over a commitment period.

Unit Commitment Solution Methods
• For solving unit commitment problem the following points

are considered:
• To form loading pattern for M-periods using load curve.
• To determine the load dispatch for all feasible combination of
solutions for each load level and satisfying operating limits of
each units.
• Commit possible number of units to be operated to meet out
the load

1. Brute Force Technique or Simple Priority List Scheme
• In brute force technique, all possible combinations of the
units at each hour are tried, i.e.. [2n – 1] combinations.
• For M periods, number of combinations to try are [2n – 1]M
• Constraint: Enough units will be committed to supply the
load.
- Infeasible solution or to decommit some generating units
- Feasible solution or to commit some generating units

➢ For each feasible combination, the units will be dispatched using
coordination equation. But it is not possible to get an optimum
solution.
➢ Number of units are restricted to have better accuracy.
• For example, Consider three units to be operated,
• The optimum commitment is to run only one unit. i.e., the most
economic unit and that unit is operating closer to better efficiency
• As the load increases, commit two units that will be loaded from
their best efficiency points such that the total cost is more than that
of operating one unit alone. etc.
• This technique follows simple "peak-valley" pattern and the
corresponding unit commitment schedule is as shown in Fig.

• If the operation of the system is to be optimized, units must

be shut down as the load goes down and then recommitted
as it goes back up

2. Priority List Method Using Full Load Average
Production Cost (FLAPC)
• Priority list method is the simplest unit commitment solution
method which consists of creating a priority list of units.
• The priority list can be obtained by noting the full-load
average production cost of each unit.
• Full load average production cost = {Net heat rate at full load}
x Fuel cost

Assumptions:
• No load costs are zero.
• Unit input - output characteristics are linear between
zero output and full load.
• Start-up costs are a fixed amount.
• Ignore minimum up time and minimum down time.

Steps to be followed or Method of Solving
1. Determine the full load average production cost for each
units.
2. Form priority order based on average production cost,

(ascending order)
3. Commit number of units corresponding to the priority order.
4. Calculate PG1, PG2,..........,PGN from economic dispatch
problem for the feasible combinations only.

5. For the load curve, shown in Fig., each hour load is varying.
• Assume load is dropping or decreasing, determine whether
dropping the next unit will supply generation and spinning reserve.
• If not, continue as it is. If yes, go to next step.

6. Determine the number of hours H, before the unit will be
needed again.
7. Check H < Minimum shut down time. If yes, go to last step. If
not, go to next step.
8. Calculate two costs
➢ Sum of hourly production costs for the next H hours with the
unit up.
➢ Recalculate the same for the unit down + start up cost for
either cooling or banking.
• If the second case is less expensive, the unit should be on.
9. Repeat this procedure for the entire priority list

Merits
• No need to go for 'N' combinations.
• Take only one constraint.
• Ignore the minimum up time and minimum down time.
• Complication reduced.
Demerits
• Start-up cost are fixed amount.
• No load costs are not considered.

1. Determine priority list using full load average production cost
for the data given



• All the three units would be held on until the load reached 900 MW.
• Units 1 and 3 would be held on until the load reached 500 MW, then unit 1
dropped

2. From the previous problem, obtain optimum unit
commitment solution for the power demand of 800 MW
• Feasible combinations operating are: 1 and 3 units
1, 2 and 3 units
• Case (i): Units 1 and 3 are operating


• Case (ii): Units 1, 2 and 3 are operating

• Total fuel cost for the case (i) is less than that of the case (ii)
of feasible solution
• So when the system load level is 800 MW, it is preferable to
keep units 1 and 3 running

Forward Dynamic Programming Approach
• One could set up a DP algorithm to run backward in time starting
from the final hour to be studied back to the initial hour.
• Conversely, one could set up the algorithm to run forward in time
from the initial hour to the final hour.
• The forward approach has distinct advantages in solving generator
unit commitment.
• For example, if the start-up cost of a unit is a function of the time it
has been off-line (i.e., its temperature), then a forward DP
approach is more suitable since the previous history of the unit can
be computed at each stage.
• There are other practical reasons for going forward.
• The initial conditions are easily specified and the computations can
go forward in time as long as required

Assumptions:
• Total number of units available, their individual cost
characteristics and the load cycle on the station are assumed
priori (previously).
• A state consists of an array of units with specified units
operating and the rest off-line
• The start-up cost of a unit is independent of the time it has
been off-line (i.e., fixed amount).
• There are no costs for shutting down a unit.
• There is a strict priority order and in each interval a specified
minimum amount of capacity must be operating.

Advantages:
• Algorithm to run forward in time from the initial hour to the
final hour.
• Forward dynamic programming is suitable if the start-up cost
of a unit is a function of the time it has been off-line (i.e.,
fixed amount).
• Previous history of the unit can be computed at each stage.
• Reduction in the dimensionality of the problem, i.e., number
combinations to be tried are reduced in number
• Initial conditions are easily specified

Algorithm
• For a load cycle, at each load level, the algorithm is to run
either of the units or both units with a certain load sharing.
• Determine the most economical cost curve of a single
equivalent unit.
• Then add the third unit and repeat the steps.
• The process is repeated until all the units are added.
• Determine the possible number of combinations and
determine the economic dispatch and total cost.

• The recursive algorithm to compute the minimum cost in hour K

with combination I is:
•
• Where
Fcost (K, I) = Least total cost to arrive at state (K, I)
Pcost (K, I) = Production cost for state (K, I)
Scost (K-1, L: K, I) = Transition cost from state (K-1, L) to state (K, I)
State (K, I) is the Ith combination in hour K
L = “N” feasible states in interval K — 1.

Flow Chart

• For the forward DP approach, we define a strategy as the transition,
or path, from one state at a given hour to a state at the next hour.
• Note that two new variables, X and N, have been introduced in the
flow chart
• X = number of states to search each period
• N = number of strategies, or paths, to save at each step
• These variables allow control of the computational effort
• For complete enumeration, the maximum number of the value of X
or N is 2n − 1.
• For example, with a priority list ordering, reducing the number N by
discarding the highest cost schedules at each time interval and
saving only the lowest N paths or strategies

Flow Chart

Unit Commitment in Deregulated
Environment
• Deregulation is the process of unbundling Generation, Transmission
and Distribution.
• They are named as generating companies (GENCO’s), transmission
companies (TRANSCO’s) and distribution companies (DISCO’s).
• The GENCO’s is an owner-operator of one or more generators that
runs them and bids the power into the competitive market.
• TRANSCO’s is those entities which own and operate the
transmission lines. Their prime responsibility is to transmit
electricity from the generators to customers.
• The DISCO’s are usually those entities owning and operating the
local distribution network in a region and supply electricity to the
end customers.

Unit commitment in deregulated
environment
• Deregulation in power sector increases the efficiency of electricity
production and distribution, offer lower prices, higher quality, a
secure and a more reliable product.
• The main difference between the traditional UC and deregulated
UC model is the demand constraint.
• In traditional UC, it is necessary to meet the demand, whereas in
deregulated environment it is not mandatory to meet the demand
by the utilities.
• In the deregulated environment, UC refers to optimizing generation
resources in order to maximize the profit.
• More number of units are committed when the market price is
higher.
• When more number of generating units are brought online more
power is generated and participated in the deregulated market to
get maximum profit.

PSOC-Unit-IV UC &amp; ED

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

PSOC-Unit-IV UC &amp; ED

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIT IV

UNIT COMMITMENT AND

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

I/O cost characterization

Incremental cost curve

Co-ordination equations without and with loss (No derivation

Solution by direct method and λ-iteration method

Statement of unit commitment problem - Constraints

Unit commitment solution methods: Priority-list method

Forward dynamic programming

Unit commitment in deregulated environment

• The main aim of economic dispatch problem is to minimize

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

• To start with the economic factor in the power system

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

• Heat-rate curve Hi(PGi) is the heat energy (obtained by

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

(because the initial portion of curve decreases, reaches minimum point

• So, the input fuel-cost becomes,

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

• For minimum total cost CT

• Substituting eqns. (2) and (3) in (1)

• Thus, the input or cost will be a minimum for a specified load

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

• Since total load PT is constant

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

• Thus optimum economy is achieved if every unit operates at

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

• The minimum load of each unit is 20 MW. Find the division

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

• Solution: When the total load is 40 MW, it will be shared

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

• When IC reaches a value of 77.5, unit 2 will supply its

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

• Substitute PGi in the power balance equation (without loss),

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

• Substitute  in PGi and obtain the optimal generation

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

• This process is continued until Pk  specified accuracy

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

• Significance: Total generation = Power demand

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

• Step 2: Compute PGi corresponding to  using

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

• If the power balance equation is satisfied, then optimum

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

• Step 2: Compute Pgi corresponding to  using

EE16601-PSOC VENKATESAN C AP/EE/SVCE

PSOC-Unit-IV UC & ED

PSOC-Unit-IV UC & ED