UNIT -5

Short Questions
1. What is the main difference between load frequency control and
economic load dispatch control?

Ans: The load frequency controller provides a fast-acting control and

regulates the system around an operating point, whereas the EDC provides
a slow-acting control, which adjusts the speed-changer settings every minute
in accordance with a command signal generated by the CEDC.
2. What is the necessity of maintaining frequency of the system
constant?
Ans: Constant frequency is to be maintained for the following functions:
 All the AC motors should be given constant frequency supply so
as to maintain the speed constant.
 In continuous process industry, it affects the operation of the
process itself.
 For synchronous operation of various units in the power system
network, it is necessary to maintain the frequency constant.
 Frequency affects the amount of power transmitted through
interconnecting lines.

3. What is the importance of load frequency control?

Ans: The load-frequency control (LFC) is used to restore the balance between
load and generation in each control area by means of speed control. The main
goal of LFC is to minimize the transient deviations and steady state error to
zero in advance.

4. What is meant by a control area?

Ans: Control Area: It is possible to divide a very large power system into sub-
areas in which all the generators are tightly coupled such that they swing in
unison with change in load or due to a speed-changer setting. Such an area,
where all the generators are running coherently, is termed the control area.
5. What is meant by area control error?
Ans: The area control error (ACE) is the change in area frequency, which when
used in an integral-control loop forces the steady- state frequency error to
zero.
 6. What is meant by single-area power system?

Ans: A single area is a coherent area in which all the generators swing in
unison to the changes in load or speed-changer settings and in which the
frequency is assumed to be constant throughout both in static and dynamic
conditions. This single control area can be represented by an isolated power
system consisting of a turbine, its speed governor, generator, and load.
7. What is meant by dynamic response in LFC?

Ans: The meaning of dynamic response is how the frequency changes as a

function of time immediately after disturbance before it reaches the new
steady-state condition.

8. What is meant by tie-line bias control?

Ans: The tie-line bias control (TBC) method has been widely used in the load
frequency control (LFC) of multi-area interconnected systems. However, it
should be questioned whether the conventional TBC can still apply to LFC
when considering the complication of structures of power systems. LFC, in
essence, is to stabilize system frequency/tie-line power by controlling
controlled outputs’ area control error (ACE).

9. What is the main difference of ACE in single area and two area LFC
systems?

Ans: In a single-area case, ACE is the change in frequency. The steady- state
error in frequency will become zero (i.e., Δf = 0) when ACE is used in an
integral-control loop.
In a two-area case, ACE is the linear combination of the change in
frequency and change in tie-line power. In this case to make the steady-
state tie-line power zero (i.e., ΔPTL = 0), another integral-control loop for

each area must be introduced in addition to the integral frequency loop to

integrate the incremental tie-line power signal and feed it back to the speed-
changer.
10. What is the function of PI controller in LFC system?
Ans: To keep the frequency constant Proportional plus Integral (P-I) controller
is used which controls the turbines used for tuning the generators and also
the steady state error of systems frequency is reduced by tuning the controller
gains.
Long Questions:
1. Obtain Block Diagram Representation of Load Frequency Control of an
Isolated Power System
Ans: Single Area Load Frequency Control of isolated system Load
Frequency Control:
Let us consider the problem of controlling the power output of the
generators of a closely knit electric area so as to maintain the scheduled
frequency. All the generators in such an area constitute a coherent group
so that all the generators speed up and slow down together maintaining
their relative power angles. Such an area is defined as a control area. The
boundaries of a control area will generally coincide with that of an
individual Electricity Board Company. To understand the load frequency
control problem,
Let us consider a single turbo-generator system supplying an isolated
load.
(i) Model of (Flyball) Speed Governing System

Fig: Turbine speed governing system

Fly ball Speed governor: This is the heart of the system which senses the
change in speed (frequency). As the speed increases the fly balls move
outwards and the point B on linkage mechanism moves downwards. The
reverse happens when the speed decreases.

Hydraulic amplifier: It comprises a pilot valve and main piston Low power
level pilot valve movement is converted into high power level piston valve
movement. This is necessary in order to open or close the steam valve against
high pressure steam.

Linkage mechanism: ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B and CDE is another

rigid link pivoted at D. This link mechanism provides a movement to the
control valve in proportion to change in speed. It also provides a feedback
from the steam valve movement (link 4).

Speed changer: It provides a steady state power output setting for the
turbine. Its downward movement opens the upper pilot valve so that more
steam is admitted to the turbine under steady conditions (hence more steady
power output). The reverse happens for upward movement of speed changer.

Assume that the system is initially operating under steady conditions—

the linkage mechanism stationary and pilot valve closed, steam valve opened
by a definite magnitude, turbine running at constant speed with turbine
power output balancing the generator load. Let the operating conditions be
characterized by

We shall obtain a linear incremental model around these operating

conditions. Let the point A on the linkage mechanism be moved downwards
by a small amount YA. It is a command which causes the turbine power
output to change and can therefore be written as
 Where PC is the commanded increase in power. The command signal
PC (i.e.  E y ) sets into motion a sequence of events—the pilot valve moves
upwards, high pressure oil flows on to the top of the main piston moving it
downwards; the steam valve opening consequently increases, the turbine
generator speed increases, i.e. the frequency goes up. Let us model these
events mathematically

Mathematical expression for displacement of link at point C

Two factors contribute to the movement of C:

Mathematical expression for displacement of link at point E

The movement yD depending upon its sign opens one of the ports of the
pilot valve admitting high pressure oil into the cylinder thereby moving the
main piston and opening the steam valve by yE.

Certain justifiable simplifying assumptions, which can be made at this stage,

are:

• Inertial reaction forces of main piston and steam valve are negligible
compared to the forces exerted on the piston by high pressure oil.

• Because of above, the rate of oil admitted to the cylinder is proportional to

port opening yD.
 The volume of oil admitted to the cylinder is thus proportional to the
time integral of yD, The movement yE is obtained by dividing the oil volume
by the area of the cross-section of the piston. Thus

It can be verified from the schematic diagram that a positive movement

yD causes negative (upward) movement yE accounting for the negative sign
used in Eq. (4.4).

Taking the Laplace transform of Eqs. (4.2), (4.3) and (4.4), we get

Eliminating yC(s) and yD(s ), we can write

Equation (4.8) is represented in the form of a block diagram in Fig. 4.3.

(ii) Turbine Model Let us now relate the dynamic response of a steam turbine
in terms of changes in power output to changes in steam valve opening yE.
Figure 4.4a shows a two-stage steam turbine with a reheat unit.

The dynamic response is largely influenced by two factors,

(i) entrained steam between the inlet steam valve and first stage of the
turbine,
(ii) The storage action in the reheater which causes the output of the low-
pressure stage to lag behind that of the high pressure stage. Thus, the
turbine transfer function is characterized by two time constants. For
ease of analysis it will be assumed here that the turbine can be modelled
to have a single equivalent time constant. Figure 4.4b shows the
transfer function model of a steam turbine. Typically, the time constant
Tt lies in the range 0.2 to 2.5 sec.
(iii) Generator-Load Model The increment in power input to the generator-
load system is PG −PD, where PG = Pt incremental turbine power output
(assuming generator incremental loss to be negligible) and PD is the load
increment.

----------------- 4.9

Equation (4.9) can be represented in block diagram form as in Fig. 4.5

Complete Block Diagram Representation of Load Frequency Control of

an Isolated Power System

A complete block diagram representation of an isolated power system

comprising turbine, generator, governor and load is easily obtained by
combining the block diagrams of individual components, i.e. by combining
Figs. 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5. The complete block diagram with feedback loop is
shown in Fig. 4.6
2. Show that the steady change in frequency in load frequency control of
an isolated power can be reduced to zero if the change in controlling
force applied to the speed changer is equal to the change in load
demand. (or)
For a single area system, show that the static error in frequency can
be reduced to zero using frequency controller with neat block diagram.
Ans: The model of Fig. 4.6 shows that there are two important incremental inputs
to the load frequency control system - PC, the change in speed changer setting;
and PD, the change in load demand.
 The above equation gives the steady state changes in frequency caused
by changes in load demand. Speed regulation R is naturally so adjusted that
changes in frequency are small (of the order of 5% from no load to full load).
3. Explain proportional plus integral load frequency control of a single
area system with a neat block diagram. (or)
For a single area system, show that the static error in frequency can
be reduced to zero for single area load frequency control with integral
control. (or)
Obtain an expression for steady state response of a load frequency
controller with integral control.

Ans: Consider the block diagram representation of isolated power system

as shown in below fig.

The gain ksg is adjusted such that the product of ksg kt 1

The integral control is composed of a frequency sensor and an

integrator. The frequency sensor measures the frequency error (F) and this
error signal is fed into the integrator. The input to the integrator is known
as “Area Control Error (ACE)”. i.e., ACE = F
 The ACE is the change in area frequency error used in an integral
control loop results the steady state frequency error reduces to zero.
The frequency sensor and integrator are connected in the system
such that a closed loop control is obtained as shown in Fig(iii)

The following assumptions are made to obtain a simplified steady

state response.
 The time constant of speed governing system (sg) & turbine time constant
(t) are neglected i.e., (sgt ) = 0
 The speed changer is an electro-mechanical device and its response is not
instantaneous. however, it is assumed to be instantaneous during the
analysis.
 All non-linearity’s in the equipment are neglected.
 The generator can change its generation (Pg ) as fast as demanded by the
speed changer.
 The area control error (ACE) is assumed to be a continuous signal.

From Fig (iii) The change in power generation is given by

From Fig(ii), the change in frequency is

Substituting eq (4) in eq (5)

Substituting eq (3) in eq (6)

From Eq 10 it is observed that the steady state frequency error has been
reduced to zero with integral controller.
4. Develop the mathematical model of the change in tie-line power and
frequency of two area LFC system with block diagram. (or)
Derive the expression for change in static error frequency and tie line
power in an identical two area LFC system with block diagram.

Ans: Block diagram representation of two-area load frequency control Consider two-
area system connected by a single tie-line as shown in the Fig(i)

The control objective is to regulate the frequency of each area and

simultaneously regulate the power flow through the tie-line according to an
inter area power agreement. It is assumed that each control area is
represented by an equivalent speed governor system, turbine and
generatorload model.

In case of single control area, the incremental power (Pg −  Pd) is

accounted for the rate of increase of stored kinetic energy and increase in area
load caused by the increase in frequency.

In two area case, the tie-line power must be accounted for the incremental
power balance equation of each area, since there is a power flow in or out of
the area through the tie-line. Let

If there is a change in load demand of two areas, there will be incremental

changes in power angles (1, 2) , then, the change in tie-line power can be
expressed as
 The complete block diagram of two-area load frequency control is obtained
by combining individual block diagrams of speed governor system, turbine
model and the block diagram of Fig(2), Fig(3) & Fig(4) is shown in Fig(5).

5. Explain the importance of tie-line bias control with necessary

expressions.

Ans: The speed-changer command signals will be obtained from the block
diagram shown in Fig.(5) as

The constants KI1 and KI2 are the gains of the integrators. The first
terms on the right-hand side of Equations (1) and (2) constitute and are
known as tie-line bias controls. It is observed that for decreases in both
frequency and tie-line power, the speed-changer position decreases and
hence the power generation should decrease, i.e., if the ACE is negative,
then the area should increase its generation. So, the right-hand side terms
of Equations (1) and (2) are assigned a negative sign.