Plumbing

An art and science of creating and maintaining sanitary condition in building used by
human.
Art and science of installing, repairing and servicing pipes, fixtures and appurtenances
necessary for bringing in the water supply and removing liquid and water borne wastes.

History
Date Events
2500 B.C. Egyptians Pyramid contains toilet, consisting of basin with lead
stopper attached to a brass ring

2000 B.C. Water closet in India: Bathing facilities in Mohenjo – daro

1770-1440 B.C. Bathing facilities in royal palace of Knossos in Crete, Greece

1055 B.C. Israelites bury waste under earth or sand

900 B.C. King Minos of Crete has flush toilet with wooden seat

144 & 310 B.C. Romans, Aqua Appia- an underground aqueduct

206 B.C. - 24 A.D Han Dynasty king uses toilet with running water, stone seat and
arm rest. China claims invention of toilet paper

2nd Century B.C. Earliest known Roman Baths are the Stabian baths at Pompeii.

1596 Sir John Harrington invents a flushing toilet for Queen

Elizabeth I

16th Century Fall of medieval bath due to Syphilis

17th Century First plumbing law in London

1775 - 1778 In England, a flush toilet was re-invented by Alexander

Cummings, improved by Joseph Bramah and manufactured by
Thomas Crapper

18th Century France used plumbing in water service facilities; Filipino

plumber were trained

19th Century Arrival of Americans to control the infectious disease that

engulfed the island

1902 Plumbing trade was duly recognized by the government; John

F. Hass - Master Plumber first chief of the Division of
Plumbing Construction & Inspection of Manila.
 1935 NAMDAP – The Plumbing Code for the City of Manila

1940’s Toilet was considered as luxury

1955 Approval of R.A. 1378 – Plumbing Law of the Philippines

1959 National Plumbing Code of the Philippines

1966-1969 Curriculum for Plumbing Engineer

1967 Amendment of NPCP- Asbestos-cement pipe as approved

plumbing material.

1970’s French developed public super loos

1972 National Building Code of the Philippines was passed with

National Plumbing Code of 1959 as referral

1999 Revised Plumbing Code of 1999 approved by President Joseph

Estrada

21st Century Japanese companies are developing toilets.

Principles of plumbing
1. To provide adequate supply water to different parts of the building.
2. All plumbing fixtures, devices and appurtenances should function satisfactorily under
normal conditions of use.
3. Must be design to use the minimum amount of water in utilization and cleaning.
4. Plumbing devices for heating and storage must be design to prevent danger cleaning.
5. All plumbing fixtures shall be connected to a sewer system.
6. Each dwelling unit shall be provided with one water closet and one kitchen sink
connected to a sewer system.
7. Plumbing fixtures must be made of non-absorbent materials and with ventilated
enclosure.
8. Drainage system must be designed and maintained to avoid clogging and foul odor.
Adequate clean-out must be provided.
9. All plumbing materials must be NAMPAP approved.
10. All fixtures must be equipped with water-sealed trap.
11. All drainage piping must be design with proper ventilation to avoid siphonage and
aspiration of trap seal.
12. Vent should be terminated outside the building to avoid the return of foul air.
13. Plumbing system should be tested to ensure its efficiency and to check defects in
workmanship.
14. No substance with explosive mixtures shall be allowed to enter the building drainage
system.
 15. Protection and precautionary measures should be done to avoid contamination of
sewer to food, water, sterile goods and similar materials.
16. Water closet must be located in a room with proper light and ventilation.
17. Water closet and other plumbing fixtures must be disposed to sewer lines or any
acceptable method of sewer treatment and disposal such a septic tank.
18. Plumbing drainage should be design to prevent the overflow within the building.
19. Plumbing system should be maintained by Registered Master Plumber.
20. All plumbing fixtures should be space properly to promote its accessibility especially
during repair and maintenance.
21. Plumbing system should be installed without compromising the strength of structural
system of the building.
22. Untreated sewerage should not be disposed directly on the ground. Acceptable
treatment should be provided within the system.
Plumbing materials
Cast Iron Pipe (C.I.)
Fabricated from alloy containing carbon and silicon.
Type: SV – general building use
XV – heavy duty (underground install)
Varieties:
a) Standard pipe
b) Single hub (SH)
c) Double hub (DH)
d) Hubless
Acid Resistant, Cast Iron Pipe
 Usually use in chemical laboratory
Asbestos Pipe
 Made up of asbestos fiber and Portland cement
 2x thickness of cast iron pipe
 Use for soil, waste and downspout
Bituminous Fiber Sewer Pipe
 Cheapest of all pipes
 Use for sewer and septic tank installation
Vitrified Clay Pipe
 Oldest plumbing materials for sewer lining
 Resistant to acid
 Use for underground installation
Lead Pipe
 Oldest plumbing materials used by Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans
 Use for soil and waste pipe
Galvanized Steel Pipe
 Lifespan between 15-25 years
  Can be corroded by alkaline and acid water
Galvanized Wrought Iron Pipe
 Better than steel pipes
 More resistant to acid
Brass Pipe
 Most expensive of all types of pipes
 High resistance to acid
Copper Pipe
 Easy to install
 Corrosive resistant
 Use for drain, vent, heating and cold water supply line
3 Types:
K- Heaviest
L- Lighter (rigid and Flexible)
M- thinnest (rigid)
Plastic/ Synthetic Pipe
 Developed in Germany during 1935
 Lifespan of 50 years under normal condition
 Introduced in the Philippines during 1970’s
Types:
A. Rigid
 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
 Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride
 Unplasticized Butadiene Styrene
 Polypropylene (PP)
 Styrene Rubber Plastic
B. Flexible
 Polythylene
 Polybutylene
MODULE 1

PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICITY

A) History

History of Industrial revolution and the Mechanical / Electrical technology:

The Industrial revolution is a revolution from handmade to production assembly. It is an

increase in production brought about by the use of machines and characterized by the use of

new technology.

Though during the same era, not only in Europe were industrial revolution took place, China

was even earlier with the invent of paper, fire cracker / first fire arms and India with the

mathematical symbols and equations, still Europe were more superior in terms of Science and

Technology.

Advantages of European and why it has the cradle of Industrial revolution:

Disadvantages:

Industrial revolution can be divided into 2 parts. 18th century was the First Industrial

Revolution that took place in Europe and the Second Industrial Revolution in the 19th

century that took place to the new found land, United State of America.

The second industrial revolution may be tracked through the works and perseverance of the

great moguls and pillars that built the America today. Their records may have not been that

nice and they built their empires to the back of inhumane labor practices, still they have been

the prime movers and players of the second industrial revolution.

• Andrew Carnegie

• John Rockefeller

• John Pierpont Morgan (J.P. Morgan)

Chicago World Fair – The Columbian Exposition 1893 – The White City

• Thomas Edison

• Nikola Tesla

B) Electricity

Form of energy generated by friction, induction or chemical change, having magnetic or radiant

effect

 Modern electron theory states that “The fundamental nature of all matter is electrical”.

 Electrons in motion.

It is a property of the basic particle of matter

 Proton

 Electron

 Neutron

William Gilbert is the Father of Electricity describes “electrification of many matters”.

C) Electricity found in Nature

 Lightning

 Galvanic cells (pipe corrosion)

  Static Discharge (electric charge at rest)

 Electromagnetic radiation from the sun

D) Production of Electricity

 Turbines and generators are basic components that generates electricity.

 Turbine is a rotary engine that changes the force of water, fuel and wind into mechanical

energy capable of rotating that shaft which is connected to a generator.

 A generator is a machine used to change the mechanical energy into electrical energy.

 Turbines that produces mechanical energy:

a) Water-driven turbines – run through water force

b) Steam-driven turbines –heat energy into mechanical energy through steam

c) Nuclear-reactor turbines

Other electrical producing equipment:

a) Internal combustion engines (ICE) – identical to engine of automobile which the shaft rotates

to produce electricity. Invented by Rudolf Diesel which diesel engine was named after him.

b) Wind turbine - converts the power of wind into electrical power. It requires 10 mile per hour

wind to operate properly.

c) Solar Photovoltaic cells - sun’s power to produce electricity by means of silicon wafer with

small amount of arsenic. The wafer is treated with boron gas. The contact between wafer and

modified gas zone produces voltage which flows by the action of sunlight. These are connected

to batteries to store the energy.

E) Electric Current
a. Ions

b. Volt/Voltage

c. Ampere

d. Watt

e. Resistance (in ohms)

f. Impedance (in ohms)

g. Electric Current can be classified as:

F) Electric Energy

i. Direct Current (DC)

"DC flows in one direction, from negative to positive”

"DC is produced by a DC generator and is utilized for special equipment requiring exact

revolutions per minute (RPM) for proper operation.”

"Small quantities are produced by batteries or by rectifiers.”

Usually used for emergency lighting, communications, signals and control equipment etc. such

as elevators, rapid transit propulsion system, vehicles, electro chemical processing, printing

press drives, electro plating, motors and compressors in HVAC/

Frequency 0 hertz, voltage is constant

Proponent of DC Electricity is Thomas Edison

Watts
ii. Alternating Current (AC)

Reverses its direction of flow

Found in transmission lines

Frequency in cycles per second (hertz)

AC is produced by an Ac generator which commonly referred to as an alternator.

Advocator of AC Electricity is George Westinghouse

Alternating current reverses its polarity and reverses its direction of flow on each alternation

Increase voltage has low power loss, lower voltage drop, and more economical to construct

Watts

Power factor (simply pf)

G) OHM’s Law

 George Simon Ohm – German Scientist in 1926 who discovered the relationship

between the current, voltage and resistance.

 Ohm’s Law States that “when a current (I) flows through a circuit with given resistance

(R) is directly proportional to voltage (V)”.

Power (unit Watt)

 Power is the time rate for doing work or the rate at which energy is used.

 In English system the units of power are:

Watt

 The unit of power is watt, named after James Watt.

 Watt is when 1 ampere is flowing under the force of 1 volt and expressed in watts (W).

 For electrical devices such as heater, toaster, incandescent lights etc.

 For power equipment for calculations of power (W) DC differs from AC:

Power Factor

 Power factor angles of any equipment vary from 0° to 90° lagging or leading, causing

reduction in percentage of power used.

 The equipment with high PF is more efficient and more costly.

 The equipment with low PF is less efficient and less costly.

Measurement of Electrical Energy

 The amount of electrical energy used is proportional to the power (W) used in building

and the duration of time consumed.

Electrical energy used = power (W) x time (h)

 Unit of energy is watt-hour (Wh) or kilowatt-hour (kWh)

H) Batteries

 Peter von Musschenbroek in 1774 invented the Leyden-Jar, which stored static

electricity.

 William Watson discharged a Leyden-Jar through a circuit, and the comprehension of

the current and circuit started a new experimentation.

  When two different metals such a zinc and copper are placed in a container with salt,

water or diluted sulfuric acid, a current is caused to flow between the electrodes.

There are four types of batteries today:

a.) Dry-cell batteries – are group of dry cell batteries connected to act as source.

“A” batteries provides 1.5 to 12 volts

“B” batteries provides 6 to 12 volts

“C” batteries provides 1.5 volts

b.) Storage Batteries (wet-cell) – each cell contains a number of alternately positive and

negative plates separated by liquid electrolyte of sulfuric acid solution.

c) Edison cell batteries (wet-cell) – has nickel oxide positive plate and and iron negative plate

suspended in a solution of potassium and lithium hydroxides. It has longer effective life and

the capacity to withstand abuse. It is used mostly in railroads.

d) Solar Batteries – used to store the electromagnetic radiation from solar cell.

I) Series and Parallel Circuit

Series Circuit – a single path exist to current flow

V total = V1 + V2 + V3

R total = R1 + R2 + R3

Parallel Circuit – multiple connections where loads are placed with the same voltage thus create

as separate circuit.
Left: Series / Right: Parallel

Arrows indicate direction of current. The red bars represent the voltage as it drops in the series

circuit. The red bars in the parallel circuit do not drop because the voltage across each element

in a parallel circuit is the same.

J) Volt Transformation

 Transformer is a static device, consisting essentially of two unconnected, insulated

coils, called primary terminal and secondary terminal, wound around a hollow core of

laminated iron.

 Volt-ampere always enters into primary terminal and exits from secondary terminal.

 Transformers are used only for alternating current or AC.

 A transformer is a device which transforms or inducts AC of one voltage to AC of

another voltage.

 When a transformer increases voltage it is called step-up transformer.

 When a transformer decreases the voltage it is called a step-down transformer.

 The voltage appearing on each terminal has a direct proportion to the number of

windings turns.

 Classified as indoor or outdoor type.

 Transformer are specified as follows:

K) Voltage, Power and Energy

MODULE 2

ELECTRICAL TERMS

Access Fitting – is a fitting that permits access to conductor or enclosed wiring, elsewhere than

at an outlet.

Active Electrical Network – is a network that contains one or more sources of electrical

energy.

Admittance – it is the reciprocal of impedance.

Air Circuit Breaker – a circuit breaker in which the interruption occurs in air.

Air Switch – a switch in which the interruption of the circuit occurs in air.

Air-Blast Transformer – a transformer cooled by force circulation air through its core and

coil.

Alive – electrically connected to a source of emf, electrically charged with a potential different

from that of the earth. Also: Practical synonym for current-carrying

Alternating Current – a periodic current, the average value of which over a period is zero.

Alternator – (Synchronous Generator, a synchronous alternating-current machine, which

changes mechanical power into electrical power.

Ammeter – an instrument for measuring electrical current.

Ampacity – current currying capacity.

Ampere – a charge flow of one coulomb per second.

Annunciator – an electromeagnetically operated signaling apparatus, which indicated whether

a current is flowing or has flowed in one or more circuits.

Apparent Power – in a single phase, two wire circuit, the product of the effective current in

one conductor multiplied by the effective voltage between the two points of entry.

Appliance – current-consuming equipment, fixed or portable such as heating or motor operated

equipment.

Armor Clamp - a fitting for gripping the armor of a cable at the point where the armor

terminates, or where the cable enters a junction box or other apparatus.

Armored Cable – a cable provided with a wrapping of metal, usually steel wires, primarily

for the purpose the mechanical protection.

Arrester, Lighting – a device which reduces the voltage of a surge applied to its terminals and

restores itself to its original operating condition.

Autotransformer - a transformer in which part of the winding is common to both the primary

and secondary circuit.

B X Cable – trade name for armored cable made by General Electric Co. commonly used to

refer to armored cable.

Back Connected Switch – a switch in which the current- carrying conductors are connected

to studs in back of the mounting base.

Bidirectional Current - a current that has both positive and negative values.

Bond, Cable – an electric connection across a joint in the armor or lead sheath of a cable, or

between the armor or sheath to ground, or between the armor or sheath of adjacent cables.
Box, Conduit – a metal box adapted for connection to conduit for connection for installation

of wiring making connections, or mounting devices.

Box, Junction (Interior Wiring) – a metal box with blank cover for joining runs of conduit,

electrical metallic tubing, wire-way or raceway, and providing space for connection and

branching of enclosed conductors.

Box, Junction – an enclose distribution panel for connection or branching of one or more

electric circuits without making permanent splices.

Branch Circuit – the portion of a wiring system extending beyond the final automatic overload

protective device.

Branch Circuit Distribution Center – a distribution circuit at which branch circuit are

supplied.

Branch Circuit, Appliance – a circuit supplying energy either to permanently wired

appliances or to attachment plug receptacles such as appliance or convenience outlets, and

having no permanently connected lighting fixtures.

Branch Circuit, Lighting – a circuit supplying energy to lighting outlets only.

Branch Conductor – a conductor that branches off at an angle from a continuous run of

conductor.

Branch Joint – a multiple joint for connection of a branch conductor or cable to a main

conductor or cable, wherein the latter continues beyond the branch.

Break – the break of a circuit opening device is the minimum distance between the stationary

and movable contacts when the device is in its open position.

Breakdown – also termed “puncture”, denoting a disruptive discharge through insulation.

Breaker, Line – a device that combines the functions of a contractor and a circuit-breaker.

Buried Cable – a cable installed under the surface of the soil in such manner that it cannot be

removed without digging up the soil.

Bus – a conductor or group of conductor, which serves as a common connection for three or

more circuits in a switchgear assembly.

Bushing – also termed insulating bushing”, a lining for a hole for insulation and /or protection

form abrasion of one or more conductors passing through it.

Cabinet – an enclosure for either surface or flush mounting provided with a frame, mat, or

trim.

Cable Fault – a partial or total local failure in the insulation continuity of the conductor.

Cable Joint – also termed a “splice”, a connection between two or more individual lengths of

cables, with their conductors individually connected, and with protecting sheaths over the

joints.

Cable Service – service conductor arranged in the form of a cable.

Cable, Electric - an inequality of positive and negative electricity in or on body. The charge

stored in a capacitor (condenser) corresponds to a deficiency of free electrons on the positive

place, and to an excess of free electrons on the negative plate.

Capacitor – a device specifically designed to exhibit the effect of capacitance.

Choke Coil – a low conduction path through which electric charges may flow. A DC circuit is

a closed path for charge flow, an AG circuit is not necessarily closed, and ma conducts in part

by means of an electric field (displacement current).

Circuit – the path taken by an electrical current in flowing through a conductor from one

terminal at the source of supply to the other.

Circuit Breaker – a device used to open a circuit automatically.

Circular Mil – the area of circle one-thousands of an inch in diameter, are in circular mils =

diameter in mils, squared or multiplied by itself.

Cleat – an assembly a pair of insulating, material member with grooves for holing one or more

conductors at a definite distance from mounting surface.

Clip, Fuse – contact on a fuse support for connecting a fuse holder into a circuit.

Closed Electric Circuit - a complete electric circuit through which current will flow. In an AC

closed circuit, charge flow may be changed into displacement current “through” a capacitor

(condenser).

Closed-Circuit Voltage- the terminal voltage of a sources of electricity under a specified

current demand by electriccharge flow.

Coil – a conductor arrangement (basically a helix or spiral) that concentrates the magnetic field

produced by electric charge flow.

Composite Conductor – a conductor consisting of two or more strands of different metals,

operated in parallel.
Concealed – to be made inaccessible by the structure or finish of a building, also wires run in

concealed raceway.

Condenser – also termed “capacitor”, a device that stores electric charge by means of an

electric field.

Conductor – a substance that has free electrons or other charge carriers, which permit charge

flow when an emf is applied across the substance.

Conduit - a structure containing one or more duct; commonly formed from iron pipe or

electrical metallic tubing.

Conduit Fittings - accessories used to complete a conduit system, such as boxes, bushings and

access fitting.

Conduit Run – a duct bank, an arrangement of conduit with a continuous duct between two

points in a electrical installation.

Conduit, Flexible Metal – a flexible raceway of circular form for enclosing wires or cables,

usually made of steel wound electrically and with interlocking edges, with a weather-resistant

coating.

Conduit, Rigid Steel – a raceway made or mild pipe with a weather-resistant coating.

Contactor - an electrical power switch not operated manually and designed for frequent

operation.

Contacts - conducting parts, which employ a junction that is opened or closed to interrupt or

complete a circuit.

Control Relay – a relay to initiate or permit predetermined operation in a control circuit.

Converter – a machine that changes electric current of one kind into current of another kind

by the use of rotating parts.

Coulomb - an electric charge of 6.28 x 10 electrons. One coulomb is transferred when a current

of 1 ampere continuous past a point for one second.

Counter EMF – (CEMF), the effective emf within a system, which opposes current in a

specified direction.

Current - the rate of charge flow. A current of one ampere is equal to a flow rate of one

coulomb per second.

Cycle – the complete series of values, which occur during one period of a periodic quantity.

The unit of frequency, the hertz is equal to one cycle per second.

Dead – functionally conducting parts of an electrical system that have no potential difference

or charge (voltage of zero with respect to ground).

Degree, Electrical - an angle equal 1/360 of the angle between consecutive field poles like

polarity in an electrical machine.

Diagram, Connection – a drawing showing the connections and interrelations of devices

employed in an electrical circuit.

Dielectric - a medium or substance in which a potential difference establishes an electric field,

which is subsequently recoverable as electric energy.

Direct Current – a unidirectional current with a constant value. “Constant Value” is defined

in practice as a value that has negligible variation.

Direct EMF – also termed “direct voltage”; an emf that goes not change in polarity and has a

constant value that (one of negligible variation).

Discharge – an energy conversion involving electrical energy. Example: discharge of a storage

battery, discharge of capacitor; lightning discharge of a thundercloud.

Displacement Current – the apparent flow of charge “through” a dielectric such as in a

capacitor, represented by buildup and/or decay of an electric field.

Disruptive Discharge – a rapid and large current increase through and insulator due to

insulation failure.

Divider, Voltage - a tapped resistor or series arrangement of resistor, sometimes with movable

contacts providing a desired IR drops. (A voltage divider is not continuously and manually

variable as in a potentiometer).

Drop, Voltage – an IR voltage between two specified points in an electric circuit.

Duet – a single enclosed runway for conductors or cables.

Efficiency - the ration of output power to input power, usually expressed as a percentage.

Electrical Units – in the practical system, electrical units comprise the volt, the ampere the

ohm, the watt, the watt hour the coulomb, the mho, the Henry, the farad and the joule.

Electricity – a physical entity associated with the atomic structure of matter which occurs in

polar forms (positive and negative) and which are separable by expenditure of energy.

Electrode - a conducting substance through which electric current enters or leaves in devices

that provide electrical control or energy conversion.

Electrolyte - a substance that provide electrical conduction when dissolved (usually in water).
Electrolytic Conductor - flow of electric charges to and from electrodes in an electrolytic

solution.

Electromagnetic Induction - a process of generation of emf by movement of magnetic flux,

which cuts an electrical conductor.

Electromotive Force - (EMF) and energy-charge relation that results in electric pressure which

produces or tends to produce charge flow.

Electron - the subatomic unit of negative electricity; it is a charge of 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb.

Electronics – the science treating of charge flow in vacuum, gases, and the crystal lattices.

Electroplating – the electrical deposition of metallic ions as neutral atoms on an electrode

immersed in a electrolyte.

Electrostatics - a branch of electrical science dealing with the laws of electricity at rest.

Energy – the amount of physical work, which a system is capable of doing. Electrical energy

is measured in wattseconds, or the product power and time.

Equipment, Service – a circuit-breaker or switches and fuses with their accessories, installed

near the point of entry of service conductors to a building.

Exciter - an auxiliary generator for supplying electrical energy to the field of another electrical

machine.

Farad – a unit of capacitance that is defined by the production of one volts across the capacitor

terminals when a charge of one coulomb is stored.

Faults Current – a abnormal current flowing between conductors for connections, generating

and substations, or a substation and a feeding point.

Ferromagnetic Substance - a substance that has a permeability considerably greater than that

of air; ferromagnetic substance has a permeability that changes with the value of applied

magnetizing force.

Filament - a wire or ribbon conduction (resistive) material which develops light and heat

energy due to electric charge flow, light radiation is also accompanied by electron emission.

Fixture Stud - a fitting for mounting a lighting fixture in an outlet box, and which is secured

to the box.

Flashover – a fitting for mounting a lighting, fixture in an outlet (but not through) an insulator.

Fluorescence - an electrical discharge process involving radiant energy transferred by

phosphors into radiant energy that provides increased luminosity.

Flux - electrical field energy distributed in space, in a magnetic substance, or in a dielectric.

Flux is commonly represented diagrammatically by means of flux lines denoting, magnetic or

electric forces.

Force - the number of periods occurring in unit time of a periodic process such as in the flow

of electric charge.

Frequency Meter - an instrument that measures the frequency of an alternating current.

Fuse - a protective device with a fusible element that opens the circuits by melting subjected

to excessive current.

Fuse Cutout - an assembly consisting of a fuse support and holder, which may also include a

fuse link.
Fuse Element – also termed “fuse link” the current-carrying part of a fuse, which opens the

circuit when subjected to excessive current.

Galvanometer – an instrument for indicating or measuring comparatively small electric

currents. A galvanometer has zero-center indication.

Gap – (Spark Gap); a high-voltage device with electrodes between which a disruptive

discharge of electricity may pass, usually through air. A sphere gap has spherical electrodes,

needle gap has sharply pointed electrodes; a rod gap has rods with flat ends.

Generator – machine that produces electricity.

Ground Outlet – an outlet provided with a polarized receptacle with a ground contact for

connection of grounding conductor.

Ground – also termed “earth”; a conductor connected between a circuit and the soil; a chassis-

ground is not necessary at ground potential, but is taken as a zero volt reference point. An

accidental ground occurs due to cable insulator defect, etc.

Ground Lug - a lug of convenient connection of grounding, conductor to a ground electrode

or device to be grounded.

Grounding Switch – a switch for connection or disconnection of grounding conductor.

Ground Electrode – a conductor buried in the earth, for connection to a circuit. The buried

conductor is usually a cold-water pipe, to which connection is made with a ground clamp.

Guy – a wire or other mechanical member having one end secured and other end fastened to a

pole or structural part maintained under tension.

Hanger – also termed “cable rack”; a device usually secured to a wall to provide support for

cables have equal and opposite reactance values.

Heat Coil – a protective device for opening usually secured to a wall to provide support for

cables have equal and opposite reactance values.

Heater – in the strict sense, a heating element for raising the temperature of an indirectly heated

cathode in a vacuum or gas tube. Also applied to appliances such as space heaters and radiant

heaters.

Henry – the unit for inductance; it permits current increase at the rate of 1 ampere per second

and 1 volt is applied across the inductor terminals.

Hickey – a fitting for mounting lighting fixture in an outlet box. Also a device used with a pipe

handle for bending conduit.

Horn Gap - a form of switch provided with arcing horns for automatically increasing the length

of the arc and thereby extinguishing the arc.

Hydrometer – an instrument for indicating the state of charge in a storage battery.

Impedance – opposition to AC current by a combination of resistance, impedance is measured

in ohms.

Impedances, Conjugate – a pair of impedances that have the same resistance values, and that

have equal reactance value.

Impulse – an electric surge unidirectional polarity.

Indoor Transformer – a transformer that must be protected fromEE the weather.

Induced Current – a current that results in a closed conductor due to cutting of lines of

magnetic force.

Inductance – an electrical property of a resistance less conductor which may have a coil form,

and which exhibits inductive reactance to an AC current. All inductors have at least alight

amount if resistance, also.

Inductor – a device such a coil with or without a magnetic core which develops inductance,

as distinguished form the inductance of a straight wire.

Instantaneous Power – the product of an instantaneous voltages by the associated

instantaneous current.

Instrument – an electrical device for measurement of a quantity under observation, or for

presenting a characteristic of the quantity.

Insulator – a device used to insulate electrical conductors.

Interconnection Tie – a feeder that interconnects a pair of electric supply systems.

Interconnection, System – a connection of two or more power supply systems.

Interlock – an electrical device depending on its operation from another device; for controlling

subsequent operations.

Internal Resistance – a connection of two or more power systems.

Ion – a charged atom, or a radical. For example, a hydrogen atom that has lost an electron

becomes a hydrogen ion sulfuric acid produces H+ and SO-4 ions in water solution.

IR Drop – a potential difference produced by charge flow through a resistance.

Isolating Switch – an auxiliary switch for isolating the electric from its source of power; it is

operated only after the circuit has been opened by other means.

Joule – a unit of electrical energy; also electrical energy is proportional to the square of the

current.

Joule’s Law – the rate at which electrical energy is proportional to the square or the current.

Jumper – a short length of conductor for making a connection between terminals, around a

break in a circuit, or around an electrical instrument.

Junction – a point in a parallel or series –parallel circuit where branches of into two or more

paths.

Junction Box – an enclosed distribution for the connection or branching of one or more

electrical circuits, not using permanent splices. In the case of interior wiring, a junction box

consists of metal box with a blank cover; it isinserted in a run of conduit, raceway or tubing.

Kirchoff’s Law – the voltage law states that the algebraic sum of the drops around a closed

circuit is equal to zero.

The current law states that the algebraic sum of the sum currents at a junction is equal to zero.

Knockout – a scored portion in the wall box of a box or cabinet, which can be removed easily

by striking with ahammer; a circular hole is provided thereby for accommodation of conduit or

cable.

KVA – kilovolt-amperes, the product of volts and amperes divided by 1,000.

Lag – denotes that a given sine wave passes through as peak at a later time than reference since

wave.
Lampholder – also termed “socket” or “lamp receptacle”, a device for mechanical support of

and electrical connection to a lamp.

Lay – the lay of a helical element of a cable is equal to the axial length of a turn.

Lead – denotes that a given sine wave through its peak at an earlier time than a reference sine

wave.

Leakage, Surface – passage of current over the boundary of an insulator as distinguished from

passage of current through its bulk.

Leg of a Circuit – one of the conductors in a supply circuit between which the maximum

supply voltage.

Len’z Law –states that an induced current in a conductor is in a direction such the applied

mechanical force is opposed.

Lighting Rod – a rod that is run from the ground up above the highest point of a building.

Limit Switch – a device that automatically cuts the power off at or near the limit of travel of a

mechanical member.

Limit Switch – a switch that opens the circuit when a device has reached the end of its travel.

Load – the load on an AC machine or apparatus is equal to product of the rms voltage across

its terminal and the rms current demand.

Locking Relay – a relay that operates to make some other device inoperative under certain

conditions.

Loom – see tubing, flexible.

Luminosity – relative quantity of light.

Magnet – a magnet is a body, which is the source of magnetic field.

Magnetic Field – a magnetic field is the space containing distributed energy in the vicinity of

a magnet, and in which magnetic forces are apparent.

Magnetizing Force – number of amperes-turns in a transformer primary.

Mass – quantity of matter; physical property which determines the acceleration of a body as

the result of an applied force.

Matter – matter is a physical entity that exhibits mass.

Megger – an instrument that measures the resistance in megaohms.

Meter – a unit length equal to 39.37 inches: an electrical instrument for measurement of

voltage, current, power, energy, phase angle, synchronism, resistance, impedance, capacitance,

etc.

Mho – the unit of conductance defined as the reciprocal of the ohm.

Mica – a transparent mineral substance used for insulating commutators.

Motor – a machine that changes electrical energy into mechanical energy.

Mounting, Circuit-Breaker – supporting structure for a circuit breaker.

Multiple Feeder – two or more feeders connected in parallel.

Multiple Joint – a joint for connecting a branch conductor or cable to a main conductor or

cable, to provide a branch circuit.

Multiplier, Instrument – a series resistor connected to ammeter mechanism for the purpose

of providing a higher voltage-indicating range.

Mutual Inductance – an inductance that is common primary and secondary of a transformer,

resulting from primary magnetic flux that cuts secondary winding.

Negative – a value less than zero; an electric polarity sign indicating an excess of electrons at

one point with respect to another point; a current sign indicating charge flow away from

injunction.

Network – a system of interconnected paths for charge flow.

Network, Active – a network that contains one or more source of electrical energy.

Network, Passive – a network that does not contain a source of electrical energy.

Neutral – not positive or negative although it may act as positive to one circuit and negative

to another.

No-Load Current – the current demand of a transformer primary, when no current demand is

made on the secondary.

Normally Closed – denotes the automatic closures of contacts in a relay when deenergized

(not applicable to a latching relay).

Normally Opened – denotes the automatic opening of contacts in a relay when deenergized

(not applicable to a latching relay).

OHM –the unit of resistance; a resistance of one ohm sustains a current of one ampere when

one volt is applied across the resistance.

Ohm’s Law – states that current is directly proportional to applied voltage, inversely

proportional to resistance, reactance or impedance.

Ohmmeter – an instrument for measuring resistance values.

Open-Wire Circuit – a circuit constructed from conduction that is separately supported on

insulators.

Open-Circuit Voltage – the terminal voltage of a source under conditions of no current;

demand the open-circuit voltage has a value to the emf of the source.

Oscilloscope – an instrument for displaying the waveforms of AC voltages.

Outdoor Transformer - a transformer with weatherproof construction.

Outlet – a point in wiring system from which current is take for supply of fixtures, lamps,

heaters, etc.

Outlet Receptacle – an outlet used with one or more receptacles, which are not have, the

screw-shell type.

Outlet, Lighting – an outlet used for direct connection of a lamp holder, lighting fixture, or a

cord that supplies a lamp holder.

Overload Protection – interruption or reduction of current under conditions of excessive

demand, provided by a protective device.

Panel Box – the box in which switches and fuses for branch circuit are located.

Peak – to – Peak Value - the value of an AC waveform from its positive peak to its negative

peak. In the case of a sine wave, the peak – to – peak value is double peak value.
Peak Current – the maximum value (crest value) of an alternating current.

Peak Voltage – the maximum value (crest value) of an alternating voltage.

Pendant – a fitting suspended| ended from overhead by a flexible cord which may also provide

electrical connection to the fitting.

Pendant, Rise and Fall – a pendant that can be adjusted in height by means of cord adjuster.

Period – the time required substance that has substantial retentivity.

Permeability – the ratio of magnetic flux density to magnetizing force.

Phase – the time of occurrence of the peak value of an AC waveform with respect to the time

of occurrence of the peak value of a reference waveform. Phase is usually stated as the

fractional part of a period.

Phase Angle – an angular expression of phase difference it is commonly expressed in degrees,

and is equal to the phase multiplied by 360 degree.

Plug – a device that is inserted into a receptacle for connection of a cord to the conductor

terminations in the receptacle.

Polarity – an electrical characteristic of emf, which determines the direction in which current,

tends to flow.

Polarization (Battery) – polarization is caused by development of gas at the battery electrodes

during current demand, and has the effect of increasing the internal resistance of the battery.

Pole – the pole of a magnet is an area at which it flux lines tend to converge or diverge.
Positive - a value greater than zero; an electric polarity sign denoting a deficiency of electrons

at one point with respect to another point; a current sign indicating charge flow toward a

junction.

Potential Difference – a potential difference of one volt is produce when one unit of work is

done in separating unit charges through unit distance.

Power Circuit – wires that carry current to electric motors and other devices using electric

current.

Power, Real – real power is develop by circuit’s resistance, or effective resistance.

Primary Winding – the input winding a transformer.

Primary Battery – a battery that cannot be recharged after its chemical energy has been

depleted.

Proton – the subatomic unit of positive charge; a proton has a charge which is equal and

opposite to that of an electron.

Pull Box – a metal with black cover for insertion into a conduit run, raceway, or metallic tubing,

which facilitates the drawing conductors.

Pulsating Current – a direct current that does not have a steady value.

Puncture – a descriptive electrical discharge through insulation.

Quick-Break – a switch or circuit-breaker which has high contact-closing speed.

Raceway – a channel for holding wires or cables, constructed from metal, wood, or plastics,

rigid metal conduit, electrical metal tubing, cast-in-place, under floor surface wooden types

wireways, busways and auxiliary gutters.

Rack, Cable – a device secured to the wall to provide support for a cable raceway.

Rating – the rating device, apparatus, or machine states the limits of its operating

characteristics. Ratings are commonly stated in volts, amperes, watts, ohm, degrees,

horsepower, etc.

Reactance – reactance is an opposition to AC current based on the reaction of energy storage,

either as a magnetic field or as electric field. No real power is dissipated by a reactance.

Reactance is measured in ohms.

Reactor – an indicator or capacitor. Reactors serve as current-limiting devices such as in motor

starter, for phaseshifting applications as in capacitor star motors, and for power-factor

correction in factories or shops.

Receptacle – also termed “convenience outlet” a contacting device installed at an outlet for

connection externally by means of a plug and flexible cord.

Rectifier – a device that has a high resistance in one direction, and low resistance in the other

direction.

Regulation – denotes the extent to which the terminal voltage of a battery, generator, or other

source decreases under current demand. Commonly expressed as the ratio of the difference of

the no-load voltage under rated current demand, usually expressed a percentage.

Relay – a device operated by a charge in voltage or current in a circuit, which actuates other

devices in the same circuit or in another circuit.

Reluctance – an opposition to the establishment of magnetic flux lines when a magnetizing

force is applied, usually measured in rels.

Resistance – opposition or friction to the flow of current.

Resistor – a resistive component, may be of the wire wound carbon-composition, thyrite, or

other type of design.

Rheostat – a variable resistive device consisting of resistance element and a continuously

adjustable contact arm.

Safety Outlet – also term “ground outlet” and outlet with a polarized receptacle for equipment

grounding.

Secondary Battery – a battery that can be recharged after its chemical energy is depleted.

Sequence Switch – a remotely controlled power-operated switching device.

Series – connected one after another so that same current will flow through each one.

Series Circuit – a circuit that provides a complete path for current and has its components

connected end-to-end.

Series Parallel – an arrangement where several devices are connected into series groups and

these groups are connected in parallel with each other.

Service – the conductors and equipment for supplying several devices are connected into series

groups and these groups are connected in parallel with each other.

Service Entrance – the place where the service wires are run into a building.

Service Switch – the wires that connect the wiring in a building to the outside supply wires.

Serving of Cable – a wrapping over the core of a cable before it is leaded, or over the lead if

it is armored.
Shaded Pole – a single heavy conduction loop placed around one-half of a magnetic pole that

develops an AC field, in order to induce an out-of-phase magnetic field.

Sheath – the outside covering that protects a wire or cable from injury.

Sheath Cable – a protective covering (usually lead) applied to cable.

Shell Core – a core for a transformer or reactor consisting of three legs, with the winding

located on the center leg.

Short-Circuit – a fault path for current in a circuit the conducts excessive current; if the fault

path has appreciable resistance, it is termed a leakage path.

Shunt – denotes parallel connection.

Sine Wave – variation in accordance with simple-harmonic motion.

Sinusoidal – having the form of a sine wave.

Slate – a rock that is cut into slabs and used for switchboards it is a fair insulator.

Sleeve Wire - a circuit conductor connected to the sleeve of a plug.

Sliding Contact – an adjustable contact arranged to slid mechanically over a resistive element

turn of a reactor, series of taps or around the turns of a relay.

Snake – a steel wire or flat ribbon with a hook at one end, used to draw wires through conduit

etc.

Solenoid – a conducting helix with a comparatively small pitch, also applied to coaxial

conduction helices.
Spark Coil – also termed “ignition coil” a step-up transformer designed to operate from a DC

source via an interrupter that alternately makes and breaks the primary circuit.

Sparkover – a disruptive electrical discharge between the electrodes of a gap, generally used

with reference to measurement of high voltage value with a gap having specified types and

shape of electrodes.

Splice – also termed “straight-through joint”, a series connection of a pair of conductors or

cables.

Station Automatic– a generating station or substation that is usually unattended and which

performs its intended functions by an automatic sequence.

Surge – a transient variation in current and/ or voltage at a given point in a circuit.

Symbol – a graphical representation of a circuit component also, a letter or letters used to

represent a component, electrical property, or circuit characteristic.

Tap – in a wiring installation, a T joint (Tee Joint), Y joint, and multiple joint. Taps are made

to resistors, inductors, transformer, etc.

Terminal – the terminating end(s) of an electrical device source, or circuit, usually supplied

with electrical connection such as terminal screws, binding post, up jacks, snap connectors

soldering lugs, etc.

Three Phase System – an AC system in which three sources energize three conductors, each

of which provides a voltage that is 120 out of phase with the voltage in the adjacent conductor.

Three Phase – a generator or circuit delivering three voltages that are 1/3 of each cycle apart

in reaching their maximum value.

Three Phase Circuit – a circuit delivering three-phase current.

Three Phase Motor – an alternating current motor that is generated form three-phase circuit.

Three Pole – a switch that opens and closes three conductors or circuit at one time.

Three-Way Switch – a switch with three terminals by which the voltage a circuit can be

completed through any one of two paths.

Three-Wire Circuit – a circuit using a neutral wire in which the voltage between neutral wires

is twice that between neutral and each side.

Tie Feeder – feeder that is connected at both ends to sources of electrical energy. In an

automatic station, load may be connected between the two sources.

Time Delay – a specified period of time form the actuation of a control device to its operation

of another device or circuits.

Tip, Plug – the contacting member at the end of a plug.

Torque – mechanical twisting force.

Transfer Box – also termed “pull box”, a box without a distribution panel containing branched

or otherwise interconnected circuits.

Transformer – a device that operates by electromagnetic induction with a tapped winding, or

two or more separate windings, usually on an iron core, for the purpose of stepping voltage or

current up or down, for maximum power transfer, for isolation of the primary circuit form the

secondary circuit and in special designs for automatic regulation of voltage or current.

Transient – a non-repetitive or arbitrary timed electrical surge.

Transmission (AC) - transfer of electrical energy form a source to a load, or to one or more

stations for subsequent distribution.

Trough(ing) – an open earthenware channel, wood or plastic in which cables are installed

under a protective cover.

Tubing, Flexible – also termed “loom” a mechanical protection for electrical conductors; a

flame resistant and moisture-repellent circular tube of fibrous material.

Twin Cable – a cable consisting of two insulated and stranded conductors arranged in parallel

runs and having a common insulating covering.

Underground Cable – a cable designed for installation below the surface of the ground, or for

installation in an underground duct.

Underground System – also termed “insulated supply system”, an electrical system that

“floats” above ground or one that has only a very high-impedance conduction path to ground.

Unidirectional Current – a direct current or pulsating direct current.

Units - established values of physical properties used in measurement and calculation; for

example, the volt unit, the ampere unit, the ampere-turn unit, the ohms unit, etc.

Value – the magnitude of a physical property expressed in terms of a reference unit, such as

117 volts, 60 Hz, 50 ohms, 3 henrys, etc.

VAR – denotes volt-amperes reactive; the unit imaginary power (reactive power).

Volt – the unit of emf; one volt produces a current of one ampere in a resistance of one ohm

Volt-Ampere – the unit of apparent power; is the product at the pressure times the current.
Voltage – in a circuit the greatest effective potential difference between a specified pair of

circuit conductors.

Voltage Drop – the difference in pressure between two points in a circuit caused by the

resistance opposing the flow of current.

Voltage Loss – the voltage drop.

Voltage Regulator – a device for keeping the constant voltage at a certain point.

Voltammeter – voltmeter and ammeter combined in on case and using the same movement,

but having separate terminates.

Voltmeter – an instrument for measurement of voltage values.

Watt – the unit of electrical power, equal to the product of one volt and ampere in DC values,

or in rms AC values.

Watt-Hour Meter - an instrument that records the power used in watt-hours

Watt-hour – a unit of electrical energy, equal to one watt operating for one hour.

Wattmeter – an instrument for measurement of electrical power.

Wave – an electrical undulation, basically of sinusoidal form.

Weatherproof – a conductor or device designed so that water, wild, or usual vapor will not

impair its operation.

Wiper – an electrical contact arm.

Work – the product of force by the distance through which the force acts; work is numerically

equal to energy.
Working Voltage - also term “closed-circuit voltage”; the terminal voltage of a source of

electricity under a specified current demand, also, the reacted voltage of an electrical

component such as capacitor.

MODULE 3

ELECTRICAL MATERIALS

A) Components of Electrical System

Electrical wiring of buildings requires a varied assortment of equipment and auxiliaries for

adequate, safe and efficient operation.

National Electrical Code

Economics of Material Selection

The selection of electrical material involves not only choosing a material or assembly that is

functionally adequate and where necessary visually satisfaction but also consideration of

economic factors.

Equipment Ratings

All electrical equipment is rated for normal service it is intended to perform. The ratings are

specifically and characteristically electrical are those of voltage and current.

Voltage

Current

B) Electrical Conductors
b) MCM – Thousand “M” Circular Mils. Circular mils are artificial measurement used to

represent the diameter of the conductor. It begins with 500 mils.

500 mils (M) = 0.5 inches diameter (D)

“MCM”

M = 1000 CM = D2 therefore, MCM = CM = D2

1000 1000

For 500 mils, MCM = 5002 = 250000 =250

1000 1000

500 mils is called 250 MCM

Metal is generally use as conductors for electrical system components. Electrical conductors

are the means by which the current is conducted through the electrical system.

Usual method of specifying a wire or cable is by:

1) No. and size of conductor

2) Insulation

3) Voltage class

Factors which influence resistance of conductors:

d) Wire Conversion Factors

Circular mil = d2
Sq. mil = 3, 1416 x v2

Sq. inch = Sq. mil x .000001

Sq. mil = Sq. inch x 1,000,000

Sq. mil = Circular mil x 0.7854

Millimeter = Inches x 25.4

Sq. mil = Circular mil x 1.0005067

e) Good Electric Conductors

 Gold

 Copper

 Silver

 Aluminum

 Water

C) Electrical Conductor Insulation

The conductor acts as guide for the conduction of electrical power from one point to another

point to another point and must be insulated to prevent the escape or leakage of the current.

The types of insulation used are:

Good Electric Insulators

 Rubber

 Glass

 Oil
 Diamond

 Wood
MODULE 4

ELECTRICAL WIRING AND SERVICE UTILIZATION

Service Entrance – defined a portion of the supply conductors which extended from the main

street, duct or transformer to the service switch or switch board of the building supply - A

conductor and equipment for delivering energy from the electric supply to the wiring system

of the premises served

(NEC) TYPES OF SERVICE ENTRANCE

1. Overhead service entrance – the conductors enter the building through weather head and

exterior power meter

2. Underground service entrance – consist of raceway/conduit extending from the building

through the property line tapped through the main using the underground

3. Electric service meeting – a meter is normally located outside the building or at the property

line wall or post for the ready access of meter reader

4. Feeder – all circuit conductors between the service equipment or the generator switchboard

of an isolated plant, and the final branch circuit over current protection device

Main – a feeder interior wiring extending from service switch, generator bus or converter bus

to the main distribution line or electric service equipment.

- To shorten circuit homeruns

- It should be located near the load centers (residential – kitchen and laundry)
GENERAL RULES FOR WIRING INSTALLATION

A. Conductors of light and power system of 600 V or less may occupy the same enclosure

(Panel board)

B. Conductors of signal or radio systems shall not occupy the same enclosure of light and

power system except specifically permitted for elevators, recording, remote control and

communications.

C. Conductors of emergency wiring system shall not occupy the same enclosure as any

wiring except in transfer switches or exit and emergency fed from both normal and

emergency sources.

D. All metal raceways, cable armor, metal enclosure shall be metallically joined either

mechanically or by bonding jumper to provide effective electrical continuity.

E. Conductors in vertical raceway shall be supported at intervals as specified in NEC by

means of insulated wedges and other approved devices.

F. When insulated in ferrous enclosures, circuits all phase run together. When feeder are

paralleled and run in more than one steel conduit, each conduit shall contain all phase

and neutral to minimized induced body current heating effects.

G. Generally, when necessary to run wiring through air handling ducts or plenum

chambers, the wiring method shall be RSC or EMT.

H. No bare conductors may be used for wiring of any temporary circuit.

I. Electrical connections and dull boxes, raceways and under floor ducts, should never be

located near every hot or cold pipes or ducts.

J. All metal in wiring systems shall be suitable for the environment installation

TYPES OF WIRING CONNECTIONS

A. Necessary in installation
 B. For joints, splices, branch circuits

C. Solderless connection, crimp connector, lug terminal (Bolted)

BRANCH CIRCUIT DESIGN AND GUIDELINES

Branch Circuit – Circuit conductors between the final over current protective device and outlet

A. Circuit design must be based on:

1. Flexibility

2. Reliability

3. Safety

4. Economy

5. Energy Consideration

6. Space Allocation

B. Types of Branch Circuit

1. General Purpose – branch circuit supplies lighting and appliances

2. Appliance Branch Circuit – supplies outlets intended for appliances

3. Individual Branch Circuit – is designed to supply single specific item

C. Outlet Receptacles and Other Wiring Devices

Outlet – a term in wiring systems at which current is therein to supply utilization

a. Convenience outlet – a device which an insertion in a receptacles

establishes connection of conductor

b. Lighting outlet – intended for the connection of lamp holder.

Lighting fixture or pendant cord

c. Receptacles outlet – contact device installed for an outlet connection

of single attachment plug

Junction box – box with blank cover for joining different runs of raceways; box

for making wire taps

Pull box – box with blank cover inserted into raceways to facilitate pulling in

of conductors.

Switches – device that serves to open or close the circuit

a. General Use Switches – intended for general distribution and

branch circuit, which is rated in amperes

b. General Use Snap Switches – a form of general use switch

installed in flush device boxes

c. Isolating Switch – Intended for isolating an electrical circuit

from power surge

MAXIMUM VOLTAGE FOR BRANCH CIRCUIT

Circuit Breaker 120V 220v

15 A 1440w 2880w

20 A 1920w 3840w

30 A 2880w 5760w

General Purpose = 15 – 20 amp

Appliance Branch Circuit = 20 amp

Individual Branch Circuit = 20 amp and above

CIRCUIT GUIDELINES BASED ON NEC

 1. Residential load use 30 watts/sqm in buildings. Excluding porches, garages

and basement.

2. Load should not exceed 80% of the circuit breaker load.

15 amp CB max 12 ampere load

20 amp CB max 16 ampere load

30 amp CB max 24 ampere load

3. Lighting Outlet/Branches

3.1. Minimum wire size is 2 mm with 15 circuit breaker

3.2. Ampere rating 30, 40, 50 should not be used in fixed lighting in

residences

3.3. Heavy duty lamp holders are not less than 750 watts

3.4. Separate branches for fence lighting outlets and building outlets

3.5. Design switches according to use – timer switch; solar control switch

etc.

4. General Purpose Branches – combination of lighting and small appliances

OTHER TOPICS:

 TYPES OF AC SYSTEMS

 TYPES OF SIGNAL SYSTEMS

 VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL TRANSPORTATION

SYSTEMS
BUILDING UTILITIES 3
Acoustics, Lighting and Illumination

STUDY OF ACOUSTICS

 Used to understand the human anatomy in relation to the physical environment

 Use & response of the senses to various phenomena
 Study of acoustics in relation to design of places for human habitation
 Discussion of the technical definition of acoustics and its divisions; records from history
of the scientific development of acoustics

ACOUSTICS

 An interdisciplinary science that deals with the study of sound

 The art and science of designing a room or building which insures both comfort and
communication, and provides special features as the purpose and use of the structure
requires
 Derivations:
o Greek: ακουστός - able to be heard
o Latin: “sonic”
 Art & science of designing a room or building
o Insures both comfort & communication
o Provides special features
 All acoustic situations have three common elements:
o SOURCE - can be made louder or more quiet
o TRANSMISSION PATH - the path can be made to transmit more or less sound
o RECEIVER - the listener ; assumed to have a pair of healthy young ears with a
detection range of 20 to 20,000 Hz.

DIVISIONS OF ACOUSTICS
The following are the main sub-disciplines of acoustics.

(PACS. Ameroca Institue of Pgysics, Physics and Astronomy Classification Scheme)

PHYSICAL BIOLOGICAL ACOUSTICAL

ACOUSTICS ACOUSTICS ENGINEERING
 Aero acoustics  Bioacoustics  Acoustic
 General linear  Musical acoustics measurements and
acoustics  Physiological instrumentation
 Nonlinear acoustics acoustics  Acoustic signal
 Structural acoustics  Psychoacoutics processing
and vibration  Speech  Architectural
 Underwater communications acoustics
acoustics (production;  Environmental
perception; acoustics
processing and  Transduction
communication  Ultrasonic
systems)  Room acoustics

SOUND

 Series of pressure variations in an elastic medium

o airborne sound – medium is air
o structure-borne sound - media are concrete, steel, wood, glass and a combination of
all of these
 Any vibratory motion of bodies, the transmission of these vibrations in a medium, and the
sensation produced on the human auditory mechanism
 Also Audible signals

A. SOURCES OF SOUND
 SPEECH –human voice
 MUSIC –an instrument
 NOISE –impact: vibrating bodies, speech or music
B. TYPES OF SOUND
1. WANTED – sound heard as perfectly as possible at the right level or loudness without
pain or strain
2. UNWANTED – sound which entails an annoyance factor
C. VELOCITY OF SOUND
 Velocity in air– 340 m/s
 Velocity of light – 186 m/s
D. PROPERTIES OF SOUND
 AMPLITUDE – sound waves humans perceive as volume
 FREQUENCY – complete cycle per second
o Hertz – unit frequency; equal to c/s
o Pitch - pinpoint sounds on a scale extending from high to low frequency
o Tone - sound sensation having pitch
 WAVELENGTH - distance a sound wave travels during each complete cycle
 CYCLE – full circuit; complete
 PERIOD – time required for one complete cycle
 RAREFACTION -
 PURE TONE – vibration produced at a single frequency
 SPEED - sound travels at 1130 ft/s or 344 m/s at normal room temperature (68°F)
 INTENSITY – rate at which sound energy is being transmitted
 Decibel –unit which sound intensity is defined for architectural purposes
E. EXTREMES OF WAVELENGTH FOR AUDIBLE SOUND
 MINIMUM – 330 m/s over 20 c/s = 16.5 m
 MAXIMUM –330 m/s over 20000 c/s = 0.0165 m
 APPROXIMATE FREQUENCT OF THE HUMAN VOICE
Male voice, vowel sounds 100 Hz
Male voice, sibilants 3000 Hz
Bass singer, bottom note 100 Hz
Soprano, top note 1200 Hz

F. NATURAL ELEMENTS THAT AFFECT SOUND

 TEMPERATURE - sound particles tend to follow cold air
 CLOUDS - can act as a reflecting surface
 WIND - may change the direction of sound
 BODIES OF WATER - can also act as a reflecting surface
G. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
1. SOUND REFLECTION
o sound vibrations meet a change in the density
o varies w/ frequency
o intensity of sound is affected by:
- shape of the surface
- absorption characteristics
o ECHOES – caused by limitations of human hearing mechanisms
o FLUTTER ECHO – mid-frequency echoes
o GEOMETRY OF SOUND REFLECTION
CURVED SURFACES - sound dispersion
PLANE SURFACES - uniform reflection

o SAMPLES OF USEFUL CEILING REFLECTIONS

2. SOUND DIFFRACTION
o bending or “flowing of a wave
o sound interrupted by an obstruction
 o sound shadow (if obstruction is larger than wavelength of sound)
3. SOUND DIFFUSION
o scattering of a sound wave
o important characteristic of rooms for musical performance

ARCHITECTURAL LIGHTING

WHAT IS LIGHT?

 LIGHT– a human sensation similar to how humans use the other senses
 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
 – responsible for stimulating the sense of sight

– consists PHOTONS

 LIGHT– constitutes a very small part of the wave

energy spectrum
 COLOR – determined by wavelength
 RED – longest wavelength
 INFRARED – long frequency; long wavelength
 ULTRAVIOLET – high frequency; short wavelength
 INFRARED LIGHT and ULTRAVIOLET are invisible
to the human eye but not to some animals.
 WHITE LIGHT– when a light source produces energy
over the entire visible spectrum

AIMS of GOOD LIGHTING

- to effectively reveal the task

- to appropriately reveal the general surround
LIGHTING PROBLEM

 LIGHTING FUNCTION
- Provision of enough light
- Where: for a specific location
- How: design, technique, lighting fixtures
- It is based on the building program - needs
 ARCHITECTURAL FUNCTION
LIGHTING IS SIMILAR TO OTHER CONCERNS FOR THE
BUILDING SUCH AS:

 Structure
 Planning
 Servicing
REQUIRED INFO FOR LIGHTING FUNCTION

 Purpose of the building

 Purpose of the space
a) Primary tasks
b) Secondary Tasks
c) Special Groups
 Size of the space
 Standard of visual comfort
 Times of day the space is in use

INFORMATION FOR THE LIGHTING SCHEME

 Required illumination level

 Distribution of light for adequate performance
 The choice of illuminant
 The amount of distraction that is permissible/desirable

CONSIDERATIONS/FACTORS

1. Quantitative Factors
1. Amount of Daylight
2. Interrelationship between the energy aspects of electric and daylighting,
heating and cooling
3. The effect of lighting on interior space arrangement and vice versa
4. Characteristic, means of specific occupants and of specific tasks
5. Effects of brightness patterns on visual acuity
2. Qualitative Factors
1. Location, interrelationship and psychological effects of light and shadow –
brightness patterns
2. Color
  light and surfaces
 effect of illuminant source color on object color and vice versa
3. Artistic effects possible with light and shadow
4. Physiological and psychological effects of the lighting design (occupancy)

THREE COMPONENTS OF THE SEEING TASK

1. Object or task
2. Lighting condition
3. Observer

ILLUMINATION MEASUREMENT

 ILLUMINANCE METERS are used for field measurement of illuminance levels

o These devices contain photoelectric material connected to a micro ammeter
via electronic control circuitry and are calibrated in lux, foot-candle or both
 HUMAN EYE IS NOT EQUALLY SENSITIVE TO VRIOUS WAVELENGTHS
o Maximum sensitivity at high illuminance levels is in the yellow-green
(wavelength of 555nm)
o Sensitivity at the red and blue ends of the spectrum is quite low
o 10 units of blue energy are required to produce the same visual effect as 1 unit
yellow green
 METERS ARE COLOR CORRECTED
o Color correction
• Correction of the cells (meters) for light incident at oblique angles that
does not reach the cell due to reflection from the surface glass and
shielding the light-sensitive cell by the meter housing
o A good light meter should be cosine and color corrected
o For determining average room illuminance when using conventional non-
integrating meter, a number of readings should be taken and an average
computed
 Where no definite heights are specified, readings are taken at 75 cm (30 inches) above the
floor – a level known as WORKING PLANE because it is approximately the normal desk
height.
 To measure wall illuminance, the meter must be held with the CELL PARALLEL to the
wall.
 If electric lighting readings are desired and the test is being conducted during daylight
hours, readings should be taken with and without the electrical illumination and the
results subtracted

PHYSICS OF LIGHT

INVERSE SQUARE LAW

Illumination is inversely proportional to the square of the dnce from the source
lux = cd density/distance2

LIGHT REFLLECTANCE

• The ration of reflected to incident light: a measure of total light reflected

• Also called reflectance, reflectance factor, and reflectance coefficient
• Reflectance can be either specular or diffuse; or a combination of both
• Specular reflection – reflection that occurs on a smooth surface

Specular reflection
Semi-specular reflection

Diffuse reflection
A. DAYLIGHTING
a) OUTDOOR ILLUMINATION
• Source of Daylight: SUN
• Factors:
a) Solar altitude
o Altitude of the sun is highest during summer
o Daily maximum altitude of the sun increases for locations near the
equator
o Azimuth angle of sun is dictated by the time of the day
b) Weather conditions
 b) DAYLIGHT FACTOR
• The amount of daylight at a point w/in a room is the ratio of the daylight
illuminance at the point to the instantaneous illuminance outside the building
from a complete hemisphere of sky (excluding direct sunlight)
• Usually expressed as a percentage

• Components of daylight factor:

a. Sky component (SC): light which directly reach a point in the interior of a
building
b. Externally reflected component (ERC): external surfaces which
contributes to the light reflected into the interiors
c. Internally reflected component (IRC): area source; light entering the room
being reflected on the reference plane
Daylight Factor = SC + ERC +
IRC
B. ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING
• INCANDESCENT LAMP
o Filament: usual material is tungsten
• FLUORESCENT LAMP
o Lamp life: dependent on the burning hours per start
o Mercury vapor pressure: determined by the temperature of the coolest
point on the lamp bulb wall
• SPECIAL FLUORESCENT
LAMPS
o Low-energy lamps
o Reflector and Aperture
Lamps
o Triphosphor (Octic)
fluorescent lamps
o U-shaped lamps
o Compact fluorescent
lamps

• HIGH INTENSITY
DISCHARGE (HID) LAMPS
o Mercury Lamps
o Metal-halide lamps
o High-pressure sodium
lamps
o Low-pressure lamps
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FOUR GENERAL LAMPS

LIGHTING DESIGN

A. ILLUMINATION METHODS
o General Lighting
o Local and Supplementary Lighting
o Combined General and Local Lighting

B. TYPES OF LIGHTING DESIGNS

o Direct
  Efficient in getting maximum amount of light from the source to the
working surface
 May produce greatest differences between ceiling and luminaire
 May also produce greatest shadow and glare
- Upward light: 0-10%
- Downward light: 90-100%
o Indirect
 Totally indirect reflectors direct all of the light up to the ceiling
 Applications: industrial, commercial, institutional, residential, and
special purpose applications such as for duct-tight, vapor-tight and
explosion-proof areas
- Upward light: 90-100%
- Downward light: 0-10%
o Semi-direct
 Most of the light is down; some directed to the ceiling
- Upward light: 10-40%
- Downward light: 60-90%
o Semi-indirect
 Greater percentage of the light is directed toward the ceiling and upper
walls
 The ceiling should be a high reflectance to reflect the light
- Upward light: 60-90%
- Downward light: 10-40%
o General diffuse
 Light id equally distributed in all directions
- Upward light: 40-60%
- Downward light: 40-60%

C. LIGHTING FIXTURES
 A complete lighting unit; lamp, sockets and equipment for controlling
light: refelctors and diffusers
 Louvers, baffles and reflectors: used to reduce glare and excessive
brightness and direct light to specific directions]
 a) Luminaire light control
b) Lamp Shielding
c) Reflectors
d) Luminaire Diffusers
e) Luminaire Mounting Height

ILLUMINATION CALCULATION FACTORS

1. CALCULATION OF AVERAGE ILLUMINANCE

2. CALCULATION OF HORIZONTAL ILLUMINANCE BY LUMEN(FLUX)
METHOD
3. CALCULATION OF LIGHT LOSS FACTOR
Recoverable factors can be improved to initial conditions by means of maintenance
such as:
a) Room surface dirt
b) Lamp lumen depreciation
c) Burnouts
d) Luminaire dirt depreciation
Non-recoverable factors cannot regain original conditions by maintenance. Includes
the following:

a) Luminaire ambient temperature

b) Voltage
c) Luminaire surface depreciation
d) Components
4. DETERMINATION OF COEFFIECIENT OF UTILIZATION BY ZONAL
ACTIVITY METHOD
5. ZONAL CAVITY CALCULATION BY APPROXIAMTION
6. CALCULATING ILLUMINANCE AT A POINT
7. CALCULATING ILLUMINANCE FROM LINEAR & AREA SOURCES

PRACTICAL LIGHTING APPLICATION

A. RESIDENTIAL
a. Kitchen lighting
 o Use of luminous lighting
o Fluorescent lighting w/ diffusers
o Surface amounted ceiling fixture w/ diffusers
o Lighting fixtures under wall cabinets and over range/stove area
o Floodlighting over kitchen sink
b. Dining areas
o Lighting fixture mounted directly over the dining table
o Use of dimmer to control brilliance of light; to set mood of the activity
o Supplementary lighting for buffet and sideboard areas

c. Living room
o Use of accent lighting
o Pull-down fixtures or table lamps for reading areas
o Dimmers for lighting adjustments / vary lighting levels
d. Bedroom lighting
o Bedroom lighting should be decorative and functional
o Use of general illumination and supplementary lighting
e. Bathroom lighting
o Use of theatrical lighting arrangement to avoid shadows in lavatory / vanity area
o Use of ceiling mounted fixtures
B. EDUCATIONAL
C. COMMERCIAL/OFFICE INTERIORS
o Use of general lighting fixtures
o Double illumination over desks should be provided
o Recessed down-lighting
D. INDUSTRIAL
o Use of high-pressure sodium lamps
o Tandem fixtures
o Use of reflector mercury lamps
E. SPECIAL LIGHTING APPLICATION
o Emergency lighting
o Floodlighting
o Fiber-optic lighting