Current Transformer Basics

The Current Transformer ( C.T. ), is a type of “instrument transformer” that is designed to produce an alternating current in
its secondary winding which is proportional to the current being measured in its primary.

Current transformers reduce high voltage currents to a much lower value and provide a convenient way of safely monitoring the
actual electrical current flowing in an AC transmission line using a standard ammeter. The principal of operation of a current
transformer is no different from that of an ordinary transformer.

Typical Current Transformer

Unlike the voltage or Power Transformer looked at previously, the current transformer consists of only one or very few turns as its
primary winding. This primary winding can be of either a single flat turn, a coil of heavy duty wire wrapped around the core or just a
conductor or bus bar placed through a central hole as shown.

Due to this type of arrangement, the current transformer is often referred too as a “series transformer” as the primary winding, which
never has more than a very few turns, is in series with the current carrying conductor.

The secondary winding may have a large number of coil turns wound on a laminated core of low-loss magnetic material which has a
large cross-sectional area so that the magnetic flux density is low using much smaller cross-sectional area wire, depending upon
how much the current must be stepped down. This secondary winding is usually rated at a standard 1 Ampere or 5 Amperes for
larger ratings.

There are three basic types of current transformers: “wound”, “toroidal” and “bar”.

 • Wound current transformers – The transformers primary winding is physically connected in series with the

conductor that carries the measured current flowing in the circuit. The magnitude of the secondary current is dependent on

the turns ratio of the transformer.

 • Toroidal current transformers – These do not contain a primary winding. Instead, the line that carries the current

flowing in the network is threaded through a window or hole in the toroidal transformer. Some current transformers have a

“split core” which allows it to be opened, installed, and closed, without disconnecting the circuit to which they are attached.

 • Bar-type current transformers – This type of current transformer uses the actual cable or bus-bar of the main

circuit as the primary winding, which is equivalent to a single turn. They are fully insulated from the high operating voltage of

the system and are usually bolted to the current carrying device.
Current transformers can reduce or “step-down” current levels from thousands of amperes down to a standard output of a known
ratio to either 5 Amps or 1 Amp for normal operation. Thus, small and accurate instruments and control devices can be used with
CT’s because they are insulated away from any high-voltage power lines. There are a variety of metering applications and uses for
current transformers such as with Wattmeter’s, power factor meters, watt-hour meters, protective relays, or as trip coils in magnetic
circuit breakers, or MCB’s.

Current Transformer

Generally current transformers and ammeters are used together as a matched pair in which the design of the current transformer is
such as to provide a maximum secondary current corresponding to a full-scale deflection on the ammeter. In most current
transformers an approximate inverse turns ratio exists between the two currents in the primary and secondary windings. This is why
calibration of the CT is generally for a specific type of ammeter.

Most current transformers have a the standard secondary rating of 5 amps with the primary and secondary currents being
expressed as a ratio such as 100/5. This means that the primary current is 100 times greater than the secondary current so when
100 amps is flowing in the primary conductor it will result in 5 amps flowing in the secondary winding, or one of 500/5 will produce 5
amps in the secondary for 500 amps in the primary conductor, etc.

By increasing the number of secondary windings, N2, the secondary current can be made much smaller than the current in the
primary circuit being measured because as N2 increases, I2 goes down by a proportional amount. In other words, the number of
turns and the current in the primary and secondary windings are related by an inverse proportion.

We know from our tutorial on double wound voltage transformers that its turns ratio is equal to:

from which we get:

As the primary usually consists of one or two turns whilst the secondary can have several hundred turns, the ratio between the
primary and secondary can be quite large. For example, assume that the current rating of the primary winding is 100A. The
secondary winding has the standard rating of 5A. Then the ratio between the primary and the secondary currents is 100A-to-5A, or
20:1. In other words, the primary current is 20 times greater than the secondary current.
It should be noted however, that a current transformer rated as 100/5 is not the same as one rated as 20/1 or subdivisions of 100/5.
This is because the ratio of 100/5 expresses the “input/output current rating” and not the actual ratio of the primary to the secondary
currents. Also note that the number of turns and the current in the primary and secondary windings are related by an inverse
proportion.

But relatively large changes in a current transformers turns ratio can be achieved by modifying the primary turns through the CT’s
window where one primary turn is equal to one pass and more than one pass through the window results in the electrical ratio being
modified.

So for example, a current transformer with a relationship of say, 300/5A can be converted to another of 150/5A or even 100/5A by
passing the main primary conductor through its interior window two or three times as shown. This allows a higher value current
transformer to provide the maximum output current for the ammeter when used on smaller primary current lines.

Current Transformer Primary Turns Ratio

Current Transformer Example No1

A bar-type current transformer which has 1 turn on its primary and 160 turns on its secondary is to be used with a standard range of
ammeters that have an internal resistance of 0.2Ω’s. The ammeter is required to give a full scale deflection when the primary current
is 800 Amps. Calculate the maximum secondary current and secondary voltage across the ammeter.

Secondary Current:

Voltage across Ammeter:

We can see above that since the secondary of the current transformer is connected across the ammeter, which has a very small
resistance, the voltage drop across the secondary winding is only 1.0 volts at full primary current. If the ammeter is removed, the
secondary winding becomes open-circuited and the transformer acts as a step-up transformer due to the very large increase in
magnetising flux in the secondary core. This results in a high voltage being induced in the secondary winding equal to the ratio
of:  Vp(Ns/Np) being developed across the secondary winding.

So for example, assume our current transformer from above is connected to a 480 volt three-phase power line. Therefore:
 

This 76.8kV is why a current transformer should never be left open-circuited or operated with no-load attached when the main
primary current is flowing through it. If the ammeter is to be removed, a short-circuit should be placed across the secondary
terminals first to eliminate the risk of shock.

This is because when the secondary is open-circuited the iron core of the autotransformer operates at a high degree of saturation,
which produces an abnormally large secondary voltage, and in our simple example above, this was calculated at 76.8kV!. This high
secondary voltage could damage the insulation or cause electric shock if the CT’s terminals are accidentally touched.

Handheld Current Transformers

There are many specialized types of current transformers now available. A popular and portable type which can be used to measure
circuit loading are called “clamp meters” as shown.

Clamp meters open and close around a current carrying conductor and measure its current by determining the magnetic field
around it, providing a quick measurement reading usually on a digital display without disconnecting or opening the circuit.

As well as the handheld clamp type CT, split core current transformers are available which has one end removable so that the load
conductor or bus bar does not have to be disconnected to install it. These are available for measuring currents from 100 up to 5000
amps, with square window sizes from 1″ to over 12″ (25-to-300mm).

Then to summarise, the Current Transformer, (CT) is a type of instrument transformer used to convert a primary current into a
secondary current through a magnetic medium. Its secondary winding then provides a much reduced current which can be used for
detecting overcurrent, undercurrent, peak current, or average current conditions.

A current transformers primary coil is always connected in series with the main conductor giving rise to it also being referred to as a
series transformer. The nominal secondary current is rated at 1A or 5A for ease of measurement. Construction can be one single
primary turn as in Toroidal, Doughnut, or Bar types, or a few wound primary turns, usually for low current ratios.

Current transformers are intended to be used as proportional current devices. Therefore a current transformers secondary winding
should never be operated into an open circuit, just as a voltage transformer should never be operated into a short circuit.
Very high voltages will result from open circuiting the secondary circuit of an energized CT so their terminals must be short-circuited
if the ammeter is to be removed or when a CT is not in use before powering up the system.

In the next tutorial about Transformers we will look at what happens when we connect together three individual transformers in a
star or delta configuration to produce a larger power transformer called a Three Phase Transformer used to supply 3-phase suppl

Reactive Power Compensation

Reactive Power can best be described as the quantity of “unused” power that is developed by reactive components, such
as inductors or capacitors in an AC circuit or system. In a DC circuit, the product of “volts x amps” gives the power
consumed in watts by the circuit. However, while this formula is also true for purely resistive AC circuits, the situation is
slightly more complex in an AC circuits containing reactive components as this volt-amp product can change with
frequency.

In an AC circuit, the product of voltage and current is expressed as volt-amperes (VA) or kilo volt-amperes (kVA) and is known
as Apparent power, symbol S. In a non-inductive purely resistive circuit such as heaters, irons, kettles and filament bulbs, etc. their
reactance is practically zero, and the impedance of the circuit is composed almost entirely of just resistance.

For an AC resistive circuit, the current and voltage are in-phase and the power at any instant can be found by multiplying the voltage
by the current at that instant, and because of this “in-phase” relationship, the rms values can be used to find the equivalent DC
power or heating effect.

However, if the circuit contains reactive components, the voltage and current waveforms will be “out-of-phase” by some amount
determined by the circuits phase angle. If the phase angle between the voltage and the current is at its maximum of 90 o, the volt-
amp product will have equal positive and negative values.

In other words, the reactive circuit returns as much power to the supply as it consumes resulting in the average power consumed by
the circuit being zero, as the same amount of energy keeps flowing alternately from source to the load and back from load to source.

Since we have a voltage and a current but no power dissipated, the expression of P = IV (rms) is no longer valid and it therefore
follows that the volt-amp product in an AC circuit does not necessarily give the power consumed. Then in order to determine the
“real power”, also called Active power, symbol P consumed by an AC circuit, we need to account for not only the volt-amp product
but also the phase angle difference between the voltage and the current waveforms given by the equation:VI.cosΦ.

Then we can write the relationship between the apparent power and active or real power as:

Note that power factor (PF) is defined as the ratio between the active power in watts and the apparent power in volt-amperes and
indicates how effectively electrical power is being used. In a non-inductive resistive AC circuit, the active power will be equal to the
apparent power as the fraction of P/S becomes equal to one or unity. A circuits power factor can be expressed either as a decimal
value or as a percentage.

But as well as the active and apparent powers in AC circuits, there is also another power component that is present whenever there
is a phase angle. This component is called Reactive Power (sometimes referred to as imaginary power) and is expressed in a unit
called “volt-amperes reactive”, (VAr), symbol Q and is given by the equation: VI.sinΦ.
Reactive power, or VAr, is not really power at all but represents the product of volts and amperes that are out-of-phase with each
other. The amount of reactive power present in an AC circuit will depend upon the phase shift or phase angle between the voltage
and the current and just like active power, reactive power is positive when it is “supplied” and negative when it is “consumed”.

The relationship of the three elements of power, active power, (watts) apparent power, (VA) and reactive power, (VAr) in an AC
circuit can be represented by the three sides of right-angled triangle. This representation is called a Power Triangle as shown:

Power in an AC Circuit

From the above power triangle we can see that AC circuits supply or consume two kinds of power: active power and reactive power.
Also, active power is never negative, whereas reactive power can be either positive or negative in value so it is always
advantageous to reduce reactive power in order to improve system efficiency.

The main advantage of using AC electrical power distribution is that the supply voltage level can be changed using transformers, but
transformers and induction motors of household appliances, air conditioners and industrial equipment all consume reactive power
which takes up space on the transmission lines since larger conductors and transformers are required to handle the larger currents
which you need to pay for.

Reactive Power Analogy with Beer

In many ways, reactive power can be thought of like the foam head on a pint or glass of beer. You pay the barman for a full glass of
beer but only drink the actual liquid beer which is always less than a full glass.

This is because the head (or froth) of the beer takes up additional wasted space in the glass leaving less room for the real beer that
you consume, and the same idea is true for reactive power.

But for many industrial power applications, reactive power is often useful for an electrical circuit to have. While the real or active
power is the energy supplied to run a motor, heat a home, or illuminate an electric light bulb, reactive power provides the important
function of regulating the voltage thereby helping to move power effectively through the utility grid and transmission lines to where it
is required by the load.

While reducing reactive power to help improve the power factor and system efficiency is a good thing, one of the disadvantages of
reactive power is that a sufficient quantity of it is required to control the voltage and overcome the losses in a transmission network.
This is because if the electrical network voltage is not high enough, active power cannot be supplied. But having too much reactive
power flowing around in the network can cause excess heating (I2R losses) and undesirable voltage drops and loss of power along
the transmission lines.

Power Factor Correction of Reactive Power

One way to avoid reactive power charges, is to install power factor correction capacitors. Normally residential customers are
charged only for the active power consumed in kilo-watt hours (kWhr) because nearly all residential and single phase power factor
values are essentially the same due to power factor correction capacitors being built into most domestic appliances by the
manufacturer.

Industrial customers, on the other hand, which use 3-phase supplies have widely different power factors, and for this reason, the
electrical utility may have to take the power factors of these industrial customers into account paying a penalty if their power factor
drops below a prescribed value because it costs the utility companies more to supply industrial customers since larger conductors,
larger transformers, larger switchgear, etc, is required to handle the larger currents.

Generally, for a load with a power factor of less than 0.95 more reactive power is required. For a load with a power factor value
higher than 0.95 is considered good as the power is being consumed more effectively, and a load with a power factor of 1.0 or unity
is considered perfect and does not use any reactive power.

Then we have seen that “apparent power” is a combination of both “reactive power” and “active power”. Active or real power is a
result of a circuit containing resistive components only, while reactive power results from a circuit containing either capacitive and
inductive components. Almost all AC circuits will contain a combination of these R, L and C components.

Since reactive power takes away from the active power, it must be considered in an electrical system to ensure that the apparent
power supplied is sufficient to supply the load. This is a critical aspect of understanding AC power sources because the power
source must be capable of supplying the necessary volt-amp (VA) power for any given load.

Voltage Transformer Basics

One of the main reasons that we use alternating AC voltages and currents in our homes and workplace’s is that AC
supplies can be easily generated at a convenient voltage, transformed (hence the name transformer) into much higher
voltages and then distributed around the country using a national grid of pylons and cables over very long distances.

The reason for transforming the voltage to a much higher level is that higher distribution voltages implies lower currents for the same
power and therefore lower I 2R losses along the networked grid of cables. These higher AC transmission voltages and currents can
then be reduced to a much lower, safer and usable voltage level where it can be used to supply electrical equipment in our homes
and workplaces, and all this is possible thanks to the basic Voltage Transformer.
 A Typical Voltage Transformer
The Voltage Transformer can be thought of as an electrical component rather than an electronic component. A transformer
basically is very simple static (or stationary) electro-magnetic passive electrical device that works on the principle of Faraday’s law
of induction by converting electrical energy from one value to another.

The transformer does this by linking together two or more electrical circuits using a common oscillating magnetic circuit which is
produced by the transformer itself. A transformer operates on the principals of “electromagnetic induction”, in the form of   Mutual
Induction.

Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire magnetically induces a voltage into another coil located in close proximity to
it. Then we can say that transformers work in the “magnetic domain”, and transformers get their name from the fact that they
“transform” one voltage or current level into another.

Transformers are capable of either increasing or decreasing the voltage and current levels of their supply, without modifying its
frequency, or the amount of Electrical Power being transferred from one winding to another via the magnetic circuit.

A single phase voltage transformer basically consists of two electrical coils of wire, one called the “Primary Winding” and another
called the “Secondary Winding”. For this tutorial we will define the “primary” side of the transformer as the side that usually takes
power, and the “secondary” as the side that usually delivers power. In a single-phase voltage transformer the primary is usually the
side with the higher voltage.

These two coils are not in electrical contact with each other but are instead wrapped together around a common closed magnetic
iron circuit called the “core”. This soft iron core is not solid but made up of individual laminations connected together to help reduce
the core’s losses.

The two coil windings are electrically isolated from each other but are magnetically linked through the common core allowing
electrical power to be transferred from one coil to the other. When an electric current passed through the primary winding, a
magnetic field is developed which induces a voltage into the secondary winding as shown.

Single Phase Voltage Transformer

 In other words, for a transformer there is no direct electrical connection between the two coil windings, thereby giving it the name
also of an Isolation Transformer. Generally, the primary winding of a transformer is connected to the input voltage supply and
converts or transforms the electrical power into a magnetic field. While the job of the secondary winding is to convert this alternating
magnetic field into electrical power producing the required output voltage as shown.

Transformer Construction (single-phase)

 Where:

   VP  -  is the Primary Voltage

   VS  -  is the Secondary Voltage

   NP  -  is the Number of Primary Windings

   NS  -  is the Number of Secondary Windings

   Φ (phi)  -  is the Flux Linkage

Notice that the two coil windings are not electrically connected but are only linked magnetically. A single-phase transformer can
operate to either increase or decrease the voltage applied to the primary winding. When a transformer is used to “increase” the
voltage on its secondary winding with respect to the primary, it is called a Step-up transformer. When it is used to “decrease” the
voltage on the secondary winding with respect to the primary it is called a Step-down transformer.

However, a third condition exists in which a transformer produces the same voltage on its secondary as is applied to its primary
winding. In other words, its output is identical with respect to voltage, current and power transferred. This type of transformer is
called an “Impedance Transformer” and is mainly used for impedance matching or the isolation of adjoining electrical circuits.

The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary windings is achieved by changing the number of coil turns in the
primary winding ( NP ) compared to the number of coil turns on the secondary winding ( NS ).

As the transformer is basically a linear device, a ratio now exists between the number of turns of the primary coil divided by the
number of turns of the secondary coil. This ratio, called the ratio of transformation, more commonly known as a transformers “turns
ratio”, ( TR ). This turns ratio value dictates the operation of the transformer and the corresponding voltage available on the
secondary winding.

It is necessary to know the ratio of the number of turns of wire on the primary winding compared to the secondary winding. The turns
ratio, which has no units, compares the two windings in order and is written with a colon, such as  3:1 (3-to-1). This means in this
example, that if there are 3 volts on the primary winding there will be 1 volt on the secondary winding, 3 volts-to-1 volt. Then we can
see that if the ratio between the number of turns changes the resulting voltages must also change by the same ratio, and this is true.

Transformers are all about “ratios”. The ratio of the primary to the secondary, the ratio of the input to the output, and the turns ratio
of any given transformer will be the same as its voltage ratio. In other words for a transformer: “turns ratio = voltage ratio”. The
actual number of turns of wire on any winding is generally not important, just the turns ratio and this relationship is given as:
A Transformers Turns Ratio

Assuming an ideal transformer and the phase angles:  ΦP ≡ ΦS

Note that the order of the numbers when expressing a transformers turns ratio value is very important as the turns
ratio 3:1 expresses a very different transformer relationship and output voltage than one in which the turns ratio is given as: 1:3.

Transformer Basics Example No1

A voltage transformer has 1500 turns of wire on its primary coil and 500 turns of wire for its secondary coil. What will be the turns
ratio (TR) of the transformer.

This ratio of 3:1 (3-to-1) simply means that there are three primary windings for every one secondary winding. As the ratio moves
from a larger number on the left to a smaller number on the right, the primary voltage is therefore stepped down in value as shown.

Transformer Basics Example No2

If 240 volts rms is applied to the primary winding of the same transformer above, what will be the resulting secondary no load
voltage.

Again confirming that the transformer is a “step-down transformer as the primary voltage is 240 volts and the corresponding
secondary voltage is lower at 80 volts.

Then the main purpose of a transformer is to transform voltages at preset ratios and we can see that the primary winding has a set
amount or number of windings (coils of wire) on it to suit the input voltage. If the secondary output voltage is to be the same value as
the input voltage on the primary winding, then the same number of coil turns must be wound onto the secondary core as there are
on the primary core giving an even turns ratio of 1:1 (1-to-1). In other words, one coil turn on the secondary to one coil turn on the
primary.

If the output secondary voltage is to be greater or higher than the input voltage, (step-up transformer) then there must be more turns
on the secondary giving a turns ratio of 1:N (1-to-N), where N represents the turns ratio number. Likewise, if it is required that the
secondary voltage is to be lower or less than the primary, (step-down transformer) then the number of secondary windings must be
less giving a turns ratio of N:1 (N-to-1).

Transformer Action
We have seen that the number of coil turns on the secondary winding compared to the primary winding, the turns ratio, affects the
amount of voltage available from the secondary coil. But if the two windings are electrically isolated from each other, how is this
secondary voltage produced?

We have said previously that a transformer basically consists of two coils wound around a common soft iron core. When an
alternating voltage ( VP ) is applied to the primary coil, current flows through the coil which in turn sets up a magnetic field around
itself, called mutual inductance, by this current flow according to Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction. The strength of the
magnetic field builds up as the current flow rises from zero to its maximum value which is given asdΦ/dt.

As the magnetic lines of force setup by this electromagnet expand outward from the coil the soft iron core forms a path for and
concentrates the magnetic flux. This magnetic flux links the turns of both windings as it increases and decreases in opposite
directions under the influence of the AC supply.

However, the strength of the magnetic field induced into the soft iron core depends upon the amount of current and the number of
turns in the winding. When current is reduced, the magnetic field strength reduces.

When the magnetic lines of flux flow around the core, they pass through the turns of the secondary winding, causing a voltage to be
induced into the secondary coil. The amount of voltage induced will be determined by: N.dΦ/dt (Faraday’s Law), where N is the
number of coil turns. Also this induced voltage has the same frequency as the primary winding voltage.

Then we can see that the same voltage is induced in each coil turn of both windings because the same magnetic flux links the turns
of both the windings together. As a result, the total induced voltage in each winding is directly proportional to the number of turns in
that winding. However, the peak amplitude of the output voltage available on the secondary winding will be reduced if the magnetic
losses of the core are high.

If we want the primary coil to produce a stronger magnetic field to overcome the cores magnetic losses, we can either send a larger
current through the coil, or keep the same current flowing, and instead increase the number of coil turns ( NP ) of the winding. The
product of amperes times turns is called the “ampere-turns”, which determines the magnetising force of the coil.

So assuming we have a transformer with a single turn in the primary, and only one turn in the secondary. If one volt is applied to the
one turn of the primary coil, assuming no losses, enough current must flow and enough magnetic flux generated to induce one volt
in the single turn of the secondary. That is, each winding supports the same number of volts per turn.

As the magnetic flux varies sinusoidally, Φ = Φmax sinωt, then the basic relationship between induced emf, ( E ) in a coil winding
of N turns is given by:
 emf = turns x rate of change

 Where:

   ƒ  -  is the flux frequency in Hertz,  = ω/2π

   Ν  -  is the number of coil windings.

   Φ  -  is the flux density in webers

This is known as the Transformer EMF Equation. For the primary winding emf, N will be the number of primary turns, ( NP ) and for
the secondary winding emf, N will be the number of secondary turns, ( NS ).

Also please note that as transformers require an alternating magnetic flux to operate correctly, transformers cannot therefore be
used to transform or supply DC voltages or currents, since the magnetic field must be changing to induce a voltage in the secondary
winding. In other words,Transformers DO NOT Operate on DC Voltages, ONLY AC.

If a transformers primary winding was connected to a DC supply, the inductive reactance of the winding would be zero as DC has no
frequency, so the effective impedance of the winding will therefore be very low and equal only to the resistance of the copper used.
Thus the winding will draw a very high current from the DC supply causing it to overheat and eventually burn out, because as we
know I = V/R.

Transformer Basics Example No3

A single phase transformer has 480 turns on the primary winding and 90 turns on the secondary winding. The maximum value of the
magnetic flux density is 1.1T when 2200 volts, 50Hz is applied to the transformer primary winding. Calculate:

a). The maximum flux in the core.

 

b). The cross-sectional area of the core.

c). The secondary induced emf.

Electrical Power in a Transformer

Another one of the transformer basics parameters is its power rating. Transformers are rated inVolt-amperes, ( VA ), or in larger
units of Kilo Volt-amperes, ( kVA ). In an ideal transformer (ignoring any losses), the power available in the secondary winding will
be the same as the power in the primary winding, they are constant wattage devices and do not change the power only the voltage
to current ratio. Thus, in an ideal transformer the Power Ratio is equal to one (unity) as the voltage, V multiplied by the current, I will
remain constant.

That is the electric power at one voltage/current level on the primary is “transformed” into electric power, at the same frequency, to
the same voltage/current level on the secondary side. Although the transformer can step-up (or step-down) voltage, it cannot step-
up power. Thus, when a transformer steps-up a voltage, it steps-down the current and vice-versa, so that the output power is always
at the same value as the input power. Then we can say that primary power equals secondary power, ( PP = PS ).
Power in a Transformer

Where: ΦP is the primary phase angle and ΦS is the secondary phase angle.

Note that since power loss is proportional to the square of the current being transmitted, that is: I2R, increasing the voltage, let’s say
doubling ( ×2 ) the voltage would decrease the current by the same amount, ( ÷2 ) while delivering the same amount of power to the
load and therefore reducing losses by factor of 4. If the voltage was increased by a factor of 10, the current would decrease by the
same factor reducing overall losses by factor of 100.

Transformer Basics – Efficiency

A transformer does not require any moving parts to transfer energy. This means that there are no friction or windage losses
associated with other electrical machines. However, transformers do suffer from other types of losses called “copper losses” and
“iron losses” but generally these are quite small.

Copper losses, also known as I2R loss is the electrical power which is lost in heat as a result of circulating the currents around the
transformers copper windings, hence the name. Copper losses represents the greatest loss in the operation of a transformer. The
actual watts of power lost can be determined (in each winding) by squaring the amperes and multiplying by the resistance in ohms
of the winding (I2R).

Iron losses, also known as hysteresis is the lagging of the magnetic molecules within the core, in response to the alternating
magnetic flux. This lagging (or out-of-phase) condition is due to the fact that it requires power to reverse magnetic molecules; they
do not reverse until the flux has attained sufficient force to reverse them.

Their reversal results in friction, and friction produces heat in the core which is a form of power loss. Hysteresis within the
transformer can be reduced by making the core from special steel alloys.

The intensity of power loss in a transformer determines its efficiency. The efficiency of a transformer is reflected in power (wattage)
loss between the primary (input) and secondary (output) windings. Then the resulting efficiency of a transformer is equal to the ratio
of the power output of the secondary winding, PS to the power input of the primary winding, PP and is therefore high.

An ideal transformer is 100% efficient because it delivers all the energy it receives. Real transformers on the other hand are not
100% efficient and at full load, the efficiency of a transformer is between 94% to 96% which is quiet good. For a transformer
operating with a constant voltage and frequency with a very high capacity, the efficiency may be as high as 98%. The efficiency,  η of
a transformer is given as:
Transformer Efficiency

where: Input, Output and Losses are all expressed in units of power.

Generally when dealing with transformers, the primary watts are called “volt-amps”, VA to differentiate them from the secondary
watts. Then the efficiency equation above can be modified to:

It is sometimes easier to remember the relationship between the transformers input, output and efficiency by using pictures. Here
the three quantities of VA, W and η have been superimposed into a triangle giving power in watts at the top with volt-amps and
efficiency at the bottom. This arrangement represents the actual position of each quantity in the efficiency formulas.

Transformer Efficiency Triangle

and transposing the above triangle quantities gives us the following combinations of the same equation:
 

Then, to find Watts (output) = VA x eff., or to find VA (input) = W/eff., or to find Efficiency, eff. =W/VA, etc.

Transformer Basics Summary

Then to summarise this transformer basics tutorial. A Transformer changes the voltage level (or current level) on its input winding
to another value on its output winding using a magnetic field. A transformer consists of two electrically isolated coils and operates on
Faraday’s principal of “mutual induction”, in which an EMF is induced in the transformers secondary coil by the magnetic flux
generated by the voltages and currents flowing in the primary coil winding.

Both the primary and secondary coil windings are wrapped around a common soft iron core made of individual laminations to reduce
eddy current and power losses. The primary winding of the transformer is connected to the AC power source which must be
sinusoidal in nature, while the secondary winding supplies power to the load.

We can represent the transformer in block diagram form as follows:

Basic Representation of the Transformer

The ratio of the transformers primary and secondary windings with respect to each other produces either a step-up voltage
transformer or a step-down voltage transformer with the ratio between the number of primary turns to the number of secondary turns
being called the “turns ratio” or “transformer ratio”.

If this ratio is less than unity, n < 1 then NS is greater than NP and the transformer is classed as a step-up transformer. If this ratio is
greater than unity, n > 1, that is NP is greater than NS, the transformer is classed as a step-down transformer. Note that single phase
step-down transformer can also be used as a step-up transformer simply by reversing its connections and making the low voltage
winding its primary, and vice versa as long as the transformer is operated within its original VA design rating.

If the turns ratio is equal to unity, n = 1 then both the primary and secondary have the same number of windings, therefore the
voltages and currents are the same for both windings.

This type of transformer is classed as an isolation transformer as both the primary and secondary windings of the transformer have
the same number of volts per turn. The efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of the power it delivers to the load to the power it
absorbs from the supply. In an ideal transformer there are no losses so no loss of power then Pin = Pout.
In the next tutorial to do with Transformer Basics, we will look at the physical Construction of a Transformer and see the different
magnetic core types and laminations used to support the primary and secondary windings.

Autotransformer Basics
Unlike the previous voltage transformer which has two electrically isolated windings called: the primary and the
secondary, an Autotransformer has only one single voltage winding which is common to both sides. This single winding is
“tapped” at various points along its length to provide a percentage of the primary voltage supply across its secondary
load. Then the autotransformer has the usual magnetic core but only has one winding, which is common to both the
primary and secondary circuits.

Therefore in an autotransformer the primary and secondary windings are linked together both electrically and magnetically. The
main advantage of this type of transformer design is that it can be made a lot cheaper for the same VA rating, but the biggest
disadvantage of an autotransformer is that it does not have the primary/secondary winding isolation of a conventional double wound
transformer.

The section of winding designated as the primary part of the winding is connected to the AC power source with the secondary being
part of this primary winding. An autotransformer can also be used to step the supply voltage up or down by reversing the
connections. If the primary is the total winding and is connected to a supply, and the secondary circuit is connected across only a
portion of the winding, then the secondary voltage is “stepped-down” as shown.

Autotransformer Design

When the primary current IP is flowing through the single winding in the direction of the arrow as shown, the secondary current, IS,
flows in the opposite direction. Therefore, in the portion of the winding that generates the secondary voltage,  VS the current flowing
out of the winding is the difference of IP and IS.

The Autotransformer can also be constructed with more than one single tapping point. Auto-transformers can be used to provide
different voltage points along its winding or increase its supply voltage with respect to its supply voltage VP as shown.
Autotransformer with Multiple Tapping Points

The standard method for marking an auto-transformer windings is to label it with capital (upper case) letters. So for
example, A, B, Z etc to identify the supply end. Generally the common neutral connection is marked as  N or n. For the secondary
tapping’s, suffix numbers are used for all tapping points along the auto-transformers primary winding. These numbers generally start
at number 1 and continue in ascending order for all tapping points as shown.

Autotransformer Terminal Markings

An autotransformer is used mainly for the adjustments of line voltages to either change its value or to keep it constant. If the voltage
adjustment is by a small amount, either up or down, then the transformer ratio is small as  VP and VS are nearly equal.
Currents IP and IS are also nearly equal.

Therefore, the portion of the winding which carries the difference between the two currents can be made from a much smaller
conductor size, since the currents are much smaller saving on the cost of an equivalent double wound transformer.

However, the regulation, leakage inductance and physical size (since there is no second winding) of an autotransformer for a given
VA or KVA rating are less than for a double wound transformer.

Autotransformer’s are clearly much cheaper than conventional double wound transformers of the same VA rating. When deciding
upon using an autotransformer it is usual to compare its cost with that of an equivalent double wound type.

This is done by comparing the amount of copper saved in the winding. If the ratio “n” is defined as the ratio of the lower voltage to
the higher voltage, then it can be shown that the saving in copper is: n.100%. For example, the saving in copper for the two
autotransformer’s would be:
Autotransformer Example No1
An autotransformer is required to step-up a voltage from 220 volts to 250 volts. The total number of coil turns on the transformer
main winding is 2000. Determine the position of the primary tapping point, the primary and secondary currents when the output is
rated at 10KVA and the economy of copper saved.
  

Then the primary current is 45.4 amperes, the secondary current drawn by the load is 40 amperes and 5.4 amperes flows through
the common winding. The economy of copper is 88%.

Disadvantages of an Autotransformer
 The main disadvantage of an autotransformer is that it does not have the primary to secondary winding isolation of a

conventional double wound transformer. Then autotransformer’s can not safely be used for stepping down higher voltages to

much lower voltages suitable for smaller loads.

 If the secondary side winding becomes open-circuited, current stops flowing through the primary winding stopping the

transformer action resulting in the full primary voltage being applied to the secondary circuit.

 If the secondary circuit suffers a short-circuit condition, the resulting primary current would be much larger than an

equivalent double wound transformer due to the increased flux linkage damaging the autotransformer.

 Since the neutral connection is common to both the primary and secondary windings, earthing of the secondary

winding automatically Earths the primary as there is no isolation between the two windings. Double wound transformers are

sometimes used to isolate equipment from earth.

The autotransformer has many uses and applications including the starting of induction motors, used to regulate the voltage of
transmission lines, and can be used to transform voltages when the primary to secondary ratio is close to unity.

An autotransformer can also be made from conventional two-winding transformers by connecting the primary and secondary
windings together in series and depending upon how the connection is made, the secondary voltage may add to, or subtract from,
the primary voltage.

The Variable Autotransformer

As well as having a fixed or tapped secondary that produces a voltage output at a specific level, there is another useful application
of the auto transformer type of arrangement which can be used to produce a variable AC voltage from a fixed voltage AC supply.
This type of  Variable Autotransformer is generally used in laboratories and science labs in schools and colleges and is known
more commonly as the Variac.

The construction of a variable autotransformer, or variac, is the same as for the fixed type. A single primary winding wrapped around
a laminated magnetic core is used as in the auto transformer but instead of being fixed at some predetermined tapping point, the
secondary voltage is tapped through a carbon brush.

This carbon brush is rotated or allowed to slide along an exposed section of the primary winding, making contact with it as it moves
supplying the required voltage level.

Then a variable autotransformer contains a variable tap in the form of a carbon brush that slides up and down the primary winding
which controls the secondary winding length and hence the secondary output voltage is fully variable from the primary supply
voltage value to zero volts.

The variable autotransformer is usually designed with a significant number of primary windings to produce a secondary voltage
which can be adjusted from a few volts to fractions of a volt per turn. This is achieved because the carbon brush or slider is always
in contact with one or more turns of the primary winding. As the primary coil turns are evenly spaced along its length. Then the
output voltage becomes proportional to the angular rotation.

Variable Autotransformer

We can see that the variac can adjust the voltage to the load smoothly from zero to the rated supply voltage. If the supply voltage
was tapped at some point along the primary winding, then potentially the output secondary voltage could be higher than the actual
supply voltage. Variable autotransformer’s can also be used for the dimming of lights and when used in this type of application, they
are sometimes called “dimmerstats”.

Variac’s are also very useful in Electrical and Electronics workshops and labs as they can be used to provide a variable AC supply.
But caution needs to be taken with suitable fuse protection to ensure that the higher supply voltage is not present at the secondary
terminals under fault conditions.
The Autotransformer have many advantages over conventional double wound transformers. They are generally more efficient for
the same VA rating, are smaller in size, and as they require less copper in their construction, their cost is less compared to double
wound transformers of the same VA rating. Also, their core and copper losses, I2R are lower due to less resistance and leakage
reactance giving a superior voltage regulation than the equivalent two winding transformer.

In the next tutorial about Transformers we will look at another design of transformer which does not have a conventional primary
winding wound around its core. This type of transformer is commonly called a Current Transformer and is used to supply
ammeters and other such electrical power indicators.

Multiple Winding Transformers

Thus far we have looked at transformers which have one single primary winding and one single secondary winding. But
the beauty of transformers is that they allow us to have more than just one winding in either the primary or secondary
side. Transformers which have more than one winding are known commonly as Multiple Winding Transformers.

The principal of operation of a multiple winding transformer is no different from that of an ordinary transformer. Primary and
secondary voltages, currents and turns ratios are all calculated the same, the difference this time is that we need to pay special
attention to the voltage polarities of each coil winding, the dot convention marking the positive (or negative) polarity of the winding,
when we connect them together.

Multiple winding transformers, also known as a multi-coil, or multi-winding transformer, contain more than one primary or more than
one secondary coil, hence their name, on a common laminated core. They can be either a single-phase transformer or a three-
phase transformer, (multi-winding, multi-phase transformer) the operation is the same.

Multiple Winding Transformers can also be used to provide either a step-up, a step-down, or a combination of both between the
various windings. In fact a multiple winding transformers can have several secondary windings on the same core with each one
providing a different voltage or current level output.

As transformers operate on the principal of mutual induction, each individual winding of a multiple winding transformer supports the
same number of volts per turn, therefore the volt-ampere product in each winding is the same, that is  NP/NS = VP/VS with any turns
ratio between the individual coil windings being relative to the primary supply.

In electronic circuits, one transformer is often used to supply a variety of lower voltage levels for different components in the
electronic circuitry. A typical application of multiple winding transformers is in power supplies and  Triac Switching Converters. So a
transformer may have a number of different secondary windings, each of which is electrically isolated from the others, just as it is
electrically isolated from the primary. Then each of the secondary coils will produce a voltage that is proportional to its number of
coil turns for example.
Multiple Winding Transformer

Above shows an example of a typical “multiple winding transformer” which has a number of different secondary windings supplying
various voltage levels. The primary windings can be used individually or connected together to operate the transformer from a
higher supply voltages.

The secondary windings can be connected together in various configurations producing a higher voltage or current supply. It must
be noted that connecting together transformer windings is only possible if the two windings are electrically identical. That is their
current and voltage ratings are the same.

Dual Voltage Transformers

There are a number or multiple winding transformers available which have two primary windings of identical voltage and current
ratings and two secondary windings also with identical voltage and current ratings. These transformers are designed so that they
can be used in a variety of applications with the windings connected together in either a series or parallel combinations for higher
primary voltages or secondary currents. These types of multiple winding transformers are more commonly called Dual Voltage
Transformers as shown.

Dual Primary & Dual Secondary Transformer.

 
Here the transformer has two primary windings and two secondary windings, four in total. The connections to the primary or
secondary windings must be made correctly with dual voltage transformers. If connected improperly, it is possible to create a dead
short that will usually destroy the transformer when it is energized.

We said previously that dual voltage transformers can be connected to operate from power supplies of different voltage levels,
hence their name “dual voltage transformers”. Then for example, lets say that the primary winding could have a voltage rating of
240/120V on the primary and 12/24V on the secondary. To achieve this, each of the two primary windings is, therefore, rated at
120V, and each secondary winding is rated at 12V. The transformer must be connected so that each primary winding receives the
proper voltage. Consider the circuit below.

Series Connected Secondary Transformer.

Here in this example, the two 120V rated primary windings are connected together in series across a 240V supply as the two
windings are identical, half the supply voltage, namely 120V, is dropped across each winding and the same primary current flows
through both. The two secondary windings rated at 12V, 2.5A each are connected in series with the secondary terminal voltage
being the sum of the two individual winding voltages giving 24 Volts.

As the two windings are connected in series, the same amount of current flows through each winding, then the secondary current is
the same at 2.5 Amps. So for a series connected secondary, the output in our example above is rated at 24 Volts, 2.5 Amps.
Consider the parallel connected transformer below.

Parallel Connected Secondary Transformer.

Here we have kept the two primary windings the same but the two secondary windings are now connected in a parallel combination.
As before, the two secondary windings are rated at 12V, 2.5A each, therefore the secondary terminal voltage will be the same at 12
Volts but the current adds. Then for a parallel connected secondary, the output in our example above is rated at 12 Volts, 5.0 Amps.
Of course different dual voltage transformers will produce different amounts of secondary voltage and current but the principal is the
same. Secondary windings must be correctly connected together to produce the required voltage or current output.

Dot orientation is used on the windings to indicate the terminals that have the same phase relationship. For example connecting two
secondary windings together in opposite dot-orientation will cause the two magnetic flux’s to cancel each other out resulting in zero
output.

Another type of dual voltage transformer which has only one secondary winding that is “tapped” at its electrical center point is called
the Center-tap Transformer.

Center Tapped Transformers

A center-tap transformer is designed to provide two separate secondary voltages, VA and VB with a common connection. This type of
transformer configuration produces a two-phase, 3-wire supply.

The secondary voltages are the same and proportional to the supply voltage, VP, therefore power in each winding is the same. The
voltages produced across each of the secondary winding is determined by the turns ratio as shown.

The Center-tap Transformer

Above shows a typical center-tap transformer. The tapping point is in the exact center of the secondary winding providing a common
connection for two equal but opposite secondary voltages. With the center-tap grounded, the output  VA will be positive in nature with
respect to the ground, while the voltage at the other secondary, VB will be negative and opposite in nature, that is they are
180o electrical degrees out-of-phase with each other.

However, there is one disadvantage of using an ungrounded center tapped transformer and that is it can produce unbalanced
voltages in the two secondary windings due to unsymmetrical currents flowing in the common third connection because of
unbalanced loads.

We can also produce a center-tap transformer using the dual voltage transformer from above. By connecting the secondary
windings in series, we can use the center link as the tap as shown. If the output from each secondary is V, the total output voltage
for the secondary winding will be equal to2V as shown.
Center-tap Transformer using a Dual Voltage Transformer

Multiple Winding Transformers have many uses in electrical and electronic circuits. They can be used to supply different
secondary voltages to different loads. Have their windings connected together in series or parallel combinations to provide higher
voltages or currents, or have their secondary windings connected together in series to produce a center tapped transformer.

In the next tutorial about Transformers we will look at how Autotransformers work and see that they have only one main primary
winding and no separate secondary winding.

Three Phase Transformer Basics

Thus far we have looked at the construction and operation of the single-phase, two winding voltage transformer which can
be used increase or decrease its secondary voltage with respect to the primary supply voltage. But voltage transformers
can also be constructed for connection to not only one single phase, but for two-phases, three-phases, six-phases and
even elaborate combinations up to 24-phases for some DC rectification transformers.

If we take three single-phase transformers and connect their primary windings to each other and their secondary windings to each
other in a fixed configuration, we can use the transformers on a three-phase supply.

Three-phase, also written as 3-phase or 3φ supplies are used for electrical power generation, transmission, and distribution, as well
as for all industrial uses. Three-phase supplies have many electrical advantages over Single-phase Power and when considering
three-phase transformers we have to deal with three alternating voltages and currents differing in phase-time by 120 degrees as
shown below.
Three Phase Voltages and Currents

Where: VL is the line-to-line voltage, and VP is the phase-to-neutral voltage.

A transformer can not act as a phase changing device and change single-phase into three-phase or three-phase into single phase.
To make the transformer connections compatible with three-phase supplies we need to connect them together in a particular way to
form a Three Phase Transformer Configuration.

A three phase transformer or 3φ transformer can be constructed either by connecting together three single-phase transformers,
thereby forming a so-called three phase transformer bank, or by using one pre-assembled and balanced three phase transformer
which consists of three pairs of single phase windings mounted onto one single laminated core.

The advantages of building a single three phase transformer is that for the same kVA rating it will be smaller, cheaper and lighter
than three individual single phase transformers connected together because the copper and iron core are used more effectively. The
methods of connecting the primary and secondary windings are the same, whether using just one  Three Phase Transformeror
three separate Single Phase Transformers. Consider the circuit below:
Three Phase Transformer Connections

The primary and secondary windings of a transformer can be connected in different configuration as shown to meet practically any
requirement. In the case of three phase transformer windings, three forms of connection are possible: “star” (wye), “delta” (mesh)
and “interconnected-star” (zig-zag).

The combinations of the three windings may be with the primary delta-connected and the secondary star-connected, or star-delta,
star-star or delta-delta, depending on the transformers use. When transformers are used to provide three or more phases they are
generally referred to as a Polyphase Transformer.

Three Phase Transformer Star and Delta Configurations

But what do we mean by “star” (also known as Wye) and “delta” (also known as Mesh) when dealing with three-phase transformer
connections. A three phase transformer has three sets of primary and secondary windings. Depending upon how these sets of
windings are interconnected, determines whether the connection is a star or delta configuration.

The three available voltages, which themselves are each displaced from the other by 120 electrical degrees, not only decided on the
type of the electrical connections used on both the primary and secondary sides, but determine the flow of the transformers
currents.

With three single-phase transformers connected together, the magnetic flux’s in the three transformers differ in phase by 120 time-
degrees. With a single the three-phase transformer there are three magnetic flux’s in the core differing in time-phase by 120
degrees.

The standard method for marking three phase transformer windings is to label the three primary windings with capital (upper case)
letters A, B and C, used to represent the three individual phases of RED,  YELLOW  and BLUE. The secondary windings are
labelled with small (lower case) letters a, band c. Each winding has two ends normally labelled 1 and 2 so that, for example, the
second winding of the primary has ends which will be labelled B1 and B2, while the third winding of the secondary will be
labelled c1 and c2 as shown.
Transformer Star and Delta Configurations

Symbols are generally used on a three phase transformer to indicate the type or types of connections used with upper case  Y for
star connected, D for delta connected and Z for interconnected star primary windings, with lower case y, d and z for their respective
secondaries. Then, Star-Star would be labelled Yy, Delta-Delta would be labelled Dd and interconnected star to interconnected star
would be Zz for the same types of connected transformers.

Transformer Winding Identification

Connection Primary Winding Secondary Winding

Delta D d

Star Y y

Interconnected Z z

We now know that there are four ways in which three single-phase transformers may be connected together between primary and
secondary three-phase circuits. The configurations are delta-delta, star-star, star-delta, and delta-star. Transformers for high voltage
operation with the star connections has the advantage of reducing the voltage on an individual transformer, reducing the number of
turns required and an increase in the size of the conductors, making the coil windings easier and cheaper to insulate than delta
transformers.

The delta-delta connection nevertheless has one big advantage over the star-delta configuration, in that if one transformer of a
group of three should become faulty or disabled, the two remaining ones will continue to deliver three-phase power with a capacity
equal to approximately two thirds of the original output from the transformer unit.
Transformer Delta and Delta Connections

In a delta connected ( Dd ) group of transformers, the line voltage, VL is equal to the supply voltage,VL = VS. But the current in each
phase winding is given as: 1/√3 × IL of the line current, where IL is the line current.

One disadvantage of delta connected three phase transformers is that each transformer must be wound for the full-line voltage, (in
our example above 100V) and for 57.7 per cent, line current. The greater number of turns in the winding, together with the insulation
between turns, necessitate a larger and more expensive coil than the star connection. Another disadvantage with delta connected
three phase transformers is that there is no “neutral” or common connection.

In the star-star arrangement ( Yy ), (wye-wye), each transformer has one terminal connected to a common junction, or neutral point
with the three remaining ends of the primary windings connected to the three-phase mains supply. The number of turns in a
transformer winding for star connection is 57.7 per cent, of that required for delta connection.

The star connection requires the use of three transformers, and if any one transformer becomes fault or disabled, the whole group
might become disabled. Nevertheless, the star connected three phase transformer is especially convenient and economical in
electrical power distributing systems, in that a fourth wire may be connected as a neutral point, ( n ) of the three star connected
secondaries as shown.
Transformer Star and Star Connections

The voltage between any line of the three-phase transformer is called the “line voltage”, VL, while the voltage between any line and
the neutral point of a star connected transformer is called the “phase voltage”,  VP. This phase voltage between the neutral point and
any one of the line connections is 1/√3 × VL of the line voltage. Then above, the primary side phase voltage, VP is given as.

The secondary current in each phase of a star-connected group of transformers is the same as that for the line current of the supply,
then IL = IS.

Then the relationship between line and phase voltages and currents in a three-phase system can be summarised as:

Three-phase Voltage and Current

Connection Phase Voltage Line Voltage Phase Current Line Current

Star VP = VL ÷ √3 VL = √3 × VP IP = IL IL = IP

Delta VP = VL VL = VP IP = IL ÷ √3 IL = √3 × IP

Where again, VL is the line-to-line voltage, and VP is the phase-to-neutral voltage on either the primary or the secondary side.

Other possible connections for three phase transformers are star-delta Yd, where the primary winding is star-connected and the
secondary is delta-connected or delta-star Dy with a delta-connected primary and a star-connected secondary.

Delta-star connected transformers are widely used in low power distribution with the primary windings providing a three-wire
balanced load to the utility company while the secondary windings provide the required 4th-wire neutral or earth connection.
When the primary and secondary have different types of winding connections, star or delta, the overall turns ratio of the transformer
becomes more complicated. If a three-phase transformer is connected as delta-delta ( Dd ) or star-star ( Yy ) then the transformer
could potentially have a 1:1turns ratio. That is the input and output voltages for the windings are the same.

However, if the 3-phase transformer is connected in star–delta, ( Yd ) each star-connected primary winding will receive the phase
voltage, VP of the supply, which is equal to 1/√3 × VL.

Then each corresponding secondary winding will then have this same voltage induced in it, and since these windings are delta-
connected, the voltage 1/√3 × VL will become the secondary line voltage. Then with a 1:1 turns ratio, a star–delta connected
transformer will provide a √3:1 step-down line-voltage ratio.

Then for a star–delta ( Yd ) connected transformer the turns ratio becomes:

Star-Delta Turns Ratio

Likewise, for a delta–star ( Dy ) connected transformer, with a 1:1 turns ratio, the transformer will provide a 1:√3 step-up line-voltage
ratio. Then for a delta-star connected transformer the turns ratio becomes:

Delta-Star Turns Ratio

Then for the four basic configurations of a three-phase transformer, we can list the transformers secondary voltages and currents
with respect to the primary line voltage, VL and its primary line current IL as shown in the following table.

Three-phase Transformer Line Voltage and Current

Primary-Secondary Line Voltage Line Current

Configuration Primary or Secondary Primary or Secondary

Delta – Delta

Delta – Star

Star – Delta
 Star – Star

Where:  n equals the transformers “turns ratio” (T.R.) of the number of secondary windings  NS, divided by the number of primary
windings NP. ( NS/NP ) and VL is the line-to-line voltage with VPbeing the phase-to-neutral voltage.

Three Phase Transformer Example

The primary winding of a delta-star ( Dy ) connected 50VA transformer is supplied with a 100 volt, 50Hz three-phase supply. If the
transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 100 turns on the secondary winding, calculate the secondary side voltages and
currents.

Given Data: transformer rating, 50VA, supply voltage, 100v, primary turns 500, secondary turns,100.

Then the secondary side of the transformer supplies a line voltage, VL of about 35v giving a phase voltage, VP of 20v at 1.44
amperes.

Three Phase Transformer Construction

We have said previously that the three-phase transformer is effectively three interconnected single phase transformers on a single
laminated core and considerable savings in cost, size and weight can be achieved by combining the three windings onto a single
magnetic circuit as shown.
A three-phase transformer generally has the three magnetic circuits that are interlaced to give a uniform distribution of the
dielectric flux between the high and low voltage windings. The exception to this rule is a three-phase shell type transformer. In the
shell type of construction, even though the three cores are together, they are non-interlaced.

Three Phase Transformer Construction

The three-limb core-type three-phase transformer is the most common method of three-phase transformer construction allowing the
phases to be magnetically linked. Flux of each limb uses the other two limbs for its return path with the three magnetic flux’s in the
core generated by the line voltages differing in time-phase by 120 degrees. Thus the flux in the core remains nearly sinusoidal,
producing a sinusoidal secondary supply voltage.

The shell-type five-limb type three-phase transformer construction is heavier and more expensive to build than the core-type. Five-
limb cores are generally used for very large power transformers as they can be made with reduced height. A shell-type transformers
core materials, electrical windings, steel enclosure and cooling are much the same as for the larger single-phase types.

Transformer Construction
The construction of a simple two-winding transformer consists of each winding being wound on a separate limb or core of
the soft iron form which provides the necessary magnetic circuit. This magnetic circuit, know more commonly as the
“transformer core” is designed to provide a path for the magnetic field to flow around, which is necessary for induction of
the voltage between the two windings.

However, this type of transformer construction were the two windings are wound on separate limbs is not very efficient since the
primary and secondary windings are well separated from each other. This results in a low magnetic coupling between the two
windings as well as large amounts of magnetic flux leakage from the transformer itself. But as well as this “O” shapes construction,
there are different types of “transformer construction” and designs available which are used to overcome these inefficiencies
producing a smaller more compact transformer.
The efficiency of a simple Transformer Construction can be improved by bringing the two windings within close contact with each
other thereby improving the magnetic coupling. Increasing and concentrating the magnetic circuit around the coils may improve the
magnetic coupling between the two windings, but it also has the effect of increasing the magnetic losses of the transformer core.

As well as providing a low reluctance path for the magnetic field, the core is designed to prevent circulating electric currents within
the iron core itself. Circulating currents, called “eddy currents”, cause heating and energy losses within the core decreasing the
transformers efficiency.

These losses are due mainly to voltages induced in the iron circuit, which is constantly being subjected to the alternating magnetic
fields setup by the external sinusoidal supply voltage. One way to reduce these unwanted power losses is to construct the
transformer core from thin steel laminations.

In all types of transformer construction, the central iron core is constructed from of a highly permeable material made from thin
silicon steel laminations assembled together to provide the required magnetic path with the minimum of losses. The resistivity of the
steel sheet itself is high reducing the eddy current losses by making the laminations very thin.

These steel transformer laminations vary in thickness’s from between 0.25mm to 0.5mm and as steel is a conductor, the laminations
are electrically insulated from each other by a very thin coating of insulating varnish or by the use of an oxide layer on the surface.

Transformer Construction of the Core

Generally, the name associated with the construction of a transformer is dependant upon how the primary and secondary windings
are wound around the central laminated steel core. The two most common and basic designs of transformer construction are
the Closed-core Transformer and theShell-core Transformer.

In the “closed-core” type (core form) transformer, the primary and secondary windings are wound outside and surround the core
ring. In the “shell type” (shell form) transformer, the primary and secondary windings pass inside the steel magnetic circuit (core)
which forms a shell around the windings as shown below.
Transformer Core Construction

In both types of transformer core design, the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary windings travels entirely within the
core with no loss of magnetic flux through air. In the core type transformer construction, one half of each winding is wrapped around
each leg (or limb) of the transformers magnetic circuit as shown above.

The coils are not arranged with the primary winding on one leg and the secondary on the other but instead half of the primary
winding and half of the secondary winding are placed one over the other concentrically on each leg in order to increase magnetic
coupling allowing practically all of the magnetic lines of force go through both the primary and secondary windings at the same time.
However, with this type of transformer construction, a small percentage of the magnetic lines of force flow outside of the core, and
this is called “leakage flux”.

Shell type transformer cores overcome this leakage flux as both the primary and secondary windings are wound on the same centre
leg or limb which has twice the cross-sectional area of the two outer limbs. The advantage here is that the magnetic flux has two
closed magnetic paths to flow around external to the coils on both left and right hand sides before returning back to the central coils.

This means that the magnetic flux circulating around the outer limbs of this type of transformer construction is equal to Φ/2. As the
magnetic flux has a closed path around the coils, this has the advantage of decreasing core losses and increasing overall efficiency.

Transformer Laminations
But you may be wondering as to how the primary and secondary windings are wound around these laminated iron or steel cores for
this types of transformer constructions. The coils are firstly wound on a former which has a cylindrical, rectangular or oval type cross
section to suit the construction of the laminated core. In both the shell and core type transformer constructions, in order to mount the
coil windings, the individual laminations are stamped or punched out from larger steel sheets and formed into strips of thin steel
resembling the letters “E’s”, “L’s”, “U’s” and “I’s” as shown below.
Transformer Core Types

These lamination stampings when connected together form the required core shape. For example, two “E” stampings plus two end
closing “I” stampings to give an E-I core forming one element of a standard shell-type transformer core. These individual laminations
are tightly butted together during the transformers construction to reduce the reluctance of the air gap at the joints producing a
highly saturated magnetic flux density.

Transformer core laminations are usually stacked alternately to each other to produce an overlapping joint with more lamination
pairs being added to make up the correct core thickness. This alternate stacking of the laminations also gives the transformer the
advantage of reduced flux leakage and iron losses. E-I core laminated transformer construction is mostly used in isolation
transformers, step-up and step-down transformers as well as auto transformers.

Transformer Winding Arrangements

Transformer windings form another important part of a transformer construction, because they are the main current-carrying
conductors wound around the laminated sections of the core. In a single-phase two winding transformer, two windings would be
present as shown. The one which is connected to the voltage source and creates the magnetic flux called the primary winding, and
the second winding called the secondary in which a voltage is induced as a result of mutual induction.

If the secondary output voltage is less than that of the primary input voltage the transformer is known as a “Step-down Transformer”.
If the secondary output voltage is greater then the primary input voltage it is called a “Step-up Transformer”.

Core-type Construction
The type of wire used as the main current carrying conductor in a transformer winding is either copper or aluminium. While
aluminium wire is lighter and generally less expensive than copper wire, a larger cross sectional area of conductor must be used to
carry the same amount of current as with copper so it is used mainly in larger power transformer applications.
Small kVA power and voltage transformers used in low voltage electrical and electronic circuits tend to use copper conductors as
these have a higher mechanical strength and smaller conductor size than equivalent aluminium types. The downside is that when
complete with their core, these transformers are much heavier.

Transformer windings and coils can be broadly classified in to concentric coils and sandwiched coils. In core-type transformer
construction, the windings are usually arranged concentrically around the core limb as shown above with the higher voltage primary
winding being wound over the lower voltage secondary winding.

Sandwiched or “pancake” coils consist of flat conductors wound in a spiral form and are so named due to the arrangement of
conductors into discs. Alternate discs are made to spiral from outside towards the centre in an interleaved arrangement with
individual coils being stacked together and separated by insulating materials such as paper of plastic sheet. Sandwich coils and
windings are more common with shell type core construction.

Helical Windings also known as screw windings are another very common cylindrical coil arrangement used in low voltage high
current transformer applications. The windings are made up of large cross sectional rectangular conductors wound on its side with
the insulated strands wound in parallel continuously along the length of the cylinder, with suitable spacers inserted between
adjacent turns or discs to minimize circulating currents between the parallel strands. The coil progresses outwards as a helix
resembling that of a corkscrew.

Transformer Cores
The insulation used to prevent the conductors shorting together in a transformer is usually a thin layer of varnish or enamel in air
cooled transformers. This thin varnish or enamel paint is painted onto the wire before it is wound around the core.

In larger power and distribution transformers the conductors are insulated from each other using oil impregnated paper or cloth. The
whole core and windings is immersed and sealed in a protective tank containing transformer oil. The transformer oil acts as an
insulator and also as a coolant.

Transformer Dot Orientation

We can not just simply take a laminated core and wrap one of the coil configurations around it. We could but we may find that the
secondary voltage and current may be out-of-phase with that of the primary voltage and current. The two coil windings do have a
distinct orientation of one with respect to the other. Either coil could be wound around the core clockwise or anticlockwise so to keep
track of their relative orientations “dots” are used to identify a given end of each winding.

This method of identifying the orientation or direction of a transformers windings is called the “dot convention”. Then a transformers
windings are wound so that the correct phase relations exist between the winding voltages with the transformers polarity being
defined as the relative polarity of the secondary voltage with respect to the primary voltage as shown below.
Transformer Construction using Dot Orientation

The first transformer shows its two “dots” side by side on the two windings. The current leaving the secondary dot is “in-phase” with
the current entering the primary side dot. Thus the polarities of the voltages at the dotted ends are also in-phase so when the
voltage is positive at the dotted end of the primary coil, the voltage across the secondary coil is also positive at the dotted end.

The second transformer shows the two dots at opposite ends of the windings which means that the transformers primary and
secondary coil windings are wound in opposite directions. The result of this is that the current leaving the secondary dot is 180 o “out-
of-phase” with the current entering the primary dot. So the polarities of the voltages at the dotted ends are also out-of-phase so
when the voltage is positive at the dotted end of the primary coil, the voltage across the corresponding secondary coil will be
negative.

Then the construction of a transformer can be such that the secondary voltage may be either “in-phase” or “out-of-phase” with
respect to the primary voltage. In transformers which have a number of different secondary windings, each of which is electrically
isolated from each other it is important to know the dot polarity of the secondary windings so that they can be connected together in
series-aiding (secondary voltage is summed) or series-opposing (the secondary voltage is the difference) configurations.

The ability to adjust the turns ratio of a transformer is often desirable to compensate for the effects of variations in the primary
supply voltage, the regulation of the transformer or varying load conditions. Voltage control of the transformer is generally performed
by changing the turns ratio and therefore its voltage ratio whereby a part of the primary winding on the high voltage side is tapped
out allowing for easy adjustment. The tapping is preferred on the high voltage side as the volts per turn are lower than the low
voltage secondary side.
Transformer Primary Tap Changes

In this simple example, the primary tap changes are calculated for a supply voltage change of ±5%, but any value can be chosen.
Some transformers may have two or more primary or two or more secondary windings for use in different applications providing
different voltages from a single core.

Transformer Core Losses

The ability of iron or steel to carry magnetic flux is much greater than it is in air, and this ability to allow magnetic flux to flow is
called permeability. Most transformer cores are constructed from low carbon steels which can have permeabilities in the order of
1500 compared with just 1.0 for air.

This means that a steel laminated core can carry a magnetic flux 1500 times better than that of air. However, when a magnetic flux
flows in a transformers steel core, two types of losses occur in the steel. One termed “eddy current losses” and the other termed
“hysteresis losses”.

Hysteresis Losses
Transformer Hysteresis Losses are caused because of the friction of the molecules against the flow of the magnetic lines of force
required to magnetise the core, which are constantly changing in value and direction first in one direction and then the other due to
the influence of the sinusoidal supply voltage.

This molecular friction causes heat to be developed which represents an energy loss to the transformer. Excessive heat loss can
overtime shorten the life of the insulating materials used in the manufacture of the windings and structures. Therefore, cooling of a
transformer is important.

Also, transformers are designed to operate at a particular supply frequency. Lowering the frequency of the supply will result in
increased hysteresis and higher temperature in the iron core. So reducing the supply frequency from 60 Hertz to 50 Hertz will raise
the amount of hysteresis present, decreased the VA capacity of the transformer.

Eddy Current Losses

Transformer Eddy Current Losses on the other hand are caused by the flow of circulating currents induced into the steel caused by
the flow of the magnetic flux around the core. These circulating currents are generated because to the magnetic flux the core is
acting like a single loop of wire. Since the iron core is a good conductor, the eddy currents induced by a solid iron core will be large.

Eddy currents do not contribute anything towards the usefulness of the transformer but instead they oppose the flow of the induced
current by acting like a negative force generating resistive heating and power loss within the core.
 Laminating the Iron Core

Eddy current losses within a transformer core can not be eliminated completely, but they can be greatly reduced and controlled by
reducing the thickness of the steel core. Instead of having one big solid iron core as the magnetic core material of the transformer or
coil, the magnetic path is split up into many thin pressed steel shapes called “laminations”.

The laminations used in a transformer construction are very thin strips of insulated metal joined together to produce a solid but
laminated core as we saw above. These laminations are insulated from each other by a coat of varnish or paper to increase the
effective resistivity of the core thereby increasing the overall resistance to limit the flow of the eddy currents.

The result of all this insulation is that the unwanted induced eddy current power-loss in the core is greatly reduced, and it is for this
reason why the magnetic iron circuit of every transformer and other electro-magnetic machines are all laminated. Using laminations
in a transformer construction reduces eddy current losses.

The losses of energy, which appears as heat due both to hysteresis and to eddy currents in the magnetic path, is known commonly
as “transformer core losses”. Since these losses occur in all magnetic materials as a result of alternating magnetic fields.
Transformer core losses are always present in a transformer whenever the primary is energized, even if no load is connected to the
secondary winding. Also these hysteresis and the eddy current losses are sometimes referred to as “transformer iron losses”, as the
magnetic flux causing these losses is constant at all loads.

Copper Losses
But there is also another type of energy loss associated with transformers called “copper losses”. Transformer Copper Losses are
mainly due to the electrical resistance of the primary and secondary windings. Most transformer coils are made from copper wire
which has resistance in Ohms, ( Ω ). This resistance opposes the magnetising currents flowing through them.

When a load is connected to the transformers secondary winding, large electrical currents flow in both the primary and the
secondary windings, electrical energy and power ( or the I2 R ) losses occur as heat. Generally copper losses vary with the load
current, being almost zero at no-load, and at a maximum at full-load when current flow is at maximum.

A transformers VA rating can be increased by better design and transformer construction to reduce these core and copper losses.
Transformers with high voltage and current ratings require conductors of large cross-section to help minimise their copper losses.
Increasing the rate of heat dissipation (better cooling) by forced air or oil, or by improving the transformers insulation so that it will
withstand higher temperatures can also increase a transformers VA rating.

Then we can define an ideal transformer as having:

 No Hysteresis loops or Hysteresis losses  → 0

 Infinite Resistivity of core material giving zero Eddy current losses  → 0

 Zero winding resistance giving zero I2R copper losses  → 0

In the next tutorial about Transformers we will look at Transformer Loading of the secondary winding with respect to an electrical
load and see the effect a “NO-load” and a “ON-load” connected transformer has on the primary winding current.
 Transformer Loading
In the previous transformer tutorials, we have assumed that the transformer is ideal, that is one in which there are no core
losses or copper losses in the transformers windings. However, in real world transformers there will always be losses
associated with the transformers loading as the transformer is put “on-load”. But what do we mean by:Transformer
Loading.

Well first let’s look at what happens to a transformer when it is in this “no-load” condition, that is with no electrical load connected to
its secondary winding and therefore no secondary current flowing.

A transformer is said to be on “no-load” when its secondary side winding is open circuited, in other words, nothing is attached and
the transformer loading is zero. When an AC Sinusoidal Supply is connected to the primary winding of a transformer, a small
current, IOPEN will flow through the primary coil winding due to the presence of the primary supply voltage.

With the secondary circuit open, nothing connected, a back EMF along with the primary winding resistance acts to limit the flow of
this primary current. Obviously, this no-load primary current ( Io ) must be sufficient to maintain enough magnetic field to produce
the required back emf. Consider the circuit below.

Transformer “No-load” Condition

The ammeter above will indicate a small current flowing through the primary winding even though the secondary circuit is open
circuited. This no-load primary current is made up of the following two components:

 1). An in-phase current, IE which supplies the core losses (eddy current and hysteresis).

 2). A current, IM at 90o to the voltage which sets up the magnetic flux.

 
Note that this no-load primary current, Io is very small compared to the transformers normal full-load current. Also due to the iron
losses present in the core as well as a small amount of copper losses in the primary winding,  Io does not lag behind the supply
voltage, Vp by exactly 90o, ( cosφ = 0 ), there will be some small phase angle difference.

Transformer Loading Example No1

A single phase transformer has an energy component, IE of 2 Amps and a magnetising component,IM of 5 Amps. Calculate the no-
load current, Io and resulting power factor.

Transformer “On-load”
When an electrical load is connected to the secondary winding of a transformer and the transformer loading is therefore greater than
zero, a current flows in the secondary winding and out to the load. This secondary current is due to the induced secondary voltage,
set up by the magnetic flux created in the core from the primary current.

The secondary current, IS which is determined by the characteristics of the load, creates a self-induced secondary magnetic
field, ΦS in the transformer core which flows in the exact opposite direction to the main primary field,  ΦP. These two magnetic fields
oppose each other resulting in a combined magnetic field of less magnetic strength than the single field produced by the primary
winding alone when the secondary circuit was open circuited.

This combined magnetic field reduces the back EMF of the primary winding causing the primary current,  IP to increase slightly. The
primary current continues to increase until the cores magnetic field is back at its original strength, and for a transformer to operate
correctly, a balanced condition must always exist between the primary and secondary magnetic fields. This results in the power to
be balanced and the same on both the primary and secondary sides. Consider the circuit below.
 Transformer “On-load”

We know that the turns ratio of a transformer states that the total induced voltage in each winding is proportional to the number of
turns in that winding and also that the power output and power input of a transformer is equal to the volts times amperes, (  V x I ).
Therefore:

But we also know previously that the voltage ratio of a transformer is equal to the turns ratio of a transformer as: “voltage ratio =
turns ratio”. Then the relationship between the voltage, current and number of turns in a transformer can be linked together and is
therefore given as:

Transformer Ratio

 Where:

   NP/NS = VP/VS  -  represents the voltage ratio

   NP/NS = IS/IP  -  represents the current ratio

Note that the current is inversely proportional to both the voltage and the number of turns. This means that with a transformer
loading on the secondary winding, in order to maintain a balanced power level across the transformers windings, if the voltage is
stepped up, the current must be stepped down and vice versa. In other words, “higher voltage — lower current” or “lower voltage —
higher current”.

As a transformers ratio is the relationships between the number of turns in the primary and secondary, the voltage across each
winding, and the current through the windings, we can rearrange the above transformer ratio equation to find the value of any
unknown voltage, ( V ) current, ( I ) or number of turns, ( N ) as shown.

The total current drawn from the supply by the primary winding is the vector sum of the no-load current, Io and the additional supply
current, I1 as a result of the secondary transformer loading and which lags behind the supply voltage by an angle of  Φ. We can show
this relationship as a phasor diagram.

Transformer Loading Current

 
If we are given currents, IS and Io, we can calculate the primary current, IP by the following methods.

Transformer Loading Example No2

A single phase transformer has 1000 turns on its primary winding and 200 turns on its secondary winding. The transformers “no-
load” current taken from the supply is 3 Amps at a power factor of 0.2 lagging. Calculate the primary winding current,  IP and its
corresponding power factor, φ when the secondary current supplying a transformer loading is 280 Amperes at 0.8 lagging.

 
 

You may have noticed that the phase angle of the primary current, φP is very nearly the same as that of the secondary current phase
angle, φS. This is due to the fact that the no-load current of 3 amperes is very small compared to the larger 56 amperes drawn by the
primary winding from the supply.

Actual real life, transformer windings have impedances of both XL and R. These impedances need to be taken into account when
drawing the phasor diagrams as these internal impedances cause voltage drops to occur within the transformers windings. The
internal impedances are due to the resistance of the windings and an inductance drop called the leakage reactance resulting from
the leakage flux. These internal impedances are given as:

So the primary and secondary windings of a transformer possess both resistance and reactance. Sometimes, it can be more
convenient if all these impedances are on the same side of the transformer to make the calculations easier. It is possible to move
the primary impedances to the secondary side or the secondary impedances to the primary side. The combined values
of R and Limpedances are called “Referred Impedances” or “Referred Values”. The object here is to group together the impedances
within the transformer and have just one value of R and XL in our calculations as shown.

Combining Transformer Impedances

In order to move a resistance from one side of the transformer to the other, we must first multiply them by the square of the turns
ratio, ( Turns Ratio2 ) in our calculations. So for example, to move a resistance of 2Ω from one side to the other in a transformer that
has a turns ratio of  8:1 will have a new resistive value of: 2 x 82 = 128Ω’s.

Note that if you move a resistance from a higher voltage side the new resistance value will increase and if you move the resistance
from a lower voltage side its new value will decrease. This applies to the load resistance and reactance as well.

Transformer Voltage Regulation

The Voltage Regulation of a Transformer is defined as the change in secondary terminal voltage when the transformer loading is at
its maximum, i.e. full-load applied while the primary supply voltage is held constant. Regulation determines the voltage drop (or
increase) that occurs inside the transformer as the load voltage becomes too low as a result of the transformers loading being to
high which therefore affects its performance and efficiency.

Voltage regulation is expressed as a percentage (or per unit) of the no-load voltage. Then if Erepresents the no-load secondary
voltage and V represents the full-load secondary voltage, the percentage regulation of a transformer is given as:

So for example, a transformer delivers 100 volts at no-load and the voltage drops to 95 volts at full load, the regulation would be 5%.
The value of E – V will depend upon the internal impedance of the winding which includes its resistance,  R and more significantly its
AC reactance X, the current and the phase angle.

Also voltage regulation generally increases as the power factor of the load becomes more lagging (inductive). Voltage regulation
with regards to the transformer loading can be either positive or negative in value, that is with the no-load voltage as reference, the
change down in regulation as the load is applied, or with the full-load as reference and the change up in regulation as the load is
reduced or removed.

In general, the regulation of the core type transformer when the transformer loading is high is not as good as the shell type
transformer. This is because the shell type transformer has better flux distribution due to the interlacing of the coil windings.

In the next tutorial about Transformers we will look at the Multiple Winding Transformer which has more than one primary winding
or more than one secondary winding and see how we can connect two or more secondary windings together in order to supply more
voltage or more current to the connected load.