Design constraints[edit]

Purpose[edit]
The design process starts with the aircraft's intended purpose. Commercial airliners are
designed for carrying a passenger or cargo payload, long range and greater fuel efficiency
where as fighter jets are designed to perform high speed maneuvers and provide close support
to ground troops. Some aircraft have specific missions, for instance, amphibious airplanes have
a unique design that allows them to operate from both land and water, some fighters, like
the Harrier Jump Jet, have VTOL (Vertical Take-off and Landing) ability, helicopters have the
ability to hover over an area for a period of time.[1]
The purpose may be to fit a specific requirement, e.g. as in the historical case of a British Air
Ministry specification, or fill a perceived "gap in the market"; that is, a class or design of aircraft
which does not yet exist, but for which there would be significant demand.

Aircraft regulations[edit]
Another important factor that influences the design of the aircraft are the regulations put forth
by national airworthiness authorities.[2][3]
Airports may also impose limits on aircraft, for instance, the maximum wingspan allowed for a
conventional aircraft is 80 m to prevent collisions between aircraft while taxiing. [4]

Financial factors and market[edit]

Budget limitations, market requirements and competition set constraints on the design process
and comprise the non-technical influences on aircraft design along with environmental factors.
Competition leads to companies striving for better efficiency in the design without compromising
performance and incorporating new techniques and technology. [5]
In the 1950s and ’60s, unattainable project goals were regularly set, but then abandoned,
whereas today troubled programs like the Boeing 787 and the Lockheed Martin F-35 have
proven far more costly and complex to develop than expected. More advanced and integrated
design tools have been developed. Model-based systems engineering predicts potentially
problematic interactions, while computational analysis and optimization allows designers to
explore more options early in the process. Increasing automation in engineering and
manufacturing allows faster and cheaper development. Technology advances from materials to
manufacturing enable more complex design variations like multifunction parts. Once impossible
to design or construct, these can now be 3D printed, but they have yet to prove their utility in
applications like the Northrop Grumman B-21 or the re-engined A320neo and 737 MAX. Airbus
and Boeing also recognize the economic limits, that the next airliner generation cannot cost
more than the previous ones did.[6]

Environmental factors[edit]
An increase in the number of aircraft also means greater carbon emissions. Environmental
scientists have voiced concern over the main kinds of pollution associated with aircraft, mainly
noise and emissions. Aircraft engines have been historically notorious for creating noise pollution
and the expansion of airways over already congested and polluted cities have drawn heavy
criticism, making it necessary to have environmental policies for aircraft noise. [7][8] Noise also
arises from the airframe, where the airflow directions are changed. [9] Improved noise regulations
have forced designers to create quieter engines and airframes. [10] Emissions from aircraft include
particulates, carbon dioxide (CO2), Sulfur dioxide (SO2), Carbon monoxide (CO),
various oxides of nitrates and unburnt hydrocarbons.[11] To combat the pollution, ICAO set
recommendations in 1981 to control aircraft emissions. [12] Newer, environmentally friendly fuels
have been developed[13] and the use of recyclable materials in manufacturing [14] have helped
reduce the ecological impact due to aircraft. Environmental limitations also affect airfield
compatibility. Airports around the world have been built to suit the topography of the particular
region. Space limitations, pavement design, runway end safety areas and the unique location of
airport are some of the airport factors that influence aircraft design. However changes in aircraft
design also influence airfield design as well, for instance, the recent introduction of new large
aircraft (NLAs) such as the superjumbo Airbus A380, have led to airports worldwide redesigning
their facilities to accommodate its large size and service requirements. [15][16]

Safety[edit]
The high speeds, fuel tanks, atmospheric conditions at cruise altitudes, natural hazards
(thunderstorms, hail and bird strikes) and human error are some of the many hazards that pose
a threat to air travel.[17][18][19]
Airworthiness is the standard by which aircraft are determined fit to fly.[20] The responsibility for
airworthiness lies with national aviation regulatory bodies, manufacturers, as well as owners and
operators.[citation needed]
The International Civil Aviation Organization sets international standards and recommended
practices for national authorities to base their regulations on [21][22] The national regulatory
authorities set standards for airworthiness, issue certificates to manufacturers and operators and
the standards of personnel training. [23] Every country has its own regulatory body such as
the Federal Aviation Authority in USA, DGCA (Directorate General of Civil Aviation) in India, etc.
The aircraft manufacturer makes sure that the aircraft meets existing design standards, defines
the operating limitations and maintenance schedules and provides support and maintenance
throughout the operational life of the aircraft. The aviation operators include the passenger and
cargo airliners, air forces and owners of private aircraft. They agree to comply with the
regulations set by the regulatory bodies, understand the limitations of the aircraft as specified by
the manufacturer, report defects and assist the manufacturers in keeping up the airworthiness
standards.[citation needed]
Most of the design criticisms these days are built on crashworthiness. Even with the greatest
attention to airworthiness, accidents still occur. Crashworthiness is the qualitative evaluation of
how aircraft survive an accident. The main objective is to protect the passengers or valuable
cargo from the damage caused by an accident. In the case of airliners the stressed skin of the
pressurized fuselage provides this feature, but in the event of a nose or tail impact, large
bending moments build all the way through the fuselage, causing fractures in the shell, causing
the fuselage to break up into smaller sections.[24] So the passenger aircraft are designed in such
a way that seating arrangements are away from areas likely to be intruded in an accident, such
as near a propeller, engine nacelle undercarriage etc. [25] The interior of the cabin is also fitted with
safety features such as oxygen masks that drop down in the event of loss of cabin pressure,
lockable luggage compartments, safety belts, lifejackets, emergency doors and luminous floor
strips. Aircraft are sometimes designed with emergency water landing in mind, for instance
the Airbus A330 has a 'ditching' switch that closes valves and openings beneath the aircraft
slowing the ingress of water.[26]

Design optimization[edit]
Aircraft designers normally rough-out the initial design with consideration of all the constraints on
their design. Historically design teams used to be small, usually headed by a Chief Designer who
knows all the design requirements and objectives and coordinated the team accordingly. As time
progressed, the complexity of military and airline aircraft also grew. Modern military and airline
design projects are of such a large scale that every design aspect is tackled by different teams
and then brought together. In general aviation a large number of light aircraft are designed and
built by amateur hobbyists and enthusiasts.[27]