Nuclear Reactor Materials
may conveniently be divided into two categories:
Nuclear fission energy eminently stands today as a
relatively well-developed option to produce electric
power. Nuclear reactors are most fundamentally
classified according to the range of the kinetic energy
of those neutrons which are responsible for inducing
most fissions in the chain reaction. There are fast
reactors; fast neutrons induce most fission reactions in
them. There are intermediate, epithermal reactors in
which it is the epithermal neutrons that cause most
fission reactions. Then there are thermal reactors,
implying that thermal neutrons cause most fission
reactions in these systems. Among the systems cited, it
is the thermal reactor which is the most developed.
The design, construction, and operation of thermal
power reactor systems by nuclear installations all over
the world have accounted for the principal share of
nuclear energy delivered in the service of man. In
addition, based on the functions they perform, the
reactors can also be classified into power reactors
meant for the production of electric power, research
reactors meant to carry out principally nuclear re-
search and materials-testing experiments, and teaching
reactors meant to teach students most of the fun-
damental reactor experiments.
Harnessing of nuclear energy, a primary source of
extremely high density, involves a technology that
leans very heavily on materials, as far as the economic
efficiency and societal impact of this technology are
concerned. In the nuclear field, apart from a host of
rigorous conventional requirements, such as those
pertaining to thermal and mechanical stress, cor-
rosion, and so on, there are novel and unusual
nonconventional requirements, such as those pertain-
ing to the resistance to the influences of nuclear
radiation, the interaction with neutrons, the pro-
duction of fission products, and so on. It is, therefore,
not surprising for one to perceive the nuclear field not
only as including within its realm preoccupation with
a large number of new, or less common, materials but
also as evolving new standards of references and codes
in evaluating and utilizing already known materials.
In this respect, it is entirely in order to bring to the
fore a specific class of materials which may be called
nuclear reactor materials, so named as to be synonym-
ously representative of their applications exclusively
for the nuclear field.
This article provides a brief account of nuclear
reactor materials. It is confined to a selected materials
list pertaining only to nuclear fission reactor systems.
This materials list, which may also be viewed as a
primary component list for nuclear fission reactors, is
made up of (i) fissile and fertile fuel materials, (ii)
structural materials, (iii) moderator, reflector, and
blanket materials, (iv) coolant materials, and (v)
control, shielding, and safety system materials.
Materials destined to see service in nuclear fission
reactors must possess certain properties, and those
general properties (mechanical strength, ductility,
toughness, fabricability, etc.), and special properties
(neutronic properties, induced radioactivity, irradi-
ation stability, ease of spent fuel processing, etc.).
1. Nuclear Fissile and Fertile Fuel Materials
A nuclear fuel must contain fissile nuclei. One can use
any of the fissile isotopes of uranium and plutonium.
The fissile materials are the odd-A even-Z nuclei (A is
the atomic number and Z is the nuclear charge).
Important examples are #$$U, #$&U, #$*Pu, and
#%"Pu. They undergo fission when struck with neu-
trons with energies in the low and intermediate to
fast ranges i.e. at thermal energies ( 1 eV) and at
energies around 1 MeV. These isotopes are called
fissile isotopes. The even atomic mass isotopes of
thorium, uranium, and plutonium are called fertile
isotopes. They undergo fission when bombarded only
by high-energy neutrons, of the order of 1 MeV or
more. Thus they do not fission readily and by
themselves would not make a good reactor fuel. They
can, however, easily absorb a stray neutron in a
reactor core, thereby transmuting into odd-A even-Z
nuclei, thereby getting converted to a good reactor
fuel. Important examples are #$$U, #$*Pu, and #%"Pu.
The isotope #$&U is the only fissile isotope available in
nature, and it amounts to only a small fraction, of the
order of 0.7 wt.%, of natural uranium; the balance is
made up of the more abundant isotope #$)U
(99.3 wt.%). Thorium has only one abundant nat-
urally occurring isotope, #$#Th. In contrast, as
mentioned, in the case of #$)U, naturally occurring
uranium is available as a ready made mixture of minor
amounts of #$&U with #$)U. The actual choice of
fissile material content in a given fuel is determined by
the amount of neutron-capturing material in the
particular core arrangement and the amount of energy
it is desired to extract before renewing the fuel.
The fissile and fertile materials may now be related
to the different reactor systems introduced with
different fuel cycles. It is very well known that the
number of neutrons released in fission is greater than
two. Besides one neutron, which is required to sustain
the fission reaction, and the fractions going into
nonfission reactions in the fuel (radiative capture),
absorption in nonfuel materials (called ‘‘ parasitic ’’
absorption), and leakage through the surface of the
reactor core to the surrounding space (the fraction of
neutrons leaking out can be reduced by increasing the
reactor core size or the concentration of fissile ma-
terial), some neutrons are left for absorption in fertile
material to produce new fissile material. This process
is known as ‘‘ conversion. ’’ Thermal reactors convert
relatively little fertile material to fissile material com-
pared with the amount they consume. They are,
1
Nuclear Reactor Materials
therefore, called ‘‘ burners. ’’ The changes in com-
position of fuel that occur during irradiation in a
general thermal reactor system go to prove the point.
The concentration of #$&U decreases almost expo-
nentially over the burn-up while #$*Pu builds up
rapidly at first and then levels off at a value of about
0.6%. An additional fissile material, #%"Pu, builds up,
through absorption in #%!Pu, giving fissile advantage.
The concentration of #%!Pu, however, is quite low. It
is thus seen that although there is some build-up of
new fissile nuclei from the fertile material in the core,
the dominant process is the burning of existing fissile
nuclei, and hence the name ‘‘ burner. ’’ If the ratio of
fissile material produced to the fissile material con-
sumed (which is called the conŠersion ratio, CR) is
substantial (between 0.5 and 1.0), the reactor system
can be called a conŠerter. The most interesting case
arises when the CR becomes larger than unity. Now
more fissile material is produced than consumed, and
it is possible, in due course, to build up enough
additional fissile material to fuel another reactor.
Hence these are called ‘‘ breeder reactors. ’’ For breed-
ing to occur it is essential that the number of neutrons
released per neutron used up in the fission process is
more than 2: one neutron to perpetuate the fission
reaction, one to yield a new fissile nucleus (by
absorption in a fertile nucleus), and a few extra for
various losses. In the thermal energy region, it is only
#$$U for which the number of neutrons freed in the
fission event per neutron absorbed is 2.3. It is for this
reason that the thermal breeders conceived so far use
#$$U as the fuel and #$#Th as the fertile isotope.
However, since #$$U does not occur naturally, one
must start any such reactor with an initial loading of
#$&U, and later use #$$U, when it becomes available
in sufficient amounts. It is entirely possible to build
breeder reactors by using a fast neutron spectrum,
where the neutronic characteristics of #$*Pu are most
favorable. The number of neutrons released in fission
per neutron consumed for this isotope is found to rise
markedly above the value of 2 at energies above
10 keV, and attains a value of almost 3 at an energy of
1 MeV. This is a most desirable feature. The reactor
system featuring all that has been talked about so far
is known as a fast breeder reactor. In fast reactors the
bulk of fissions occurs at 100 keV, and a true fast
breeder reactor is one in which the fissile nuclide
produced is the same as that burnt. This involves the
use of #$*Pu as the fissile material and #$)U as the
fertile material.
A fast reactor system using #$&U as the fissile
material and yielding a larger amount of #$*Pu (from
#$)U) is a type of breeder. It, however, does not draw
as much attention as a true breeder. The reserves of
#$&U, the only naturally occurring fissile material, are
limited, and a time will come when all the available
#$&U will be exhausted. Further use of the remaining
#$)U and of #$#Th will then depend on the use of
#$*Pu or #$$U to provide the fission chain. This
2
explains why true breeders, which both generate and
utilize these fissile isotopes, are particularly attractive.
Nuclear fissile and fertile materials and related
nuclear reactor systems clearly identify two fuel cycles:
thorium–uranium and uranium–plutonium. The for-
mer differs from the latter in several ways. A significant
point of difference is that the neutronics for tho-
rium–#$$U are promising at thermal neutron energies,
whereas plutonium shows superior neutronic proper-
ties at high neutron energies. It follows that thermal
reactors are best suited as either converters or breeders
for the thorium–#$$U cycle while fast reactors are more
favorable for the uranium–plutonium system.
If nuclear physics were the exclusive consideration,
then it is obvious that the most common nuclear fuel
would be uranium metal. The use of uranium in
nuclear power generation is by far the chief use of this
element. The metal has a higher ‘‘ uranium density ’’
than any compound of uranium and does not carry
any extraneous atoms to consume neutrons or other-
wise meddle with the efficiency of nuclear fission. The
route traversed by uranium in various stages, from
mining up to its entry into a reactor, is called the
‘‘ front end of the fuel cycle. ’’ It is the uranium-bearing
minerals which form the starting point as the ultimate
source of nuclear fuel, especially for the light\heavy
water reactor systems. Uranium mining and milling
activities are extremely important. Two basic mining
methods have been widely used: (i) open pit mining
and (ii) underground excavation. More recently, sol-
ution mining has been added to this list. This last
method offers several economic and environmental
impact advantages; however, not all uranium sources
are amenable to solution mining.
The principal uranium-bearing mineral sources are
uraninite (UO ) and pitchblende (U O ). Going by the
recognition of# pitchblende as the principal
$ ) uranium-
bearing mineral, uraninite may be regarded as the UO
component of pitchblende. Milling operations follow#
mining and are normally carried out at the mine site to
save transportation cost. All processes for recovering
uranium from its sources involve leaching and this
step is of fundamental importance to the overall
flowsheet since it involves a choice between using
acidic or alkaline conditions. Of the two minerals,
uraninite is completely insoluble in dilute sulfuric acid
while pitchblende is partially soluble, which is thought
to be due to the presence of uranium in two valence
states: the insoluble tetravalent form and the soluble
hexavalent form. For this reason, pitchblende is
sometimes represented by the chemical formula
UO :2UO . The usual process of carrying out the
# acid
sulfuric $ leaching involves the continuous addition
of an oxidant, usually manganese dioxide or sodium
chlorate. The oxidant plays the important role of
oxidizing uranium of those ores containing tetravalent
uranium, implying thereby ready dissolution of urani-
nite and pitchblende, and of preventing reduction of
uranium by other ore ingredients or by metallic iron

introduced during the ore comminution process. The
leaching process is followed by a concentration and
purification process which involves either ion ex-
change or solvent extraction. Milling operations thus
extract uranium from ores that normally contain
between 0.10% and 0.30% U O to produce finally a
semirefined product that is $referred
) to as ‘‘ yellow
cake. ’’ This product produced at uranium mills is a
concentrated product which may contain any of
several impure compounds, such as U O , ammonium
diuranate, or magnesium diuranate $ containing
) the
equivalent of 75–85% U O ; however, it is still far
$ )
from pure. Refining operations are carried out further,
and various uranium compounds prepared which
serve as raw materials for different uranium products
for nuclear use.
Metallic uranium and its alloys have long been used
as fuel in some power reactors and in most teaching
and research reactors working at relatively low tem-
peratures. However, it is important to note that al-
though the uranium fuel is always contained in an
inert metal cladding, its high chemical reactivity limits
the choice of the reactor coolant and, in particular,
precludes the use of high-pressure water. It is of
interest and also greatly relevant to describe the
neutron irradiation-induced (or the primary ir-
radiation) effects on uranium metallic fuel in nuclear
engineering applications. These can consist of ir-
radiation growth, thermal-cycling growth, irradiation
swelling, and irradiation creep. The metallic uranium
fuel is particularly sensitive to these irradiation effects
during nuclear reactor operation.
Irradiation and thermal-cycling growth of uranium
fuel may cause dimensional and structural instability.
The former is caused by basic anisotropy, leads to fuel
shape changes, and occurs at relatively low tempera-
tures. The latter occurs when the fuel is subjected to
repeated heating and cooling in the orthorhombic
phase range. Irradiation swelling is a volumetric
instability that alters the fuel volume, and is brought
about by the formation of voids and bubbles and
agglomeration of inert fission gases, such as helium,
krypton, and xenon in uranium fuel. It takes place at
high temperatures in the neighborhood of 0.5 times
the melting point, and sets a limit to fuel burn-up.
Creep is defined as a slow, continuous, plastic de-
formation under constant load at elevated tempera-
tures, this being commonly known as thermal creep.
Irradiation creep is the creep that is induced by
neutron irradiation in an intense radiation environ-
ment, and is attended by high plasticity.
Any substitution for uranium metal should have
enhanced chemical inertness, superior high tempera-
ture stability, and, preferably, a cubic crystal structure
to minimize irradiation damage and thermal cycling
problems. It should also be reasonably easy to pro-
duce. The first two of these requisites point toward
ceramics rather than metals, and in fact all are met by
one particular ceramic material: uranium dioxide
Nuclear Reactor Materials
(UO ). Although UO is now the most common
# fuel, it does not# possess ideal properties in all
nuclear
respects. With a theoretical density of 10.97 g cmV$, its
‘‘ uranium density ’’ (i.e. mass of uranium atoms per
unit volume) of 9.67 g cmV$ is only about half that of
the metal. Also, like most ceramics, it is brittle and, in
common with most oxide ceramics, it possesses a very
low thermal conductivity. However, these demerits are
not debilitating. The low uranium density can, if
required, be made up by slight enrichment of the UO
in #$&U. Intrinsic brittleness, low strength, and low#
thermal conductivity cause dense UO to crack under
#
even modest thermal stresses, but in practice it is quite
workable to permit extensive cracking inside a struc-
tural metal cladding. The low thermal conductivity is
outweighed by a high melting point (" 2800 mC), by
the absence of phase transformations right up to the
melting point, and by generally good and predictable
irradiation behavior up to these high temperatures.
Another attractive feature of UO , significant when
# into account, is
alternative fuel cycles are being taken
that it takes its chemically rather similar fissile and
fertile relatives—plutonium dioxide (PuO ) and thoria
(ThO )—into solid solution across the whole # range of
#
compositions. All possess the cubic fluorite structure.
Metal-clad UO is a most successful and established
fuel for a variety# of reactor types. For UO , which,
unlike metals, cannot be rolled into thin sheets# nor be
cheaply bonded to a metallic sheath, a simple rod
geometry is by far the most convenient, and has been
adopted. A long, thin, straight metal cladding tube
filled with short cylindrical UO pellets represent, the
most adopted fuel element for the # present generation
of power reactors. There are several different methods
for producing ceramic-grade UO powder, the starting
#
material for the production of consolidated UO fuel.
The primary method of fabrication of the UO pellets #
#
has been by cold pressing and sintering in an inert
(helium or argon) or reducing (hydrogen) atmosphere
at temperatures ranging from about 1300 mC to
2000 mC.
While dealing with UO it is of interest to bring
#
reference to mixed-oxide (MOX) fuel which is often
written as (U, Pu)O . This originates from the fact that
#
plutonium extracted from reprocessed thermal reactor
fuel can be fed back into thermal reactors in admixture
(up to about 7 wt.%) with natural or slightly enriched
uranium. The in-reactor behavior of (U, Pu)O is in
many ways similar to that of UO and conceptually, #
#
therefore, it seems to be a fairly simple matter to
replace UO fuel with (U, Pu)O . A limited amount of
power reactor # experience has to#date been obtained by
selective replacement of standard fuel assemblies in
some reactors. It may, however, be mentioned that
plutonium recycling in thermal reactors has not yet
been introduced on a large scale.
Plutonium, as a fissile fuel, will play a very sig-
nificant role in the breeder and power reactors. It is a
synthetic fuel derived from neutron irradiation of
3
Nuclear Reactor Materials
natural or depleted uranium. All power reactors
fuelled by uranium create plutonium internally as an
inevitable part of their energy production. Some of the
plutonium generated in the reactor undergoes fission
in situ, yielding about a third of the heat produced, and
to this extent one can say that plutonium is already in
use as a fuel. However, about half of the plutonium
resides in the spent fuel.
On the basis of its nuclear properties, plutonium
operated in a fast breeder reactor is noticeably superior
to uranium fuel. Plutonium alone, however, is not
suitable for use as a fast reactor fuel. The principal
reasons are: (i) within the short temperature range
from room temperature to its melting point, 640 mC,
the metal undergoes six phase changes, and (ii)
plutonium is so concentrated a fissile material that it
must be diluted, e.g. in the form of U–Pu alloy or of
mixed oxide ((U, Pu)O ), or of carbide ((U, Pu)C), or
of nitride ((U, Pu)N), for# use in fast breeder reactors.
The mixed-oxide fuel ((U, Pu)O ) provides the best
near-term potential for the rapid # development of
fast breeder reactor fuel elements. The fundamental
reasons are: (i) extensive technology and experience
already exist for preparative and fabrication aspects of
oxide fuel, (ii) the thermal and irradiation features of
oxide fuel are known, and (iii) the facility and
operating experience of the oxide fuel are well defined.
Thorium is a very well-recognized fertile material
in the thorium–uranium fuel cycle in which #$#Th
absorbs thermal neutrons in a nuclear reactor to
become #$$Th, which then transmutes by two stages
of negative β decay through #$$Pa to #$$U. The
synthetic uranium isotope #$$U is a fissile material
produced in the thorium–uranium fuel cycle; just
#$*Pu is produced in the uranium–plutonium fuel
cycle. It may be pointed out that while the uranium–
plutonium fuel cycle has been well developed and
established, the development and technology of the
thorium–uranium fuel cycle have been hindered by the
occurrence of #$#U, a strong γ emitter.
Compared with uranium, thorium has an isotropic
structure, higher mechanical strength, and a melting
point approximately 600 mC higher. Like uranium
dioxide, thorium dioxide has a face-centered cubic
structure, its melting point being 500 mC higher than
that of UO ; together they form solid solutions. Its
#
cubic structure gives thorium a greater dimensional
stability under irradiation, as compared with uranium.
To increase mechanical and corrosion resistance,
several alloying elements have been added to pure
metallic thorium. Among metallic thorium alloys,
Th–U and Th–Pu alloys provide the possibilities of
bringing together the properties of uranium, of being
fissile, and of thorium, of being fertile, in a thorium–
uranium fuel cycle in thermal power and fast breeder
reactors. Among the mixed ceramic thorium com-
pounds, the combinations of mixed oxide, carbide,
and nitride fertile and fuel materials may offer a better
scope for operating the thorium–uranium fuel cycle
4
for some of the reactor systems. In the thorium–
uranium fuel recycle the parasitically produced decay
isotopes and their daughter products giving out intense
radiation and radioactivity can impose the require-
ment of heavy shielding for fuel handling, reprocess-
ing, and fabrication of the recycled fertile and fuel
materials, adding to the cost.
2. Structural Materials
A nuclear reactor is an intricate structure comprising a
miscellany of subassemblies that harmonize in sus-
taining a self-supporting chain fission reaction, and in
effecting an exchange of power between the core and
outer systems of conversion for utilization of heat of
nuclear origin. Each and every material that is a part
of such a system has a ‘‘ structural ’’ function as well.
However, a certain class of materials stands out in the
sense that their role in the development and control
of the nuclear reaction is not of much consequence:
these are conventionally described as ‘‘ structural
materials. ’’ Structural materials are, for instance,
those that go to make the pressure vessel, the pressure
tubes through which the coolant is circulated, the
impervious cladding hosting the nuclear fuel, the
materials used in the devices for driving and steering
the fuel elements and control rods, fittings and
supports, and so on. Depending on their location in
the reactor, structural materials may be classified as in-
core and out-of-core materials. This article concen-
trates on some of the in-core materials.
Beryllium metal is unique in that it has the lowest
absorption cross-section for thermal neutrons among
all metals. This property, combined with its large
scattering cross-section and high melting point, makes
it an excellent structural, as well as moderator and
reflector, material. For these reasons, beryllium and
beryllia (BeO) have been used as structural and
reflector materials. A minor application of metallic
beryllium as a structural and a reactor material is
associated with neutron sources used to initiate a
cold nuclear reactor. For the reactor start-up, the
materials used in neutron sources, such as #$*Pu–*Be,
#$'Ra–*Be, #"!Po–*Be, and "#$Sb–*Be, can induce (α,
n) or (γ, n) reactions to generate copious neutrons (*Be
j %He "#Cj n"; *Bejγ )Bej n"). Here, #$*Pu
and #"!Po are α !emitters, ##'Ra is both
! an α and a γ
"#%
emitter, and Sb is a γ emitter. As advantages of
beryllium as a structural, moderator, and reflector
material for nuclear reactors, mention may be made of
the following: (i) very low thermal neutron absorption,
(ii) high thermal neutron scattering, (iii) high melting
point, (iv) high strength-to-weight ratio, (v) good
thermal stability and low vapor pressure, and (vi)
good corrosion resistance. As disadvantages, mention
may be made of (i) poor ductility, (ii) toxicity, (iii) high
cost and scarcity, and (iv) fracture rupture.
Magnesium has excellent nuclear properties, with a

low thermal neutron absorption cross-section between
those of beryllium and aluminum. As a structural
material it has good compatibility with uranium fuel
and CO coolant in a gas-cooled, graphite-moderated
reactor. #Magnesium alloys, particularly Magnox A-12
and ZA alloys, have been used as cladding materials
on a large scale since the development of the British
Calder Hall-type gas-cooled reactors. The melting
point of magnesium is 600 mC, and its resistance to
oxidation from air to CO is reasonable up to 400 mC.
#
Therefore, most of the gas-cooled reactors are nor-
mally operated at low temperatures and low power
density. As advantages of magnesium and its alloys for
gas-cooled reactors, mention may be made of (i) their
low thermal neutron absorption cross-section, (ii) their
compatibility with fuel and coolant, and (iii) that they
undergo no significant changes in mechanical strength
and ductility under irradiation.
Aluminum and its alloys have been used for nuclear
fuel cladding and in the manufacture of the passages
traversed by the coolant and the control rods. Alumi-
num and its alloys are mostly used in reactors using
metallic natural or slightly enriched uranium fuel and
operating at relatively low temperatures, in certain
reactors designed for plutonium production, and in
experimental and research reactors including those
used for teaching. Their relatively low thermal neutron
absorption, high thermal conductivity, high stability
under irradiation, good corrosion resistance to air and
water, fabricability and weldability, low cost, and
abundant availability can be cited as advantages,
while their low melting point and low mechanical
strength at elevated temperatures can be cited as
disadvantages. The choice of aluminum as a structural
material is, however, based on the advantages it offers
over the disadvantages, because the chief requirement
of a teaching or research reactor is a high neutron flux
for neutron economy with reliable and safe operation
of the fuel elements at a constant power level rather
than power generation. Therefore, the operation of
teaching and research reactors at low temperatures is
preferable when the availability, reliability, and safety
of the reactor are concerned. In fact, the mechanical
strength, ductility, and thermal conductivity of alumi-
num and its alloys are adequate for thermal stresses,
elongation, and thermal gradients developed during
reactor operation. Their resistance to corrosion by
water and water vapor is sufficient for coolant tem-
peratures below about 150 mC.
Zirconium freed of hafnium to neutronically ac-
ceptable levels is commonly known as nuclear grade
zirconium, and it is such a specified zirconium that is
used by the nuclear industry. Ordinary industrial zir-
conium, however, cannot reach the degree of purity
required for suitable corrosion resistance and mech-
anical characteristics. If special precautions are not
taken in the zirconium-making process, certain im-
purities may be introduced into the material, the most
harmful being gases (oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen)
Nuclear Reactor Materials
and carbon. Corrosion resistance is impaired by
carbon and nitrogen, hydrogen leads to embrittlement,
and oxygen hardens zirconium. In order to prevent
these undesirable effects, zirconium must be alloyed.
Zirconium alloys containing tin, iron, chromium, and
nickel are known as zircaloys. The zircaloys have a
much better corrosion resistance, greater mechanical
strength, sufficient ductility, and acceptable neutronic
characteristics compared with unalloyed zirconium.
In the family of zirconium alloys, the first manu-
factured was Zr–2.5% Sn (zircaloy 1). Composition
variations around this alloy led to zircaloy 2. Zircaloy
3, a very low-tin variant, was relegated to the back seat
in favor of the superior zircaloy 4, a nickel-free variant
customized to decrease hydrogen pick-up. Similar
experiments with compositional variations in order to
improve corrosion resistance and strength led to the
development of another family of alloys based on
the Zr–Nb binary system. This alloy system offered the
possibility of obtaining a fine two-phase structure
leading to higher strength. There are some interesting
points as regards the corrosion of zircaloy cladding. It
can occur either at the water side or at the fuel side. On
the water side, zircaloy tends to form a very thin oxide
layer, which protects the metal from further corrosion.
This is a phenomenon known as passivation. On the
fuel side, another form of zircaloy corrosion occurs.
The temperature at the inner surface of the tubing is
higher. In addition, a hostile environment exists owing
to the presence of fission products, the most harmful
of which is iodine. When the right combinations in this
scenario build up, tube failure occurs by the phenom-
enon of stress corrosion cracking. To prevent this
phenomenon from occurring inside cladding tubes,
various strategies have been suggested, mostly de-
pending on a thin barrier between the pellet and
cladding to inhibit contact of the cladding with the
fission products. These designs are called barrier fuels.
A scheme involving a graphite coating on the interior
surface of the tubes has proved to be quite successful.
Given the high temperature and high neutron
fluence imposed on fast breeder cladding candidates,
much effort has gone into the selection of special alloys
that will give the best overall balance of design. It
is understood that, as in any complex engineering
application, optimal properties cannot be consistently
obtained from any one material over the full range of
parameters desired in nuclear engineering. To strike a
general note on the requirements of materials selection
for fast breeder reactors, it may in the first instance be
mentioned that they operate under a high temperature
(about 550 mC) and a low system pressure. Moreover,
the excellent heat transfer properties of the liquid
metal coolant cause fast temperature alternations in
the metal structure in the presence of temperature
transients (e.g., as occur during reactor shutdown). As
a result, there are low primary stresses but high
secondary stresses of thermal lineage. It is necessary to
have adequate high-temperature (creep) strength and
5
Nuclear Reactor Materials
structural stability. The reference materials used for
most liquid-metal fast breeder reactor in-core cladding
and structural applications are austenitic chromium,
nickel steels. They match best the various design
requirements for corrosion resistance, high tempera-
ture strength, and fabrication. Austenitic chromium,
nickel steels of type 304 or type 316 have been used for
primary and secondary sodium systems, mainly owing
to the availability of data in design codes and ease of
weldability compared with types 321\347. In some
instances, stabilized grades (type 321) have been
selected to bring down the potential risk of carbon loss
at high temperatures. More recently, type 316 L with a
controlled nitrogen content, 316 L (N), has drawn
attention as a prime candidate.
3. Moderator, Reflector, and Blanket Materials
A moderator, as the name implies, is used to moderate
or slow down fast fission neutrons from relatively high
(kinetic) energies to thermal (ambient temperature)
energy levels in a thermal reactor. The process of
reducing the energy of the fission-produced neutrons,
from an average of 2 MeV to a value of 0.025–1 eV—
which conform to a thermodynamic equilibrium with
the environment in the reactor and promote #$&U
fission in thermal reactors—is called neutron mod-
eration, and the materials in the reactor core that are
instrumental in achieving this are, accordingly, known
as moderator materials. The moderation process is
implemented by repeated elastic collisions of neutrons
with the nuclei of the moderator material. At each
collision a neutron transfers part of its energy to the
moderator nucleus. The smaller the mass of the target
nucleus the larger is the transferred energy, which
attains its maximum value when the moderator nu-
cleus has about the same mass as that of the neutron.
This situation is obtained only with hydrogen. Apart
from lightness, other properties, such as probabilities
(called ‘‘ cross-sections ’’) for scattering and absorp-
tion, must also be taken into account in estimating a
figure of merit for a moderator. The scattered or
leaking neutrons are reflected back into the core in
both thermal and fast reactors by radial and axial
reflectors.
The nuclear requirements for moderators and re-
flectors are the same in a thermal reactor. The nuclear
requirements are a high neutron scattering cross-
section, a large energy loss by a neutron per collision,
and a low neutron absorption cross-section. The high
neutron scattering, or collision, cross-section of the
moderators and reflectors means frequent, large-angle
collisions and a relatively short mean free path, or
distance, over which a fast neutron travels during the
slowing-down process, thereby bringing about a re-
duction in neutron leakage and escape.
The nuclear requirements for blanket materials in a
fast reactor are quite different from those for mod-
6
erators and reflectors in a thermal reactor. The nuclear
properties needed for blankets in fast breeder reactors
are (i) nuclear fertile fuel, (ii) a high neutron absorption
cross-section, and (iii) ease of fuel reprocessing.
Over and above the nuclear requirements, solid
moderators, reflectors, and blankets must have
qualities of structural materials: they must possess
adequate mechanical strength, thermal, and ir-
radiation stabilities, fabricability, and corrosion re-
sistance. Reasonably good heat transfer characteristics
are also needed.
Among the major moderator and reflector mat-
erials, light water and heavy water are used, not only
as moderator and reflector materials but also as
coolant materials. Eminently abundant and econ-
omical, light water has been extensively used as a
coolant. As coolants, light water or heavy water can
simultaneously perform the function of moderator
and reflector in a thermal reactor (for the relative
merits of light and heavy water, see the next section).
The structural materials beryllium, beryllium oxide,
and graphite can also perform the function of mod-
erator and reflector simultaneously. The fertile mat-
erials serving as blankets provided in fast reactors can
be either depleted natural uranium (#$)U) or thorium
(#$#Th). Graphite has a long history of proven use as
moderator, reflector, and structural material in gas-
cooled, graphite-moderated reactors and in high-
temperature gas-cooled reactors. The first nuclear
fission reactor, CP-1, built in 1942, was a natural
uranium–graphite reactor.
Graphite has a low neutron absorption cross-
section, a high neutron scattering cross-section, and a
low mass number conducive to a good moderating
power. In addition, graphite possesses excellent ther-
mal properties, good mechanical strength at high
temperatures, and relative ease of machining and
manufacturing. Although graphite occurs in appreci-
able quantities in nature, reactor grade graphite is
produced artificially by the graphitization of pet-
roleum coke. Although neutron irradiation enhances
the mechanical strength (particularly in compression),
hardness, and elastic modulus of graphite, the im-
portant factors in relation to reactor moderator
and reflector design are: (i) reduction in thermal
conductivity at high temperatures, (ii) dimensional
changes and instability, (iii) reduction in ductility, and
(iv) stored energy.
The blanket of a fast breeder reactor is normally
made of an axial and a radial blanket. The former is
connected with the upper and lower sections of the fuel
elements, and the latter surrounds the fuel elements in
the radial direction of the core. In a fast breeder
reactor using the plutonium recycling fuel cycle, the
blanket material is natural uranium (containing
99.274% #$)U) or depleted uranium. The depleted
uranium (about 100% #$)U) usually comes from
either spent fuel reprocessing or from fuel enrichment
plants. In the #$&U fuel enrichment plant, the blanket

material, #$)U, is the waste left over from the gaseous
diffusion or centrifuge process by which the uranium
isotopic enrichment process is carried out. It is,
therefore, seen that utilization of the depleted
uranium, #$)U, as a blanket material can generate a
great amount of plutonium for a nuclear energy source
in the future.
4. Coolant Materials
The thermal energy generated in the fuel elements as a
result of nuclear reactions is extracted from the reactor
core by means of selected fluids known as coolants. An
ideal coolant should have the following qualities: (i)
good thermal properties, (ii) low pumping power
requirement, (iii) low melting and high boiling points,
(iv) thermal stability, (v) irradiation stability, (vi) low
neutron absorption and suitable neutron scattering
cross-sections, (vii) nontoxic, nonhazardous, and low
induced radioactivity, (viii) relative absence of im-
purities, (ix) low corrosiveness, (x) low viscosity, (xi)
compatibility with fuel and structural materials, (xii)
easy and safe handling, and (xiii) be abundant and
economical. There are gaseous and liquid coolants.
The coolants that have been chosen in the reactor
systems possess most of the characteristics, but none
possesses all of them. For the gas coolants the special
requirements list as follows: (i) good chemical and
radiochemical stability; (ii) low levels of induced
radioactivity with a short half-life of the nuclei
generated by neutron-induced reactions; (iii) high
density, specific heat, and thermal conductivity; and
(iv) good and lasting compatibility with the structural
and moderator materials with which they come into
contact. For the liquid cooling materials, the following
are additionally required: (i) a low melting tempera-
ture, a critical temperature as high as possible, and a
critical pressure as low as possible; (ii) low viscosity;
and (iii) a small neutron capture cross-section. The
liquids used for cooling fast reactors must also have a
moderating power as weak as possible, to prevent
growth of the fraction of low-energy neutrons, which
would decrease the efficiency in the generation of
fissionable nuclides.
Among the gaseous coolants, particular mention
may be made of helium and carbon dioxide. From the
standpoint of stability against thermal and irradiation
effects, ease of handling, abundance, and economics,
the most obvious choice is air as a reactor coolant.
It, however, is not a good heat transfer material and
requires a high pumping power for a cooling system.
At elevated temperatures, the oxygen and nitrogen
constituents of the air attack the graphite and struc-
tural materials of gas-cooled reactors. The inertness of
helium is well known. It possesses good heat transfer
properties in comparison with air and carbon dioxide,
and needs less pumping power than air and carbon
dioxide on account of its low density. Additionally, it
Nuclear Reactor Materials
has thermal stability, irradiation stability, a very low
neutron absorption cross-section, little induced radio-
activity, low corrosiveness, suitable compatibility with
the fuel and structural materials, and ease of handling.
Helium is used as the coolant in high-temperature gas-
cooled reactors and advanced gas-cooled reactors.
Economically, however, helium is an expensive com-
modity. It must, therefore, be operated in a closed
coolant system or loop. In order to economize on the
pumping power, it becomes necessary to deploy a
relatively high pressure for the helium cooling system.
This introduces another problem in that a requirement
arises for a leak-proof piping system and pressurized
reactor vessel for a reduction in the leakage and loss of
the helium coolant in the reactor system where it is
used as a coolant. The use of carbon dioxide as a
coolant in Calder Hall-type gas-cooled reactors is well
known. It possesses fair heat transfer properties,
thermal stability, irradiation stability, low induced
radioactivity, low corrosiveness, acceptable com-
patibility with the fuel, properties as a structural or
moderator (graphite) material, ease of handling, and
availability. At elevated temperatures this gaseous
coolant reacts with the graphite moderator of the
reactor system. The reaction has been studied ex-
tensively. The high pressure deployed in pumping
the coolant can result in a reduction in the CO
concentration in the reactor.
The realm of liquid coolants comprises light water,
heavy water, and molten metals such as sodium and
lithium. Light water holds considerable attraction as a
coolant because of its good heat transfer properties,
easy and safe handling, abundance and economics. Its
neutron absorption cross-section is relatively high, so
that a sustained fission reactor with light water as
coolant and moderator can be a reality only when an
enriched #$&U fuel is used. The light water moderated
and cooled nuclear power plants are normally situated
in locations where large volumes of clear and pure
water are available. Heavy water is used as moderator
and coolant in heavy water reactors. The only im-
portant difference between heavy and light water with
regard to the dual function of moderator and coolant
lies in the fact that the thermal neutron absorption
cross-section of the former is much less than that of the
latter. This permits natural uranium fuel to be the fuel
of choice in heavy water reactors. Light or heavy water
is deployed in a multitude of applications such as
moderator, reflector, coolant or solvent (e.g., to
dissolve boric acid (H BO ) in water for chemical
shim). $ $
It is known that high power can be secured from
relatively small core volumes in fast reactors because
there is no moderator and because the liquid metals
used as coolants possess excellent heat extraction
properties. Some of the primary requirements for a
fast reactor coolant are: (i) it must minimize neutron
moderation, (ii) it must extract heat adequately from a
high power density system, and (iii) it must minimize
7
Nuclear Reactor Materials
parasitic neutron absorption. The first of the require-
ments cited immediately drops water and any organic
coolant from the count. The choice goes only to liquid
metals among which it is liquid sodium that has drawn
the maximum attention as a coolant.
The design concepts of liquid sodium-cooled fast
breeder reactor systems are mainly determined by the
thermal and nuclear properties of the coolant: good
heat transfer, small moderating effects, and low
neutron absorption cross-section. The melting point
of sodium being 98 mC requires preheating of the
system for filling or some maintenance operations.
The high boiling point (982 mC, 1 bar) permits high
coolant temperatures and very low system pressures
(apart from the water-steam circuit) compared with,
say, light water reactor systems. Two main design
concepts have been deployed up to now: the loop and
the pool concepts which are well documented in
literature. The compatibility of sodium with structural
materials is determined by its purity, temperature and
circulation rate. Sodium is quite compatible with
stainless steel used at present to make clads and fuel
assemblies, and also with oxidic fuel materials (UO
and (U, Pu) O ). The presence of oxygen as an impurity#
#
impairs corrosion resistance, so that the contact
with oxygen must be kept limited; this necessitates
continuous purification of liquid sodium.
5. Control, Shielding, and Safety System Materials
A nuclear reactor is always required to be under
control and amenable to adjustments within accurate
limits in order to have a safe, controlled nuclear
(fission or fusion) energy release. The control and
safety of nuclear fission reactors are linked with (i) the
rate of neutron generation, (ii) the rate of neutron loss
by leakage, and (iii) the rate of neutron loss by parasitic
absorption in the core. Parasitic absorption refers
mainly to fission product generation and buildup
(attended by depletion of nuclear fuel). The rates of
neutron production and losses are directly related to
the influences of reactivity and control of the reactor.
The most practical and effective control element is a
powerful neutron absorber.
Shielding from the passage and penetration of
nuclear radiations to the outside of the reactor is
required. It is the shielding materials that reduce all
types of radiation to minimum tolerable levels.
Neutrons and gamma rays are characterized by their
high penetrating power, and they require to be
attenuated and absorbed in the shielding. In general,
the best shielding for fast and thermal neutrons is
provided by light elements or materials of low atomic
weight, and that for primary and secondary gamma
rays by heavy elements or materials of high atomic
weight.
To provide safety systems, primary as well as
secondary, in nuclear plants is of major importance.
8
The functions of these systems are (i) to prevent the
temperature from shooting up to unacceptably high
levels for any reason, (ii) to suppress any contingency
of extremely high pressures developing, and (iii) to
avert any accidental release of radiation from the
reactor core containment. Most hardware of safety
systems comprises structural materials (such as carbon
steel and stainless steel), pumps, valves, thermal
shields, etc.
Over a long period of reactor operation, four
important circumstances must be considered in re-
lation to the control elements (rods or plates): (i)
reactivity coming down with fuel depletion, (ii) breed-
ing of new fuel through neutron irradiation, (iii)
formation and accumulation of fission products, or
absorbers, and (iv) increase of burn-up of the control
element. These factors need constant adjustment and
precise movement of the control elements. The pri-
mary requirements for control elements may be listed
as (i) very high neutron absorption, (ii) adequate
mechanical strength, (iii) light element, hard surface,
(iv) high thermal and irradiation stability, (v) good
heat transfer characteristics, (vi) high wear and
corrosion resistance or hardness and inertness. The
control elements are usually in the form of rods and
there are three types of control rods in use: (i) shim
rods for occasional coarse control and adjustments in
neutron density with an intermediate ‘‘ rod ’s worth of
reactivity, ’’ (ii) regulating rods for carrying out fine
control and adjustments to maintain the desired power
level with a small ‘‘ rod ’s worth of reactivity, ’’ and (iii)
safety rods for shutting down or ‘‘ scramming ’’ the
reactor rapidly in case of emergency. The safety rods
have a large ‘‘ rod ’s worth of reactivity. ’’ In regard to
control materials, a representative list of elements may
be drawn up as: cadmium, boron, hafnium, and the
rare earths. Cadmium is a good neutron absorbent. Its
uses as a control material are, however, limited due to
its relatively low melting temperature, and to the
penetrating γ radiations that are generated during
neutron capture. Boron is one of the best neutron
absorbents. Its cheapest form is B C. This material as
such and various products made% out of it are ac-
complished neutron absorber materials. Hafnium
possesses a special feature: its higher isotopes formed
by neutron capture are found to have neutron-
capturing capabilities. Rare earth elements due to
their very feeble resistance to corrosion and high
propensity to oxidation are used as oxides and
dispersions in metallic matrices. Thus, in high-
temperature reactors oxides of rare earths are in order,
while in other reactor systems dispersions of the rare
earth oxides in stainless steel, clad in stainless steel
tubes, are preferred. An interesting feature among
some rare earths may be accounted for in the present
context of neutron absorption. In the case of sam-
arium, for example, the natural nuclide "%*Sm makes
the greatest contribution to the capture cross-section;
when this isotope turns into "&!Sm, the cross-section

drops significantly, which makes the element a con-
sumable absorbent. The disposition for gadolinium is
similar. This is unlike what has been said about
hafnium which is non-depleting in character when in
use in the duty for neutron absorption.
A nuclear fission reactor is controlled in three most
practical ways. These are (i) control rods with B, B C
(natural or enriched in "!B), Cd, Ag-Cd-In, Hf, Ag- % context, mention may be made of iron oxides, titanium
Hf, Ag-Ir-Hf, or rare earth elements as the control
material, (ii) chemical shim with boric acid (H HO ) as
$
an absorber or control material, and (iii) a burnable$
absorber with the oxide of the rare earth elements,
Eu O , Er O , or Gd O , as the control material. The
# $ rods
control # $ carry out
# $ the job of primary control,
while the chemical shim and the burnable absorber
carry out the job of secondary, or supplementary,
control. Also, the chemical shim has an interesting
characteristic in which solubility of boric acid, dis-
persed in the reactor core, increases with temperature.
In some power reactor systems, a combination of
control rods and chemical shim is used, while in others
a combination of control rods and burnable absorber
is used for reactor control and safety.
The shield design is an integral part of reactor
design. Radiation shielding serves three major
functions: (i) thermal shielding to protect the pressure
vessel, coolant loop, and inner shield from the intense
heat generated by the absorption of nuclear radiations,
(ii) biological shielding to protect personnel and assure
safeguards to public health, and (iii) apparatus and
instrument shielding to protect electromagnetic ap-
paratus and electronic instruments that otherwise
would not work properly in an intense radiation field.
Although the nuclear radiation coming out of a reactor
may include α rays, β rays, protons, neutrons, and γ
rays, as far as shielding design is concerned only
neutrons and γ rays require attention.
The reason is that α rays, β rays and protons, which
are charged particles, have very low penetrating
power, while neutrons and γ rays, which are neutral,
have large penetrating power. The primary require-
ments for shielding are (i) slowing down fast neutrons,
(ii) absorbing slow and thermal neutrons, (iii) attenu-
ating primary γ rays, and (iv) minimizing the
production of secondary γ rays. On the basis of their
functions, shielding materials used in nuclear reactors
can be divided into three principal categories: (i)
heavy and moderately heavy elements, (ii) hydro-
genous materials, and (iii) light elements.
The heavy and moderately heavy elements are
meant to attenuate γ rays and to slow down fast
neutrons by inelastic scattering in the high energy
region. Among the heavy and moderately heavy
elements, lead, bismuth, tantalum, and iron (steels) are
often used for attenuating γ rays. Lead is the most
common shielding material for γ rays. It is abundant
and economical but it has a low melting point. A
moderately heavy element that has hitherto been used
(after being immersed in water for thermal shielding) is
Nuclear Reactor Materials
iron in the form of construction steel or stainless steel.
The steel can attenuate γ rays and release radiation
heat. The water can moderate fast neutrons and
remove the radiation heat from the steel plate of the
thermal shielding in the reactor core. Ceramics that
contain heavy or moderately heavy elements may
prove to be useful as shielding materials, and in this
carbide, silicon carbide, and boron carbide. The
primary job of hydrogenous materials, is to moderate
and thermalize neutrons by elastic scattering in the
intermediate and low energy regions and to absorb
slow or thermal neutrons and attenuate γ rays.
The assessment of a hydrogenous material for
neutron shielding is based on the following properties:
(i) hydrogen content and neutron moderating power,
(ii) neutron and γ ray absorption cross-sections, and
(iii) abundance and economics. The best overall
candidate is light water. A material containing more
hydrogen atoms per unit volume than light water is
polyethylene, but it is obviously not as abundant and
economical as light water. Light water is used not only
as an effective neutron shielding material but also for
providing an efficient means for removing the heat
produced by the absorption of nuclear radiation.
Cement concrete containing ceramics, minerals, and
water is a general hydrogenous material for shielding
of neutrons and γ rays. In addition to the proper-
ties required, concrete possesses a high mechanical
strength and various adaptabilities and configurations
of construction to shield the reactor core. It is used
more than any other material for nuclear reactor
shielding. Concrete used for radiation shielding can be
classified into ordinary concrete and special concrete.
The safety systems of a reactor power plant com-
prise (i) primary safety systems, and (ii) secondary
safety systems. The primary and secondary safety
systems may include the emergency core cooling
system (ECCS), automatic pressure suppression sys-
tem (PSS) (or depressurization system), containment
isolation system (CIS), containment (or core standby)
cooling system, in-core or out-of-reactor instrumen-
tation safety (monitoring) system (ISS), cracking leak
control system, and so on. Reactor materials used in
the safety systems vary with different components,
vessels, valves, pumps, protection apparatus, control
equipment, and monitoring instruments involved in
the safety analysis and design. The major safety system
materials, however, are structural steel, stainless
steel, reinforced concrete, light water, borated water,
aluminum, and copper.
6. Summary
This article is illustrative rather than exhaustive in
nature and presents a representative list of materials
which are used in the nuclear reactor primary com-
ponents. The bibliography at the end of the article will
9
Nuclear Reactor Materials
be helpful for a comprehensive study of the subject.
The article by itself can serve as an introductory text to
many other articles appearing in this encyclopedia
which have been cited at the end.
Reactors have been classified on the basis of
different terms of reference; some of these have been
mentioned in the text. Reactor taxonomy can also
deal with the kind of moderator, coolant, rated power,
etc. For the identification of a reactor system, one
often specifies the coolant, the fuel, the moderator and
some other features, all defining a type of reactor.
Thus there are: (i) LWR (light water reactor)—
versions PWR (pressurized water reactor), BWR
(boiling water reactor); (ii) HWR (heavy water
reactor)—versions PHWR (pressurized heavy water
reactor), SGHR (steam-generating heavy water re-
actor); (iii) GCR (gas-cooled-graphite-moderated re-
actor) —versions AGR (advanced gas-cooled reactor),
HTGR (high temperature gas-cooled reactor), (iv)
FBR (fast breeder reactor)—versions LMFBR (liquid
metal fast breeder reactor), GCFBR (gas-cooled fast
breeder reactor); and (v) MSR (molten salt reactor).
Among these, light water reactors for generating
electric power contribute the lion ’s share of nuclear
fission energy. Providing a description of this vast
array of reactors, with the whole range of materials
placed in their respective positions and playing their
respective roles, is a very interesting, but arduous task.
This purpose can perhaps be best served, if only
partially, by picking up just one reactor system as an
example. This exercise will demonstrate how the
assemblage of a particular set of materials is important
for carrying out relevant functions in an operating
nuclear reactor.
One could thus consider, a PWR which has the
reputation of having the longest reactor years ex-
perience in the field of nuclear power generation. The
name of the reactor derives from the fact that the
primary circuit is maintained at a very high pressure,
typically around 15 MPa, such that at the maximum
prevailing temperature in the system, no boiling can
take place. At 15 MPa, the boiling temperature of
water is about 343 mC, well above the maximum
temperature of 332 mC allowed in the primary circuit
water. The reactor system is an avid user of water as
coolant and moderator. The reactor vessel is one of the
most important components of a PWR in terms of
size, weight, cost, and safety significance. It is a massive
structure, cylindrical in shape, and containing the
reactor core and other related components. The vessel
has a removable top head which, when in operation, is
held in place by a large number of studs, and is made
of an alloy steel of high tensile strength. The base
material for the vessel is either carbon steel or a low
alloy steel with high toughness.
Typical materials contain 1% Mn, 0.6–0.8% Ni,
and 0.5% Mo. All internal surfaces that come in
contact with the primary coolant are clad with a layer
of stainless steel (or inconel) for minimizing corrosion.
10
The basic fuel component is the fuel rod which consists
of a large number of uranium dioxide pellets stacked
inside a cladding made of stainless steel or zircaloy.
The uranium used is enriched to between 2% and 4%
in #$&U. A number of assemblies in the core contain
control rods. Each control rod contains a neutron-
absorbing material (boron carbide or an alloy of 80
Ag-15 In-5 Cd) clad in cold-worked stainless steel
(type 304) with stainless steel end pieces welded to the
upper and lower ends. Most of the control rods are
used to regulate the reactor power level or bring the
reactor to a quick shutdown (scram). These are called
‘‘ shim ’’ safety control rods. In addition to the control
rods, a boron solution in the coolant assists in
controlling reactivity. It is called ‘‘ chemical shim. ’’
It may be pointed out that it is difficult to identify
any particular line of nuclear energy development as
the best available option for all countries. The most
suitable option will vary from one country to the
other. For example, a country which possesses limited
sources of uranium but vast reserves of thorium,
and has no established fuel enrichment facility but
a well-founded spent-fuel-processing and waste-
management program, would pursue natural uranium
fueled reactor systems in the first generation
and would advance progressively to subsequent
generations working on the U-Th fuel cycle.
See also: Fast Reactor Cores, Austenitic Steels for;
Nuclear Reactors: Shielding Materials; Nuclear
Reactors: Coolant Materials; Nuclear Reactors:
Moderator and Reflector Materials; Fast Reactor
Cores, Ferritic–Martensitic Steels for; Fast Breeder
Reactors: Fuels; Heavy Water Reactor Fuel Design
and Performance; Nuclear Reactor Materials:
Irradiation Effects; Light Water Reactor Fuel Design
and Performance; Mixed Oxide (MOX) Fuel; Nuclear
Reactors: Moderator and Reflector Materials; Nuclear
Fuel Cycles; Nuclear Reactor Fuel Fabrication
(Including Quality Control); Nuclear Reactors:
Pressure Vessel Steels; Radiation Effects in
Carbon–Carbon Composites; Nuclear Applications:
Zirconium Alloys
Bibliography
Cahn R W, Haasen P, Kramer E J 1994 Material Science and
Technology—A ComprehensiŠe Treatment, Vol. 10A. Nuclear
Materials, Parts I and II. VCH, Weiheim, Germany
Gupta C K 1989 Materials in Nuclear Energy Application. CRC
Press, Boca Raton, Vols. I and II
Ma B M 1983 Nuclear Reactor Materials and Applications. Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York
Marshall W 1983 Nuclear Power Technology. Clarendon Press,
Oxford, UK, Vols. 1–3
Rahn F J, Adamantiades A G, Kenton J E, and Braun Chain
1984 A Guide to Nuclear Power Technology—A Source for
Decision Making. Wiley, New York
 Nuclear Reactor Materials

Ursu I 1985 Physics and Technology of Nuclear Materials. Wymer R G, Vondra B L 1981 Light Water Reactor Nuclear
Pergamon, Oxford, UK Fuel Cycle. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
Walter A E, Reynolds A B 1981 Fast Breeder Reactors.
Pergamon, Oxford, UK C. K. Gupta

Copyright ' 2001 Elsevier Science Ltd.

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Encyclopedia of Materials : Science and Technology
ISBN: 0-08-0431526
pp. 6339–6349

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