THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Types of Neurons
Word Roots and Combining Forms:  Multiple neurons
Cephal/o Head Gli/o Glue o Several dendrites
Cerebell/o Cerebellum Medull/o Medulla o Single axon
Cerebr/o Cerebrum Mening/o Meninges o Neurons whose cell bodies are located in the
Dur/o Tough Myel/o Spinal cord brain and spinal cords are multipolar
Encephal/o Brain Neur/o Nerve neurons
Gangli/o Ganglion Poli/o Gray matter  Bipolar neurons
o Two processes:
Major Organs and Structures:  Dendrite
 Brain  Axon
 Spinal cord o Bipolar neurons occur in the sensory
 Nerves portions of the eyes, ears, and nose.
 Unipolar neurons
Accessory Structures: o A single process extending from the cell
 Meninges body
 Sympathetic chain of ganglia  Process divides into two branches
extending in opposite directions
Functions:  Branches function as a single axon
 Communication o Unipolar neurons are sensory from the skin
 Motor control and organs
 Sensation
Anatomy of the Nervous System
Functional Divisions
 Sensory division (afferent)
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Anatomy of the Nervous System

o Carries impulses from sensory receptors to
the CNS
 Motor division (efferent)
o Carries impulses from CNS to effectors
o Motor division has two divisions:
 Somatic nervous system
 Voluntary control of
skeletal muscle
 Autonomic nervous system
 Involuntary control of © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
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cardiac muscle, smooth

muscle, and glands Neuroglia
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 There are six types of neuroglial cells that aid in
Organization of the Nervous System neuron function:
o Oligodendrocytes from myelin in the CNS
o Ependymal cells produce cerebrospinal
fluid in the CNS
o Astrocytes form the blood-brain barrier in
the CNS
o Microglia seek out and fight pathogens in
the CNS
 These four cells are found only in the central nervous
system
Jump to long description  There are six types of neuroglial cells that aid in
neuron function:
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Anatomy of a Neuron o Schwann cells form myelin in the PNS

 Neurons have basically three parts: dendrites that o Satellite cells control the environment for
receive information, cell bodies that are involved in ganglia in the PNS
protein synthesis, and axons that transmit electrical  These two cells are found in the peripheral nervous
impulses. system
 Axons may or may not have a myelin sheath.
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15 Neuroglia of the CNS

Generic Neuron

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  Filled with cerebrospinal fluid
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o Produced by choroid plexuses in the
Schwann Cell ventricles
 Two lateral ventricles
o Within cerebral hemispheres
 Third ventricle
o Midline of diencephalon
 Fourth ventricle
o Midline of brain stem
o Continuous with central canal of spinal
cord
 Flow of cerebrospinal fluid
o Lateral ventricles to third ventricle to fourth
ventricle to central canal or subarachnoid
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space
o From subarachnoid space upwards around
The brain and spinal cord are covered with three membranes the brain or down posterior side of spinal
called meninges cord, then up anterior side
 Cerebrospinal fluid is reabsorbed in dural sinus
Meninges: three fibrous membranes within dura mater
 Dura mater o Secretion and absorption of CSF is at equal
o Tough, outermost layer rates to keep a constant hydrostatic pressure
o Attached to cranial bones  Functions
o Forms protective tube in vertebral canal 1. Provides buoyancy
 Epidural space o The floor of the cranial cavity is bone with
 Arachnoid mater various ridges. The CFS allows the brain to
o Middle layer float in the cranial cavity. Without the CSF,
o Thin, weblike, avascular nervous tissue would be damaged by the
o Does not penetrate smaller depressions like sheer weight of the brain against the bony
the pia floor.
o Subarachnoid space 2. Provides protection
 Filled with cerebrospinal fluid o The CSF cushions the brain from impact
 Pia mater 3. Facilitates chemical stability
o Thin, innermost layer o The CSF rinses metabolic wastes from the
o Adheres to CNS structure surfaces brain and spinal cord and helps regulate the
chemical environment. One way it does this
o Contain blood vessels to nourish brain and
is by removing excess hydrogen ions.
spinal cord
4. Provides nutrients
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o The CSF provides CNS tissues with some
The Meninges 1
nutrients—like glucose.

Ventricles of the Brain 32

(Lateral and Anterior Views)

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The Meninges
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2
Circulation of CSF around the Brain 34

and Spinal Cord

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Cerebrospinal Fluid Brain

 Brain contains four interconnecting ventricles  The cerebrum is characterized by gyri and sulci
o Cavities lined by ependymal cells
  It is divided into hemispheres that are further divided o Several gray matter masses are deep in the
into four main lobes white matter
 Each lobe has a general sensory area and an  Cerebral hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes
association area for senses o Frontal lobe
 Cerebrum o Parietal lobe
o Surface shows numerous gyri (folds) with o Temporal lobe
sulci (shallow grooves) between them o Occipital lobe
o Left and right cerebral hemispheres o Insula
 Separated by longitudinal fissure  Functions
 Connected by corpus callosum o Interpretation of sensory impulses
o Controlling voluntary motor responses
The Brain 39
o Intellectual processes
(Superior and Lateral Views) 1 o Will
o Personality traits
 Lobe responsible for sensation have both a general
sensory area and an association area

Frontal Lobe
 Motor areas
o Primary motor area
o Premotor area
o Broca’s area
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o Left side of the cerebrum controls skeletal
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muscles on the right side of the body
 Due to crossover of descending
The Brain 40

(Superior and Lateral Views) 2

motor fibers

Functional Regions of the Cerebral 48

Cortex

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The Brain 41

(Midsagittal View) 1

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Parietal Lobe
 General sensory areas
o Primary sensory area
o Higher-level reasoning

Temporal Lobe
 Hearing
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 Wernicke’s area
o Language
The Brain 42

(Midsagittal View) 2
Occipital Lobe
 Vision

Insula
 Not much is known about the function of this lobe

Limbic System
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 Complex of deep nuclei of cerebrum
o Associated with the thalamus of the
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Cerebrum diencephalon
 Cerebral cortex  Involved in:
o Outer surface of gray matter o Memory (hippocampus)
 Neuronal cell bodies and o Emotions (amygdala)
unmyelinated fibers o Emotional behaviors
 White matter beneath the cortex  Malfunctions can result in mood disorders
o Myelinated fibers that transmit impulses
 Between hemispheres
 Between cerebral cortex and lower
brain areas
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Midbrain
The Limbic System  The midbrain has four bulges, called colliculi, on its
posterior surface
o the two superior colliculi are important for
visual reflexes
o the two inferior colliculi are important for
auditory reflexes

Reticular Formation
 Groups of cell bodies (called nuclei in the CNS,
ganglia in the PNS) are scattered throughout the
brainstem
 The reticular formation is important for arousal
 It is responsible for sleep-wake cycles
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Cerebellum
Diencephalon  Second largest brain region
 Thalamus: acts as a switching station for incoming  Inferior to occipital and temporal lobes; posterior to
sensory messages pons and medulla oblongata
 Hypothalamus: monitors the internal environment  Two hemispheres connected by the vermis
and helps regulate homeostasis  Outer layer of gray matter surrounding inner white
matter called the arbor vitae
Thalamus  Controls and coordinates the interaction of skeletal
 The thalamus serves as a switching station for muscles
incoming sensory messages except those for smell  Controls posture, balance, and muscle coordination
 It directs the sensory messages to the appropriate lobe  Damage results in loss of equilibrium muscle
of the cerebrum coordination, and muscle tone
 Responsible for reflexive memory
Hypothalamus o Important in keyboarding and martial arts
 Monitors the internal environment
o Temperature regulation 64

o Autonomic functions The Cerebellum

 Heart rate, digestive function, and
urinary function
o Endocrine functions
o Food and water intake
o Sexual development

Brainstem
 The brainstem is composed of the medulla oblongata,
pons, midbrain, and reticular formation

Medulla Oblongata
 Most inferior section of the brainstem Jump to long description

 All ascending (sensory) and descending (motor)

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information passes through Spinal Cord

o Motor tracts make up anterior raise the area
 The spinal cord is a solid structure from the foramen
called the pyramids magnum to L1
 Contains centers to regulate heart rate, respiratory  The cauda equina extends from the inferior end of the
rate, and blood vessel diameter spinal cord
 Emetic center – controls vomiting  The spinal cord has gray matter in the form of an “H”
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and white matter arranged in columns
The Brainstem  Descends from medulla oblongata through foramen
magnum
 Passes through vertebral canal to level of 2 nd lumbar
vertebra
o Only spinal nerves occupy lover levels of
vertebral canal making up the cauda equina
 Gray matter is internal and butterfly shaped
o Mostly interneurons
o Central canal
o Anterior horns
o Posterior horns
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Jump to long description  White matter surrounds the gray matter
o Anterior column
Pons o Posterior column
 Large bulge on the anterior surface of the brainstem o Lateral column
between the medulla oblongata and the midbrain o Columns are composed of nerve tracts
 Serves as a bridge for motor tracts to the cerebellum  Functions
o Transmits impulses to and from brain
 Ascending (sensory) tracts
 Descending (motor) tracts
 o Reflex center for spinal reflexes
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The Spinal Cord The Anatomy of a Nerve

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The Cranial Nerves
Spinal Cord Cross Section  Cranial Nerve I (Olfactory) is a pure sensory nerve
for smell
 Cranial Nerve II (Optic) is a pure sensory nerve for
vision
 Cranial Nerve III (Oculomotor) is a pure motor nerve
for eye movement
 Cranial Nerve IV (Trochlear) is a pure motor nerve
for eye movement
 Cranial Nerve V (Trigeminal) is both a motor and
sensory nerve. It is sensory for pain, touch, and
temperature for the eye and lower and upper jaws. It
is motor for muscles and chewing
 Cranial Nerve VI (Abducens) is a pure motor nerve
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for eye movement
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 Cranial Nerve VII (Facial) is both a sensory and
motor nerve. It is sensory for taste and motor for
Ascending Tracts Descending Tracts facial expression
 Cranial Nerve VIII (Vestibulocochlear) is a pure
sensory nerve for hearing and equilibrium
 Cranial Nerve IX (Glossopharyngeal) is both a motor
and sensory nerve. It is sensory for taste and motor
for swallowing
 Cranial Nerve X (Vagus) is both a motor and sensory
nerve. It is sensory and motor for organs in the
thoracic and abdominal cavities
 Cranial Nerve XI (Accessory) is a pure motor nerve
for the trapezius, sternocleidomastoid, and muscles of
the larynx
 Cranial Nerve XII (Hypoglossal) is a pure motor
nerve for the tongue
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Anatomy of the Peripheral Nervous System 11

 A nerve is arranged similarly to a muscle, with Cranial Nerves

fascicles and connective tissues
o Endoneurium
o Perineurium
o Epineurium
 Three nerve classifications:
o Sensory – afferent only
o Motor – efferent only
o Mixed – afferent and efferent
 Twelve pairs of cranial nerves attach directly to the
brain. They can be classified as sensory, motor, or
both
 Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves attach to the spinal
cord by dorsal and ventral roots © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©McGraw-Hill Education/Christine Eckel

 The dorsal root is sensory/afferent

 The ventral root is motor/efferent
 The autonomic division of the PNS is subdivided into
the sympathetic and parasympathet
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Sympathetic Division of the Autonomic 21

Spinal Nerves
Nervous System

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14

Dermatomes Parasympathetic Division

 Preganglionic fibers arise from the brain stem and the
sacral region of spinal cord
 Synapse with postganglionic neurons in ganglia are
close to visceral organs

Parasympathetic Division of the 23

Autonomic Nervous System

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Autonomic Nervous System

 Purpose is to maintain homeostasis in response to
changes in internal conditions
o Effects cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and
glands
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 ANS is subdivided into: © 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

o Sympathetic division
Most organs are innervated by both divisions of the ANS
o Parasympathetic division
 Sympathetic input only: sweat glands and blood
 The sympathetic division has a chain of ganglia and
vessels
prepares the body for physical activity (fight or
flight)
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
 The parasympathetic division has ganglia close to the Nerve Impulses
structure affected and prepares the body for
 A resting membrane potential is the basis for a nerve
vegetative functions (rest and veg)
impulse and therefore must be maintained
 Polarized membrane – the outside is positive and the
Organization
inside is negative
 Uses two motor neurons to relay impulses to effectors
o Sodium flows into the cell = depolarization
o Preganglionic neuron extends from CNS to
 The cell becomes more positive
autonomic ganglion
o Potassium flows out of the cell =
o Postganglionic neuron extends from
repolarization
ganglion to visceral effector
 The cell becomes more negative
 Local potentials start a dendrite and travel toward
Autonomic Neurotransmitters
the trigger zone. Local potential has the following
 Divisions differ in the neurotransmitters used at
characteristics:
synapses
o Graded – strength determined by the
o All preganglionic neurons use acetylcholine
amount of ion flow
o Parasympathetic postganglionic use
o Decrimental – effects decrease with
acetylcholine
distance
o Sympathetic postganglionic use
o Reversible – return to normal after
norepinephrine
stimulation
o Excitatory or inhibitory – can result in
Sympathetic division
depolarization or hyperpolarization
 Preganglionic fibers arise from thoracic and lumbar
 Action potentials travel from the trigger zone to the
regions
synaptic knob
 Fibers either synapse with postganglionic neurons in
 They require a threshold stimulus and have an all-or-
sympathetic chain ganglia or a collateral ganglion
nothing effect
o They are not graded, decrimental, or
reversible
 Myelinations allows for the sped of an action
potential
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Resting Membrane Potential A Reflex Arc for a Withdrawal Reflex

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Memory
 There are three types of memory: immediate, short
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Local Potential term, and long term

 Immediate memory last a few seconds
 Short-term memory lasts a few seconds to a few
hours; forgetting results if there is a distraction
 Long-term memory results from chemical changes in
the neuron
o This results in cellular changes, including
the growth of dendrites and the formation of
new connections

Language
 Wernicke’s area is located in the temporal lobe. It is
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 Broca’s area is located in the frontal lobe. It is used
to find the words for outgoing language
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Action Potential
Function of the Nervous System
 The function of the nervous system is fast, efficient
communication of one part of the body with another
part, using action potentials
 The function can be demonstrated through identifying
pathways
 Pathways
o A pathway can be written for what is
occurring here

Nutritional Requirements of the Nervous System

 Sodium and potassium are needed throughout life to
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maintain resting membrane potentials

Reflexes
 A reflex is an involuntary, predictable motor response
to a stimulus without conscious thought
 A reflex occurs in a reflex arc that involves a
receptor, an afferent sensory neuron, an integration
center in the CNS, an efferent motor neuron, and an
effector
 Receptor
1. Dendrite of a neuron receiving the stimulus
2. Afferent neuron (sensory): a neuron that has an
action potential carrying the signal to the CNS
3. Integrating center: either the brain or spinal cord
4. Efferent neuron (motor): a neuron that has an
action potential carrying a signal away from the
CNS
5. Effector: the structure causing the effect
o Skeletal muscle = somatic reflex
o Gland, smooth or cardiac muscle =
autonomic reflex
 Fat is necessary in the diet, especially for children, to
ensure the proper myelination of developing neurons
Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
 Intellectual performance may remain high until
around age 80
 Reaction times slow as neurons become less efficient
 The number of neurons in the brain decreases with
age
Diagnostic Tests for Nervous System Disorders
Diagnostic Test or Screening
 A Lumbar Puncture is a procedure used to collect
and analyze cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) surrounding
the brain and spinal cord
 A Nerve Conduction Study is a procedure that
assesses the conduction of nerve impulses along
peripheral nerves by using electrodes to stimulate the
nerve while reading the conduction of the impulse as
it reaches its end point

Nervous System Disorders

 Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA), commonly
termed a stroke occurs when part of the brain dies
due to lack of blood supply
 Alzheimer’s Disease is a progressive, irreversible
disease of the brain that is characterizes by dementia
 Huntington Disease is a genetic disease cause by a
defective gene, passed down from either the mother
or father. Patients experience uncoordinated, jerky
movements
 Parkinson’s Disease is a degenerative brain disorder,
due to degeneration of dopamine secreting brain
cells. The patient experiences tremors, and slow
uncoordinated movements
 Multiple Sclerosis is a disease characterized by
demyelination of the axon. The disease may be
hereditary or autoimmune. The patient progressively
experiences a loss of sensation of motor control
 Paralysis is the loss of muscle function between due
to an interruption in the pathway between the brain
and muscles
 Epilepsy is a condition that is characterized by
recurring seizures caused by misfiring of electrical
signals in the brain
 Hydrocephalus is a condition resulting in a buildup
of excess cerebrospinal fluid in the brain
 Cerebral Palsy is characterized by a group of
symptoms that occur in the brain following an injury
to the brain before the age 5