ECE 3125

Communication Engineering II

Semester 2
2011 - 12
March 12, 2012

1
So far, we have discussed:

Important features of digital communication

systems
Signal classification
Spectral densities – Amplitude, Power, and
Energy
Linear systems, bandwidth of signals and
systems

2
Now, we shall talk about:

The first important step in any DCS

Formatting or Transforming the output of the information source
to a form compatible with a digital communication system

• Formatting of Textual Information - Data Codes

• Formatting of Analogue Information
• Line Codes

Reading Material
Chapter 2
3
Digital Communication System (DCS)

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 Formatting and transmission of base-band signals

Digital info.

Textual Format
source info.
Pulse
Analog Transmit
Sample Quantize Encode modulate
info.

Pulse
Bit stream waveforms Channel
Format
Analog
info. Low-pass
Decode Demodulate/
filter Receive
Textual Detect
sink
info.

Digital info.

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 Formatting Textual Information
(Data Codes)
DATA CODES

Data CODE: A number, letter, character, symbol, or any combination thereof, used
to represent a data item. It refers to the way in which data is represented.

The sender and receiver must use the same code in order to
communicate properly.

Here, we will briefly look at three common codes:

• The historical International Morse Code

• ASCII Code: The one which is in widespread use today

• GSM Code: The one widely used in providing SMS

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International Morse Code

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 Morse Code Translator

http://morsecode.scphillips.com/jtranslator.htm

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ASCII AND GSM CODE TABLES

REFER TO SEPARATE FILE

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 Formatting of Analogue Signals

To transform an analogue waveform into

a form that is compatible with a digital
communication system, the following steps
are taken:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization
3. Encoding

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Sampling

Time domain Frequency domain

xs (t ) = xδ (t ) × x(t ) X s ( f ) = Xδ ( f ) ∗ X ( f )
x (t )
| X(f )|

xδ (t ) | Xδ ( f ) |

xs (t )
| Xs( f )|

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Aliasing effect

LP filter

Nyquist rate

aliasing

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Sampling theorem

Analog Sampling Pulse amplitude

signal process modulated (PAM) signal

Sampling theorem: A band-limited signal

with no spectral components beyond , can
be uniquely determined by values sampled at
uniform intervals of

The sampling rate, is

called Nyquist rate.
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 Quantization

Amplitude quantizing: Mapping samples of a continuous

amplitude waveform to a finite set of amplitudes.

Out

In
Average quantization noise power
Quantized

Peak signal power

values

Peak signal power to average

quantization noise power

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Encoding → PCM

Pulse code modulation (PCM): Encoding the quantized

signals into a digital word (PCM word or codeword).

Each quantized sample is digitally encoded into an l bit codeword

where L is the number of quantization levels.

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 Quantization Example
amplitude
x(t)
111 3.1867

110 2.2762 Quant. levels

101 1.3657

100 0.4552

011 -0.4552 boundaries

010 -1.3657

001 -2.2762 x(nTs): sampled values

xq(nTs): quantized values
000 -3.1867
Ts: sampling time
PCM t
codeword 110 110 111 110 100 010 011 100 100 011 PCM sequence

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Quantization error
Quantization error: The difference between the input and
output of a quantizer
e(t ) = xˆ (t ) − x(t )

Process of quantization noise

Qauntizer
Model of quantization noise
y = q (x)
AGC x(t ) xˆ (t )
x(t ) xˆ (t )
x
e(t )

+
e(t ) =
xˆ (t ) − x(t )

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Quantization error …
Quantization error:
Granular or linear errors happen for inputs within the dynamic
range of quantizer
Saturation errors happen for inputs outside the dynamic range
of quantizer
Saturation errors are larger than linear errors
Saturation errors can be avoided by proper tuning of AGC
Quantization noise variance:
∞
σ = E{[ x − q( x)] } = ∫ e 2 ( x) p ( x)dx = σ Lin
2
q
2 2
+ σ Sat
2
−∞
L / 2 −1
ql2 q2
σ 2
Lin =2∑ p( xl ) ql Uniform q. σ 2
Lin =
l =0 12 12

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Uniform and Non-uniform Quantization
Uniform (linear) quantization:
No assumption about amplitude statistics and correlation
properties of the input.
Not using the user-related specifications
Robust to small changes in input statistic by not finely tuned
to a specific set of input parameters
Simple implementation
Application of linear quantizer:
Signal processing, graphic and display applications,
process control applications
Non-uniform quantization:
Using the input statistics to tune quantizer parameters
Larger SNR than uniform quantizing with same number of
levels
Non-uniform intervals in the dynamic range with same
quantization noise variance
Application of non-uniform quantizer :Widely used for quantization of
speech signals 19
 Non-uniform Quantization
It is achieved by uniformly quantizing the “compressed” signal.
At the receiver, an inverse compression characteristic, called
“expansion” is employed to avoid signal distortion.

Compression + expansion companding

y = C ( x) x̂
x(t ) y (t ) yˆ (t ) xˆ (t )

x ŷ
Compress Qauntize Expand
Transmitter Channel Receiver
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 Statistics of speech amplitudes
Speech signals are characterized by the fact that weak signals are
more frequent than strong ones.

1.0
Probability

0.5

0.0
1.0 2.0 3.0
Normalized magnitude of speech signal

Using equal step sizes (uniform quantization) gives low   for weak
S

signals and high  S  for strong signals.  N q

 N q
Adjusting the step size in the quantization process by taking into account the
speech statistics improves the SNR for a given input signal range .

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 Base-band Data Transmission

Line Codes
To transmit information through physical channels,
PCM sequences (in general, data words, say
pertaining to ASCII and GSM codes) are transformed
to pulse sequences or waveforms, called line codes.

Each waveform carries a symbol from a set of size M.

Each transmit symbol represents k = log 2 M bits of
the PCM words.
PCM waveforms (line codes) are used for binary symbols
(M=2).
M-ary pulse modulation is used for non-binary (M>2) symbol
sequences.

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 PCM waveforms (Line Codes)

PCM waveforms (Line Codes) categories:

Non-return-to-zero (NRZ) Phase encoded

Return-to-zero (RZ) Multilevel binary
+V
1 0 1 1 0 +V
1 0 1 1 0
NRZ-L -V Manchester -V

Unipolar-RZ +V Miller +V
0 -V
+V +V
Bipolar-RZ 0 Dicode NRZ 0
-V -V
0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T 0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T

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PCM waveforms (In general, Line codes)

Criteria for comparing and selecting PCM

waveforms (line codes):
Spectral characteristics (power spectral density and
bandwidth efficiency)
Bit synchronization capability
Error detection capability
Interference and noise immunity
Implementation cost and complexity

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PSD of PCM waveforms (line codes)

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Digital PAM (M-ary pulse modulation)

Categories of M-ary pulse modulation:

M-ary pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM)
M-ary pulse-position modulation (PPM)
M-ary pulse-duration modulation (PDM)
M-ary PAM is a multi-level signalling where each
symbol takes one of the M allowable amplitude levels,
each representing k = log 2 M bits of PCM words.
For a given data rate, M-ary PAM (M>2) requires less
bandwidth than binary PCM.
For a given average pulse power, binary PCM is
easier to detect than M-ary PAM (M>2).

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Digital PAM: Example

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