Task 1: Water is the “Universal Solvent”

Examples of water being used as the solvent in a solution:

● The solute, guarana power, caffeine powder and flavour can be dissolved in the
solvent, water (H2O), to create an energy drink solution.
● The solute, salt (NaCl) can be dissolved in the solvent, water (H2O), to create a
saline solution.
● The solute, instant coffee powder can be dissolved in the solvent, water (H2O), to
create a coffee solution.
● The solute, tea can be dissolved in the solvent, water (H2O), to create a tea solution.
● The solute, electrolyte powder and flavour can be dissolved in the solvent, water
(H2O), to create the solution of an electrolyte drink.
● The solute, instant noodle flavouring powder can be dissolved in the solvent, water
(H2O), to create the solution of instant noodle soup.

Salt particles are arranged in a cube-like array, with the Na+

and Cl- ions alternating and attracting each other (diagram
at left of table salt particle from
http://www.atomsinmotion.com/book/chapter4/rockSalt.png​).
When a salt particle (the solute) is dissolved in the solvent
water (H2O), the water particles pull apart the salt particle
by attracting the Na+ and Cl- ions. When pulling off Na+
ions, water particles with the
negatively charged oxygen ions
facing the Na+ ion attract the
Na+ ion to them, thus pulling it
off (shown on diagram at right, from
http://oceansjsu.com/images/salt.gif​). Similarly, when pulling off
Cl- ions, water particles with the positively
charged hydrogen particles facing the Cl-
ions attract the Cl- ion, and the particle is
pulled off (shown on diagram at left, from
http://oceansjsu.com/images/salt.gif​). This shows that the attraction
between attraction between the salt ions and the water particles are
stronger than the salt ions with each other. When all the salt has
dissolved, all of the salt ions from the salt particles will be pulled off,
and the solution would be the salt ions being surrounded by water
particles. You cannot see the salt particles because they are
surrounded by the water particles.

When the dissolving solution’s temperature is raised, this causes creates more energy within
in the particles, making them move faster. This makes the rate of dissolving a solute in water
faster. For example, looking at the salt solute dissolving in the solvent, water again, when
the temperature is raised, the speed of the water particles will increase. This makes more
particles hit the salt ions in a shorter time period, therefore a temperature rise increases the
rate of dissolving a solute in a solvent. Vice versa, when the temperature of a dissolving
solution is decreased, the energy in the water particles decreases as well, therefore they are
moving at a slower rate. This will take more time for the water particles to hit the salt ions
than if the temperature were higher and the water particles were moving faster, so the rate of
dissolving a solute in a solvent will be decreased when the temperature is lowered.
However, when the saline solution reaches a boiling point, the water particles break off from
the salt ions as they have so much energy that they are moving too much to secure the salt
particle, and they change states to a gas. This gas diffuses through the air and leaves the
salt particles behind as a solid. The salt does not evaporate because salt’s boiling point is
higher than water’s boiling point, so unless the temperature is raised even higher to salt’s
boiling point (1,413ºC) [3] where the salt will have enough energy to turn into a gas [4], the
salt will remain in the same position.

The pH of liquids is the how acidic or alkalic the liquid is, or specifically the hydrogen ion
concentration (when there is higher concentration, the liquid is more acidic) [5]. On the pH
scale, 7 is completely neutral, while numbers below 7 are acidic and numbers above 7 are
alkalic. Human blood has a pH level of approximately 7.35-7.45, being nearly neutral. It is
important that normal drinking water, which should be the liquid humans are consuming the
most, is close to the pH of blood, or basically neutral. This is because the water we consume
go to our bloodstream which carries out many functions like distributing oxygen to the
various body parts and keeping the body warm. However, if the pH level of the blood is
disturbed, it can have big impacts on the body. If the pH level is too acidic, it can cause
problems like having the small intestine too acidic to digest food properly, which can lead to
an imbalance of metabolic enzyme production. Other problems are the leaching of calcium
(which is alkaline) from bones to make up for the acidic pH, and imbalanced levels of insulin,
which happen when the blood becomes too acidic [6]. If the water is too basic, this also has
an effect of the stomach, which is supposed to be acidic. When alkaline water is ingested,
the stomach makes up for the raised pH level by creating more acid, which interferes with
the body’s digestion. If the stomach is too alkaline, the likelihood of getting a bacterial or viral
infection through the stomach will also be increased as acidic environments help kill
dangerous pathogens [7]. The pH of drinking water need to be listed so that consumers can
see what water is safer to drink and thus make the right decisions for their body.

The pH of water sources are affected by many different factors including plant growth, soil
composition, pollution and acid rain. Plant growth is an important factor because when plants
decompose, carbon dioxide is released and can be combined with water to form carbonic
acid. This will obviously make bodies of water more acidic, thus changing its pH level. Soil
composition affects the pH level, because the water moving through the soil will collect the
soil particles and they can dissolve into the water. For example, limestone is alkalic and can
help neutralise more acidic bodies of water. Pollution can also affect the acidity of water
sources. Factories which dump chemicals into lakes or streams affect their pH because the
chemicals already have a significantly different pH, and when mixed with the water will
influence the pH of the water as well. Lastly, acid rain can also change the pH of water
sources. Acid rain is formed when water vapor is combined with nitrogen oxides (NOx) and
sulfur oxides (SO2) in the air. Acid rain can have a pH of 5 to 0, and can make water
sources incredibly acidic [8].
Task 2: The Water Purification Process

Nitrates (NO3) are contaminants in water which when ingested by the human body, can
interfere with the red blood cells’ ability to carry oxygen. This is especially dangerous for
infants, as their circulatory system still is not completely developed the lack of oxygen to
their body parts can cause death or brain damage [10]. This is because nitrate is converted
to nitrite when consumed by the human body in the digestive system. This nitrate interferes
the red blood cells’ oxygen-carrying ability by oxidising the hemoglobin of the red blood cells
(which is what carries the oxygen) and turns it into methemoglobin, which cannot carry
oxygen [11]. This is why consumers need to see how many nitrates are in their water,
especially if the water is for infants. This can help them make the buyer choices.

Nitrates enter the water sources like the Waikato River through fertilisers, pesticides and
animal waste. In New Zealand, where farming is one of the biggest industries, fertilisers,
pesticide and animal waste are extremely abundant. Fertilisers and pesticides used in farms
can be washed off from rain, and travel to nearby streams to contaminate them. Animal
waste are also rich in nitrates, for example cow and sheep waste. This can leach into the soil
to water tables below. [12] However, there is a humongous amount of farm animal waste in
New Zealand. New Zealand has 6.7 million dairy cows, which produce the same amount of
waste as 100 million people [13]. Animal waste is rich in nitrates, so they are also used as
fertilisers. This how nitrate ions end up in water sources like the Waikato River,
contaminating them.

The New Zealand government chooses to dissolve sodium fluoride (NaF) into New
Zealand’s tap water, which happens at water treatment plants. There are a number of pros
and cons of having sodium fluoride in tap water.

Firstly we will discuss sodium fluoride’s pros. Sodium fluoride has been proven to strengthen
tooth enamel which prevents tooth decay. The fluoride binds to tooth enamel which
strengthens it. The addition of sodium fluoride has also been shown to work, as tooth decay
in the U.S. has been decreasing since fluoridation of tap water has began [14], and there is a
40% decrease of tooth decay in children who live in fluoridated areas in New Zealand [16].
According to Community Oral Health Services Society vice president Dr. Sathananthan
Kanagaratnam, “Water fluoridation is the simple most effect, practical and safe means of
reducing and controlling the amount and severity of dental decay in a community.” Fluoride
can also increase bone density , as the fluoride that is taken into the bloodstream can be
distributed to them. Sodium fluoride also naturally occurs in tea. If fluoride already occurs in
a drink which many people drink and is considered healthy, it should be included in tap
water. Fluoride is also in most food products [1] like avocado, lettuce, radishes and peaches
[15]. Another pro is that fluoridation costs very little for the people; only 50 cents per person
every year. Comparing this cost with cost of a single filling, which is approximately $130 in
New Zealand [16], this proves that fluoridation is very much more cost efficient.

Now looking at the cons of fluoridation. Apparently fluoride causes fluorosis, a cosmetically
damaging effect that stains the teeth a yellowish colour [17]. This can make those who really
value their physical appearance or spend thousands of dollars paying for teeth whitening
procedures detest fluoridation because the government is forcing on them a chemical which
can ruin their teeth’s appearance. Fluoridation has also been linked to osteosarcoma (bone
cancer). A study from the Harvard School of Public Health, published in 2006, found that
high exposure to fluoride in drinking water is linked to higher risk of osteosarcoma in males,
and a study from the U.S. National Toxicology Program found that male rats who had higher
exposure to fluoridated water had more cases of osteosarcoma than other rats who had less
exposure to fluoridated water. Although these studies are not conclusive since there are
other factors which can contribute to these result and there is not enough concrete evidence
to provide a solid conclusion [18], there are still many people who believe that fluoridation is
related to osteosarcoma. There are other physical deficiencies which are reportedly linked to
fluoridation like arthritis, hypersensitivity, thyroid dysfunction and reduced intelligence [14],
but there are also studies which invalidate these claims. Another con of fluoridation is that
people are concerned with their own right of whether they want fluoride in their water or not.
Fluoride Free NZ, an organisation which opposes fluoridation in New Zealand, believes
fluoridation is “a form of mass medication” and is “a violation of medical ethics as the
medicine is given without consent”. This means that some people wish to control their own
health. There is also a degree of distrust towards the government as opposers of fluoridation
believe that the government are not qualified to look after the entire nation’s dental health.
Other cons of fluoridation is that fluoride is already in toothpaste, making it an unnecessary
and potentially dangerous chemical in drinking water, as well as being toxic if it reaches a
certain concentration [14].

Personally, I am pro fluoridation because I like the idea that us civilians do not need to pay a
lot for effective dental care that is easily accessible. I also really value my dental health, as
they are an integral of part the digestive system. As for fluorosis, I do not find that a big
problem as I do not care for the appearance of my teeth that much. Although there are risks
of getting osteosarcoma, most of the studies have linked it with males having higher
exposure to fluorosis, and these studies are not completely conclusive. Therefore, I believe
New Zealand should be fluoridating their tap water.

Task 3: Bottled Water vs. Tap Water

Bottled water and tap water are the two most used drinking water sources. They both have
their pros and cons and we will discuss these pros and cons.

Bottled water is very efficient for people to use. One can carry around their water wherever
they go and take a sip whenever they want. This is useful when going for a run or traveling
to places where there are not water sources. It is also personal to the person and only the
person. Some people like the idea of this, and do not wish to share something they are
putting into their body with other people.

Another pro of bottled water is that it can be solvent to different flavourings as the solute.
Companies like Coke, Fanta and Sprite earn a lot of money off this. Adding dissolved carbon
dioxide (CO2) to these drinks, it makes them very popular with all ages. Bottled water
companies also claim to add beneficial herbal medicine to their water to create rejuvenating
tea solution, like Lipton Ice Tea or Molihua Tea (translates to jasmine tea). These flavoured
bottled water can attract many people and are also very popular because of their unique
taste.

Lastly, bottled water companies that claim to have extracted their water from sources like
springs, rivers, and lakes. Water which comes from these sources would have lots of
minerals like salt, sulfur compounds, calcium and magnesium ions [20]. These minerals can
have health benefits, for example calcium can strengthen bones, but they can also keep the
pH of water neutral as the minerals makes the water more resistant to pH changes, unlike
DRO water, which is completely neutral and has no dissolved solids and is incredibly
sensitive to pH changes [7]. This can keep the blood neutral after people have ingested the
water, maintaining the pH balance in the human body.

Bottled water is also tested regularly by the NZBC (New Zealand Beverage Council) and
other third party organisations to ensure that the water complies with ingredient and labelling
regulations, so the water can be considered clean and healthy [20]. There is also a heavy
number of distribution barriers and a high cost of becoming a bottled water company, which
ensures the companies are reliable enough to sell bottled water [22]. The regular testing
means that we can put some reliability onto bottled water.

However, like everything else, bottled water has its cons. Firstly, bottled water is expensive
for water, especially compared to tap water. The average price of a bottle of water is $2.82
[21], which in a year can total around $7205.10. Instead, tap water used only for drinking
costs around $190 each year [23]. There is also the cost of creating the plastic bottles, which
is only around 1.25 cents per bottle [24], but that would still be $12500 for every million
plastic bottles produced.

Plastic bottles also cause great amounts of pollution in the environment. Plastic bottles take
an average of 700 years to begin decomposing, and 1000 years to fully decompose. This
shows that the plastic bottles which we throw away will continue to build up at an incredibly
fast rate with any factors reducing the increase. In New Zealand, 78% of plastic bottles are
not recycled, and every second 1500 plastic bottles end up. This is also partly the people’s
fault, but because of the plastic bottles they are causing great damage to the environment.
The effects of pollution from plastic bottles can be suffocation of animals, disturbances on
digestive systems of animals when swallowed and leaching of the plastic into the ocean
which can cause the water to become toxic [25]. This proves that plastic bottles can be
incredibly damaging to the environment.

Another con of bottled water is that the process of collecting the water can have adverse
effects on the environment. This includes long-term droughts which can really affect the
towns of the water source. For example, Fryeburg is a town which Nestle takes water from.
After Nestle’s relentless efforts to take the town’s water, Fryeburg ended up with a major
drought issue that forced them to limit their water supply [26].

Plastic bottles are also said to leach BPA into the water we drink. BPA is extremely toxic and
can cause health problems like cancer and diabetes because of the disturbances it can
make on the human body. It will also disrupt the body’s hormones and endocrine system
[32]. A study in 2010 from the harvard School of Public Health found there is an average
0.02% of BPA in bottled water, which is enough to harm the body [27]. This makes bottled
water risky to drink as it can really affect one’s health if consumed regularly.

Lastly, many studies have shown that bottled water is not entirely clean. For example, in
1999 a study from the natural Resources Defence Council found that 23 out of 35 bottled
water samples had traces of potentially harmful bacteria and chemicals dissolved in it.
However, companies claim that their bottled water is tested regularly, and if that is the case,
then there should not be so much evidence for there being harmful substances in bottled
water. This could deem the bottled water companies to be unreliable, and so there is risk in
drinking bottled water.

Tap water also has its pros and cons. First, a pro of tap water is that it is very cheap
compared to bottled water. As mentioned before, each year each person only use around
$190 for drinking water each year if their source is tap water. That is very little compared to
the whopping $7205.10 people use each year on bottled water. There is also no need for
plastic bottles so the cost of that is also gone, reducing the cost of producing by a large
amount.

Secondly, tap water is also checked regularly – even more regular than bottled water. On
average, tapped water is tested around ten times a week. This is because tapped water is
used so much throughout the country that it must be tested, because any flaws can cause a
whole city’s health problems. Tap water also goes through rigorous cleansing procedures to
ensure the safety of it, for example distillation and dissolving chlorine into the water to kill
harmful bacteria. These procedures all make sure that our tap water is safe to consume.

Another pro for tap water is that, like bottled water, tap water has minerals and substances
dissolved in it. Again, these minerals can keep the balance of pH as they buffer the
sensitivity of acidity change, which when ingested, can still keep the pH of the blood at a
normal level. The minerals in the water also have health benefits like strengthening bones
from dissolved calcium, or decrease tooth decay from fluoride.

A con of tap water is that there are controversial substances dissolved in tap water which
can affect the consumer’s health. For example, chlorine and fluorine have lots of controversy
surround whether they should be in tap water. Chlorine is used to kill the harmful bacteria in
the tap water sources, but it is carcinogenic and residues of it in tap water have been linked
to cancer. This obviously concerns some people of whether they want to drink something
that could potentially bring them cancer. Fluorine is also controversial as some studies have
shown it to be linked to osteosarcoma, another cancer, as well as fluorosis.

Tap water can also be easily contaminated by lead, copper and bacteria from old pipes.
These pipes can which form rust can corrode and the particles from the pipes can then be
dissolved into tap water. This is bad for us, especially lead. Lead is toxic and can leave
damage to the central and peripheral nervous system, cause learning disabilities, impaired
hearing and impair the function of blood cells. These symptoms can be even more severe in
children and infants as their immune systems still are not fully developed yet [28]. Bacteria
and pathogens also damage the consumer’s body by causing infections which can disrupt
the human body’s functions.

Nitrate levels in tap water can be higher than what is safe. Fertilisers, pesticides and animal
waste are major contributors to nitrates in water sources, and these contributors are very
abundant in New Zealand because of New Zealand’s booming farming industry. To get rid of
all the nitrate would cost a lot of money, specifically $4.3 billion annually [29]. If too much
nitrate were to get into our drinking water, when we ingest it, the nitrate will be converted into
nitrite by our digestive systems, and this nitrite can cause problems with the bloodstream’s
ability to carry oxygen, as mentioned before.

Personally, I prefer tap water over bottled water. Firstly because it is cheaper than bottled
water by a lot. This saves a lot of money for my family which we can use to spend on other
necessary things. Secondly, I choose tap water because I care about the state of our
environment, and I think that plastic bottles are a huge issue in the environmental world so I
try to avoid buying plastic bottles when possible, and if I do, reuse them as many times as I
can (until I lose them basically). I also think that plastic bottles are unnecessary because we
can easily buy better quality metal water bottles that we can reuse for a long time, and still
carry around with us and be our personal water. Lastly, I support the idea of fluoridation in
tap water because I value my dental health and I also think this cheap service is very
effective and beneficial.

Task 4: Bottled Water – a Global Perspective

Ethical aspects of bottled water

Towns which bottled water companies takes water from deserve to have a portion given
back to them, as technically the water source is of the town’s property, and so I believe that
taking their water without consent is similar to stealing. The big companies which are
producing and distributing the bottled water, like Nestle and Coca Cola, are earning millions
of dollars each year, and if it was not for the towns which had the water they used to earn all
that money, these companies would be nowhere close to what they are now [27]. It is only
natural to give back to those who helped you, however these bottled water companies do not
do anything for the towns and people of the water source, including repairing the damage
they did to the area’s environment like droughts. I believe that this is unfair and unethical
because the companies are getting all the benefits while the towns are at a huge loss.

Bottle water companies are also caught lying about their sources of water. For example,
Evian claims that their water is natural spring water near Evian-les-Bains [30]. However,
journalists have reported that the water sources of Evian are not actually “natural spring
water collected from Evian-les-Bains”, but just regular tap water. Journalist Samara Sims
reported in an article on bottled water companies that the “‘pure, natural spring water’ is
really just regular tap water, which we have to pay a ten fold amount of money just to have it
packaged in plastic bottles.” [31] This is extremely dishonest of the companies as they are
tricking their consumers to buy products which are not what they thought are. The
companies are also earning way too much money for doing something as low as lying, which
is also unfair to the companies who do not lie and actually tell their consumers where the
water sources come from. I believe this is a form of fraud and is completely wrong.

Environmental aspects of bottled water

Bottled water, especially the plastic bottles, can have a huge impact on the environment.
The plastic bottles which package the water cause a lot of pollution, especially in the ocean.
As I said before, every second 1500 plastic bottles are end up in the ocean and a plastic
bottle can only fully decompose after approximately 1000 years [25]. If this rate continues,
the buildup of plastic bottles will be too large for humanity to manage. Plastic bottles can
cause deaths in animals because of suffocation or if they ingested the inedible plastics.
Plastic bottles can also leach BPA, an extremely toxic chemical that can cause brain
damage, cancer and diabetes, as well as disrupting the endocrine system [32]. This can also
cause significant damage to marine life and BPA is also responsible for many deaths of sea
creatures. Processed crude oil used to make plastic bottles take up many resources to
collect, and also damage the environment, as crude oil is usually collected by drilling into
underground reservoirs [33]. This can damage the environment and the area surrounding
the underground reservoirs.

Factories which produce plastic bottles also cause pollution as the greenhouse gases from
the factories are harmful to the environment. These greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide
and carbon monoxide cause the world to warm up as they prevent the heat from escaping
the earth which is from the sun. These gases also decrease the air quality and the particles
can cause respiratory problems like asthma and bronchitis. The excess carbon dioxide can
also increase the acidity of water, as carbon dioxide is acidic. When the acidity of water is
increased, marine life gets disrupted. For example, coral reefs can become stressed and
cause coral-bleaching, which will increase the coral’s chance of mortality.

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