SUGAR (SUCROSE) ( C12H22O11)

TYPES OF SOLID: IONIC solid

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF SUGAR

DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCE AND LONDON DISPERSION FORCE

-Because stated previously, Sucrose is comprised of 136 valence electrons.

Since there is such a high amount of electrons within this complex molecule, it
causes london force to increase. London forces (intermolecular) are momentary
dipoles which are created by a molecule through the movement of atoms within that
molecule. Sucrose molecules are attracted to each other in the crystal because of the
dipole-dipole attractions among the O atoms in one molecule and the H atoms in the
neighboring molecules (hydrogen bonds). If we add water to sucrose, the O-H groups in
the water form hydrogen bonds to the sucrose molecules in the crystal.
In turn, the sucrose molecules use their O-H groups to form H-bonds with the water
molecules.

HOW DOES AFFECT THE BOILING POINT OF WATER

- Sugar is nonvolatile solute hence when it is dissolved in water, vapor pressure of

water decreases. Boiling point of water seems to get increased and freezing point
of water get depressed.
- Sugar is a crystal, a solid. If you were to add any solid to said liquid, then it would
become a simple solution, a combination of chemicals and elements. The thicker
the solution is, the harder it is to boil. Try boiling some syrup. It's thicker,
meaning its particles are closer to a solid then a liquid, and boiling occurs when a
lot of energy, thermal in this case, are added to the particles. They jump up, start
 moving around and wanting to release. So, by adding sugar to the water, you are
making the solution closer to a solid, meaning more energy is required to make
them move around.

The rise in boiling point is dependent upon the amount of sugar added.

Explanation: For small amounts of added sugar, the rise is minimal. At 60% sugar
there is a great increase in boiling point as the solution becomes increasingly more like
sugar. As we can see in the graph the more the solute it is in the solvent the higher the
boiling point because sugar is nonvolatile solute hence when it is dissolved in water, vapor
pressure of water decreases.
 How does affect the freezing point of the water

When sugar is added, the sugar molecules dissolve into the water. There are less
water molecules because the dissolved sugar replaced the water molecules. The
number of water molecules captured by the ice during the freezing process also
decreases. This causes the freezing temperature of water to decrease and the
process takes longer. The sugar molecules will eventually be captured by the ice but it
will take longer.

Sugar particles are able to dissolve only in a liquid solvent and won't
dissolve when the solvent is in a solid state. Therefore, adding sugar to
water lowers the chemical potential of the solution, which also lowers its
freezing point. In other words, a solution of sugar dissolved in water must
be cooled to a lower temperature than the pure solvent in order for
freezing to happen. When the freezing point of a liquid is lowered by the
presence of an additive, freezing point depression occurs. The exact
freezing point is determined by the quantity of solute particles dissolved
in the solvent. The more solute particles there are in the water, the
greater the freezing point depression of the solution.

The presence of sugar (or salt, or any other dissolved substance in water)
does indeed lower the freezing point of water. This phenomenon,
called freezing point depression, occurs because the particles of the
dissolved substance interfere with the formation of the crystalline bonds
between water molecules that give ice its solidity.
 The lowering of freezing point is dependent upon the amount of sugar added.

Explanation: Adding sugar to water lowers the chemical potential of the solution,
which also lowers its freezing point. When the freezing point of a liquid is lowered by the
presence of an additive, freezing point depression occurs. The exact freezing point is
determined by the quantity of solute particles dissolved in the solvent. The more solute
particles there are in the water, the greater the freezing point depression of the solution.
Sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Type: Ionic Solid

IMF= Ion Dipole forces

-  Ion-dipole forces in a sodium chloride solution. London forces These

intermolecular forces are also sometimes called 'dipole- induced dipole' or
'momentary dipole' forces. Ion-dipole forces are generated between polar
water molecules and a sodium ion. The oxygen atom in the water
molecule has a slight negative charge and is attracted to the
 positive sodium ion. These intermolecular ion-dipole forces are much weaker
than covalent or ionic bonds.

How does affect the boiling point of the water

The boiling point of any liquid is defined as the temperature at which the vapour
pressure of the liquid becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure.
When salt is added to water, sodium chloride dissociates into sodium and chlorine ions.
These charged particles alter the intermolecular forces between water molecules. In
addition to affecting the hydrogen bonding between water molecules, there is an ion-
dipole interaction to consider.
Water is a polar molecule and hence has a dipole, which means one side (the oxygen
side) is more negative and the other side (the hydrogen side) is more positive. The
positively-charged sodium ions align with the oxygen side of a water molecule, while the
negatively charged chlorine ions align with the hydrogen side of a water molecule. The
ion-dipole interaction is stronger than the hydrogen bonding between the water
molecules, so more energy is needed to move water away from the ions and into the
vapour phase.
Even without a charged solute, adding particles to water raises the boiling point
because part of the pressure the solution exerts on the atmosphere now comes from
solute particles, not just solvent (water) molecules. The water molecules need more
energy to produce enough pressure to escape the boundary of the liquid. The more salt
(or any solute) added to water, the more raised is the boiling point. 
How does affect the freezing point of the water

The typical freezing point of fresh water is 0° Celsius [32° Fahrenheit].

Generally, water molecules are composed of hydrogen and water molecules
and they have bonded together into a crystalline structure of ice. Eventually,
the molecules move so slowly that they can no longer escape the
intermolecular attractions between water molecules. As a result of these
forces, a lattice of water molecules form and water becomes ice.

During this phase change, water molecules enter and leave the solid at the
same rate.  Salt disrupts this equilibrium by simply being present. With the
addition of salt, fewer water molecules are present at the interface between
liquid and solid. In other words, salt particles block the water molecules from
re-entering the solid phase, so more water molecules are leaving and less are
entering the solid.

When the temperature lowers even further, the water molecules leaving the
solid phase will slow down even further and the rate will eventually match the
rate at which water molecules can find the solid in the presence of salt. When
the rate at which water leaves the solid balances the rate at which water
molecules enter, a new (lower) freezing point is established.
 The Higher the Salt Concentration its decrease the freezing point of water

The line graph showed that the higher the salt concentration was, the lower the freezing point of
the water was. The lowest salt concentration 0.5 M, had an average freezing point of -.50 degrees.
However, the highest salt concentration, 2M had an average freezing point of -8.10 degrees. The data
showed a different interpretation of the line graph. Distilled water was also used in the experiment to
determine the accuracy of the thermometers. The temperature when the distilled water was frozen was 0.1
degrees, overall both the line graph and the data both proved that the higher the salt concentration was,
the

lower the freezing point.

GLYCERINE (C3H8O3)
 TYPES : IONIC LIQUID

IMF= Hydrogen Bonding (Pre dominant IMF)

Hydrogen bonds in water–glycerol mixtures. For a system

containing water and glycerol molecules, the only atoms that are considered to form H-
bonds are the oxygen atoms and their covalently bonded hydrogen atoms. 

How does it affect boiling point and freezing point of water?

The boiling points of glycerine (also called glycerin or glycerol) water mixtures
are reduced with increased amounts of glycerine. The freezing points are reduced until
glycerine concentration is 66.7 % (mass). Increasing the glycerine concentration above
66.7 % will increase the freezing point as indicated below.   

The boiling point of water is 100 degree centigrade and the boiling point of

glycerol is 290 degree centigrade hence, water is more volatile than glycerol and in the
distillation chamber water will evaporate first as the temperature is increased. As the
temperature is increased, it can be seen in the graph that the composition of water in
the liquid mixture of glycerol and water decreases as water starts evaporating first. The
composition of water in the vapour phase increases as the temperature is increased and
then become constant at maximum temperature when the evaporation of water is
finished. Water evaporates completely and the evaporation of of glycerol starts at its
boiling point at 290 degree centigrade. Hence, till 290 degree centigrade, water
composition in the vapour phase remains constant as the evaporation of glycerol will
start at 290 degree centigrade.

The column pressure can be kept constant or under control by maintaining the reflux
ratio that is the ratio of the the vapour distillate (that is condensed further in the
condenser) to the product distillate. Pressure is kept constant by throttling the the
distillate vapour back to the distillation column.
 In Conclusion , Adding any solid to a liquid will elevate its boiling
point, because the solute molecules absorb energy from the liquid,
meaning more is needed to enable boiling due to ebullioscopic constant:
and freezing point using cryoscopic constant

Molal elevation constant or ebullioscopic constant is defined as the

elevation in boiling point when one mole of non-volatile solute is added to
one kilogram of solvent. Ebullioscopic constant (Eb) is the constant that
expresses the amount by which the boiling point T b of a solvent is raised
by a non-dissociating solute. Its units are K Kg mol-1.
Δ Tb = Ebb
b is the molality of the solute.
A cryoscopic constant is described as the freezing point depression
when a mole of non-volatile solute is dissolved in one kg of solvent. The
cryoscopic constant is denoted by kf. Freezing point depression refers to
the lowering of the freezing point of solvents upon the addition of solutes. It
is a colligative property described by the following formula.
ΔTf = i × Kf× m
Its unit is k.kg.mol−1. It depends on the molar mass of the solute in the
solution.