Dielectric Constant, k

  
The dielectric properties of the various materials used in semiconductor fabrication and packaging
play an important role in achieving the desired performance of integrated circuits. A basic
understanding of dielectric properties is therefore needed by most engineers working in the
semiconductor industry. 

One important property of a dielectric material is its permittivity.  Permittivity (ε) is a measure of the
ability of a material to be polarized by an electric field. 
 
It is, however, easier to grasp the concept of permittivity by first discussing a closely related property,
capacitance (C). Capacitance is a measure of the ability of a material to hold charge if a voltage is
applied across it, and is best modeled by a dielectric layer that's sandwiched between two parallel
conductive plates. 
 
If a voltage V is applied across a capacitor of capacitance C, then the charge Q that it can hold is
directly proportional to the applied voltage V, with the capacitance C as the proportionality constant. 
Thus, Q = CV, or C = Q/V.  The unit of measurement for capacitance is the farad (coulomb per volt).
   
The capacitance of a capacitor depends on the permittivity ε of the dielectric layer, as well as the
area A of the capacitor and the separation distance d between the two conductive plates. 
Permittivity and capacitance are mathematically related as follows:  C = ε (A/d).
  
When the dielectric used is vacuum, then the capacitance Co = εo (A/d), where εo is the permittivity
of vacuum (8.85 x 10-12 F/m).
  
The dielectric constant (k) of a material is the ratio of its permittivity ε to the permittivity of vacuum εo,
so k = ε/εo.  The dielectric constant is therefore also known as the relative permittivity of the material.
Since the dielectric constant is just a ratio of two similar quantities, it is dimensionless. 

Given its definition, the dielectric constant of vacuum is 1. Any material is able to polarize more than
vacuum, so the k of a material is always > 1. Note that the dielectric constant is also a function of
frequency in some materials, e.g., polymers, primarily because polarization is affected by frequency. 
   
A low-k dielectric is a dielectric that has a low permittivity, or low ability to polarize and hold charge. 
Low-k dielectrics are very good insulators for isolating signal-carrying conductors from each other. 
Thus, low-k dielectrics are a necessity in very dense multi-layered IC's, wherein coupling between
very close metal lines need to be suppressed to prevent a degradation in device performance.
  
A high-k dielectric, on the other hand, has a high permittivity.  Because high-k dielectrics are good at
holding charge, they are the preferred dielectric for capacitors.  High-k dielectrics are also used in
memory cells that store digital data in the form of charge.

Permeability, also called magnetic permeability, is a constant of

proportionality that exists between magnetic induction and magnetic field
intensity. This constant is equal to approximately 1.257 x 10-6 henry per
meter (H/m) in free space (a vacuum). In other materials it can be much
different, often substantially greater than the free-space value, which is
symbolized µo.

Materials that cause the lines of flux to move farther apart, resulting in a
decrease in magnetic flux density compared with a vacuum, are called
diamagnetic. Materials that concentrate magnetic flux by a factor of more
than 1 but less than or equal to 10 are called paramagnetic; materials that
concentrate the flux by a factor of more than 10 are called ferromagnetic.
The permeability factors of some substances change with rising or falling
temperature, or with the intensity of the applied magnetic field.

In engineering applications, permeability is often expressed in relative,

rather than in absolute, terms. If µo represents the permeability of free
space (that is, 1.257 x 10-6 H/m) and µ represents the permeability of the
substance in question (also specified in henrys per meter), then the relative
permeability, µr, is given by:

µr = µ / µo
= µ (7.958 x 105)

Diamagnetic materials have µr less than 1, but no known substance has

relative permeability much less than 1. Certain ferromagnetics, especially
powdered or laminated iron, steel, or nickel alloys, have µr that can range
up to about 1,000,000. When a paramagnetic or ferromagnetic core is
inserted into a coil, the inductance is multiplied by µr compared with the
inductance of the same coil with an air core. This effect is useful in the
design of transformers and chokes for alternating current (AC), audio
frequencies (AF), and radio frequencies (RF).
Consider the dielectric permittivity as a fundamental parameter that effects the
propagation of electric fields.   It is measure of how electric field behaves/interacts
with any material. You can use it (for example) to understand how easily an electric
field will polarize a given dielectric material.  Dielectric constant and loss tangent are
both numerical values using which you can define permittivity of a dielectric
material. 
The permittivity of a dielectric material is denoted by 'ε'. This ε is related to the
dielectric permittivity of vacuum, ε  by a ε , which is called the relative permittivity,
0 r

(also sometimes called the dielectric constant  of the material). 

ε = ε ε   ----1
r  0

Maxwell's equation relate the charges present in a dielectric to applied electric field
by the relation 
D = ε E + P -----2
, where D is the electric displacement field, E is the electric field, P, free charge
density in the material. ( P is considered = 0 in the context of this answer, i.e. no free
charges exist in the material).
Now, as you might already know, ε  = 8.854.10  is a universal constant, the
0
-12

permittivity of vacuum remains same for all frequencies. But this is not true for other
media. ε depends on frequecy. How? :
Assume you have an alternating field of a given frequency. When it is incident on a
dielectric, it'll take some time to polarise the dielectric material. This time changes
w.r.t. the incident field's frequency. This time difference can be represented by a
phase term, δ. δ is called the loss angle. tanδ is called dielectric loss tangent. For
low-loss dielectrics, δ is very small. So tanδ is considered ~δ. 

Dielectric constant (ε ):  The ratio of the absolute permittivity of the medium (ε) and
r

the permittivity of free space (ε ).

0

Dielectric loss: When a dielectric material is subjected to the A.C voltage, the electric
energy is absorbed by the material and is dissipated in the form of heat. This
dissipated energy is called dielectric loss.
Loss tangent: In the perfect insulator, polarisation is complete during each cycle and
there is no consumption of energy and charging current lead the applied voltage by
90 . But for commercial dielectric, this phase angle is less than 90  by an angle δ and
o o

is called dielectric loss angle. Tan δ  is taken as measure of dielectric loss and is
known as loss tangent.