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Michael Purdy: Listening in Everyday Life: A Personal and Professional Approach
Michael Purdy: Listening in Everyday Life: A Personal and Professional Approach
Chapter 1
WHAT IS LISTENING?
Michael Purdy
Points to be Addressed:
The neglect of listening.
Communication has two dimensions: speaking (expression), and listening (reception). For most of
Western Civilization, speaking has been the form of communication regarded as most important. The
first books on communication were about how to be an effective speaker. Listeners were recognized, but
only as they were important to the purposes of the speaker. In fact, speaking has been championed as the
way to success throughout Western history. We give honors and awards to great speakers, but how may
people do you know who have been recognized for their listening talents? There is even a popular
speaking course that purports to teach “how to win friends and influence people.” The road to success is
not through listening, they suggest.
Listening Defined
The process of listening is often contrasted with hearing. Lundsteen considered hearing a physical act and
listening a mental act. Hearing she said had to do with our physiological capacity to receive and process
sounds (1979, p. xv). Problems with our ability to hear could hinder our listening. Hence, it behooves
each of us to have our hearing checked if we think it could be affecting our ability to listen. In contrast to
hearing, listening has to do with assigning meaning to the stimuli received by our brain. To listen,
according to Nichols and Lewis, is to attach “meaning to the aural symbols perceived” (p. 1).
We will maintain this defined distinction between hearing and listening, here, even though in our day–to–
day usage the words may be used interchangeably. We may say “I did not hear you.” But we did hear, we
just were not fully attending and hence were not listening. (Sometimes, if we quickly focus our mind on
what was said we can still remember what was said. The words remain in short term memory for a brief
period of time and can be recalled.) There is also confusion in our everyday usage because parents tell
their children “you’re not listening.” What the parent often means is “you are not obeying.” In the
Germanic roots of the Anglo–Saxon language there is a sense in which “to listen” means “to obey”.
Hearing and listening will have precise meanings in this text.
There are several distinct definitions of listening, and there is little agreement about which is the best; nor
should there be. Each definition represents a different perspective of listening, and with the many
approaches to listening there are bound to be a number of definitions. Ethel Glenn (1989) in the Journal
of the International Listening Association lists fifty different ways of describing listening. This list is not
exhaustive. It indicates, however, that listening is conceived differently depending upon how people
intend to apply the definition. For example, researchers who seek to predict listening behavior, versus
those who interpret listening, versus consultants who provide listening skills training in the workplace
may each employ a viable, albeit different definition of the term listening. Glenn’s content analysis of the
fifty definitions found that the concepts most often included in the definition of listening were:
perception, attention, interpretation, response, and spoken and visual cues.
Throughout Western history we have assumed listening was automatic and needed no attention. We did
not concern ourselves with study and training in the art of listening. Listening, however, is not automatic.
To be better listeners we need to understand, and work with the components of the listening process. For
our purposes, whatever definition of listening we choose we must know that (1) listening can be learned,
(2) that listening is an active process, involving mind and body, with verbal and nonverbal processes
working together, and (3) that listening allows us to be receptive to the needs, concerns, and information
of others, as well as the environment around us.
Listening is comprised of seven essential components: (1) volition, (2) focused attention, (3) perception,
(4) interpretation, (5) remembering, (6) response, and (7) the human element. These seven components
are an integral part of the dynamic and active process of listening. That listening is dynamic means that
1
See Gilbert, & Barker, et al., for reference to the studies on amount of time spent
listening and time allocated to teaching listening.
while there may be essential components the act of listening itself is never the same twice. We must be
constantly alert and open to improvisation as the elements of the listening situation change. Like a jazz
musician’s spontaneous and unrehearsed play, we must adapt to the communication of the other members
of our social group. Listening is also active as opposed to passive. It is something that we consciously do;
it does not simply happen. Rogers and Farson, in a classic article on active listening define “active” as
meaning:
the listener has a very definite responsibility. He does not passively absorb the words which are spoken,
but he actively tries to grasp the facts and feelings in what he hears, to help the speaker work out his own
problems. (p. 149)
First, for an individual to be able to listen, he or she must want to listen. Thus, volition, or the will to
listen is the initial component of effective listening. Even having willed ourselves to attend to the ideas
of another, it sometimes takes courage to listen fully to another human being. To listen fully may mean
we may have to change based upon what we hear. Nichols and Stevens recognized the difficulty in their
1957 book, Are You Listening?: “Whenever we listen thoroughly to another person’s ideas we open
ourselves up to the possibility that some of our own ideas are wrong” (p. 51–52).
Second, good listening requires focused attention. If our minds are wandering, or, if we are jumping
ahead to what we think the speaker might say, we are apt to miss important information. The third
component of the listening process is perception. We need to be aware of all of the elements of message,
speaker, and context. It also implies that we must be open and receptive to the messages of others. A
critical part of communication is lost when individuals are unwilling to listen to others because of, for
example, prejudicial or opposing viewpoints.
The fourth component of the listening process is the capacity to interpret the messages and meanings of
the others. The process of interpretation includes understanding. In interpreting a message we naturally
make sense of that message in terms of our own experience. This means each message understood is a
creative process; it also implies we are limited by our experience. A person may be highly motivated to
listen to a message, for instance on contemporary physics. However, if the message is especially complex
or technical beyond the listener’s ability, then the likelihood for an accurate interpretation is greatly
diminished.
Fifth, competent listening includes remembering. Often we remember without exerting any effort. In
many critical listening situations, however, we need to consciously and actively include listening skills
that help us retain what we have heard. Some basic skills for enhancing memory will be covered in the
next chapter. A sixth component is the need for response as essential to completing the process of good
listening. Sometimes our response is internal as we integrate what we have understood and internally
comment upon it. Usually after understanding a complete thought it is important that we give feedback to
the speaker, or respond in such a way that the speaker has an idea of how we have understood and
interpreted what he or she has said.
The seventh and last component is the human being. In listening we must always be receptive to the
personal element. In both our personal and business lives people are the most important resource.
Listening should validate and empower people, thus enhancing relationships. We also listen for
information, but we must keep in mind that information is colored and given meaning by a person’s
needs and concerns (the listener’s as well as the speaker’s). As students, doctors, lawyers, law
enforcement officers, etc., we cannot “manage” without good information. Information is the lifeblood of
our professions. Today organizations cannot function without a continuous flow of information. All
information, however, is only meaningful as it describes and relates to a human condition.
The above components of the listening process focus not only upon the speaker’s verbal message, but
also upon the nonverbal message. The meaning may be grasped from what is said, as well as, what is
unsaid. Birdwhistell’s work in the early seventies, in fact, argued that perhaps the majority of a message
derives from the nonverbal dimension (1970). Thus the listener must attend not only to what the speaker
says, but also to how he or she says it (e.g., tone of voice, pitch, rate of speaking, etc.), and to the context
in which the message is delivered (e.g., a formal auditorium, an informal gathering, a classroom, etc.).
The how of what the speaker says includes feelings; for if we just listen to denotative meaning we miss
the emotional content. Listening to feelings in a situation may tell us what is motivating the speaker, as
well as other pertinent information. The listener who attends to both the verbal and the nonverbal
communication will likely listen more accurately than the individual who is oblivious to these important
cues.
The important components of the listening process are summmarized in the seven steps for becoming an
effective listener.
With these seven steps as essential components, our definition of listening reads as follows:
Listening is the active and dynamic process of attending, perceiving,
interpreting, remembering, and responding to the expressed (verbal and
nonverbal) needs, concerns, and information offered by other human beings.
2
See Wolvin & Coakley, Wolf, et al., and Nichols & Lewis for three different ways of
breaking out the types of listening.
All of us engage in the five types of listening behavior. How well we listen, however, depends on a
variety of factors that are influenced by our backgrounds and experiences. In Chapter Two we examine
the various factors that affect our intra– and inter–personal listening skills.
Regardless of the type of listening we are engaged in, there are rules of behavior we must learn in order
to be an effective listener. By way of illustration, how good would a friend be at therapeutic listening if
he provided no feedback, or a doctor if she were to look away when discussing a diagnosis with a
patient? 3 Similarly, a college student may contend that he can listen simultaneously to a teacher’s lecture
and to a football game. Appropriate comprehensive listening, however, suggests that such distractions
severely limit comprehension.
How do we learn to demonstrate proper behavior for discriminative, critical, comprehensive, therapeutic,
and appreciative listening? As with all of our behavior, appropriate communication is a function of
cultural norms and of group expectations. Sociologists Stockard and Johnson (1980) contend that the
familial, educational, religious, and institutional systems we are immersed in serve to influence our
behavior. Additionally, our personal backgrounds (i.e., intelligence, psychological make–up, gender,
ethnicity, religion, etc.) shape our interest and willingness to listen to others. We may, therefore, share in
the belief that we should listen quietly to an orchestral symphony or to a dramatic performance. Yet
individuals may be perplexed by the affective display of listening by a member of the opposite sex or a
different country.
Subsequent chapters in this book will address the impact of gender, ethnicity, and specific professional
roles on listening behavior. Despite the different focus of these chapters, each one acknowledges that
through listening we empower people. In all of our relationships—both personal and professional—our
ultimate goal is to empower individuals so that they may creatively function at their best.
Summary
In this chapter we have discussed the importance of listening in our personal and professional lives. In
addition, we have admitted the difficulty we confront when attempting to define listening and have
proposed one definition that takes into account the individual’s desire to listen, and the importance of
focused attention, awareness, remembering, and the ability to interpret verbal and nonverbal
communication. We also recognized the importance of listening to the needs and concerns of each
individual. The five kinds of listening that we all engage in—discriminative, critical, evaluative,
therapeutic, appreciative—are also explained as useful in our everyday living. Finally, this chapter
introduces concepts describing how we acquire listening behavior.
Exercises
1. For the duration of this class keep a listening journal in which you record observations of listening
behavior in your classes/seminars, at home (where you live), at work, and in your relationships. Begin
your journal with observations of effective and ineffective listening. For a five day period find examples
of effective and ineffective listening, and compare and contrast the differences between the two. Report
on your findings to the group.
2. At the beginning of the class/seminar, have each individual introduce him– or her–self to the rest of the
group and mention a few things about him– her–self. Once the self–introductions are complete, ask each
participant to take out a sheet of paper and write down what they remember about each individual. Group
discussion should follow on how effectively each person recalled what was said and to what extent
effective listening was or was not impaired, and why.
3. Break up the class/seminar into several small groups. Assign each group a professional role to discuss
(i.e., nurse, teacher, surgeon, lawyer, police officer, mother, business executive, journalist, secretary,
etc.). Have each group generate a list of verbal and nonverbal cues that a member of this profession
would need to display that would indicate to others that they were listening. Would the communication
change if the individual were trying to listen discriminatively versus critically? How?
3
Admittedly, there are instances when limited feedback is appropriate. For
example, a psychoanalyst may not look at a patient. However, such behavior is
generally in response to the patient’s needs.
4. Ask each class/group participant to interact with a friend or family member but to refrain from
providing feedback (verbal or nonverbal). What kind of reactions did they receive from the other party?
How did they feel when they were not allowed to respond? What role does feedback play in listening?
5. Read Ethel Glenn’s short article on the content analysis of fifty definitions of listening (see
references). Consider the strengths and weaknesses of each group of definitions for your professional
area. Then either write your own definition, or choose one of those listed and defend you choice (or your
created definition) in 250–300 words. For example, you might consider what makes listening in your
profession special or different, and hence requires a unique definition of listening.
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