i

SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION AND EXTENSIONPRIVATE

1.1 COURSE: EE 201: RURAL SOCIOLOGY

1.2 PREREQUISITE: EE 101: BASIC SOCIOLOGY

1.3 COURSE WEIGHT: 2 CREDITS: (30L & 60S)

1.4 SEMESTER: SEMESTER III, 2011/2012

1.5 INSTRUCTOR: F.T.MAGAYANE, ROOM #12 DAEE, MAIN CAMPUS

1.6 INSTRUCTOR CONTACT OFFICE PHONE: EXTENSION: 4284; MOBILE: 0767-

492949

1.7 COURSE CONTENT:

1.7.1 Sociology/Rural Sociology
1.7.2 Social Change
1.7.3 Diffusion of Innovations
1.7.4 Adoption of Innovations
1.7.5 Change agents
1.7.6 Groups and group behaviour

1.8 MEETING TIMES: As in the timetable:

1.8.1. Tuesdays: 07:45-10:45 AAE IN SJ-12 MAZIMBU
1.8.2 Wednesdays: 07:45-10:25 AAE IN SC1 MAZIMBU
13:30-15:15 BRD IN SLT6 MAZIMBU
1.8.3 Thursdays: 16:30-19:20 BRD IN SI-12 MAZIMBU

1.9 COURSE ASSESSMENT: Through THREE IN CLASS TESTS AND ONE SEMINAR
PRESENTATION
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st
1.9.1 1 Test will weigh 10% of final grade: Objective type of questions & one essay question
1.9.2 2nd Test will weigh 20% of final grade: Objective type of questions & one essay question
1.9.3 One Seminar presentation will weigh 10% of the final grade
1.9.4 3rd Test is THE UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION and will weigh 60% of final grade: Essay
type of questions
1.9.4 Dates for the 1st and 2nd Tests will be agreed upon in class as course progresses

1.10 COURSE MATERIALS HAVE BEEN DRAWN FROM THE FOLLOWING BOOKS:
Hughes, M. and C.J. Kroehler, 2005. Sociology: The Core. 7th Edition. McGraw Hill. Boston
Lenski, G. and J. Lenski, 1987. Human Societies: An Introduction to Macro sociology. 5 th Edition.
McGraw-Hill Book Company. New York
Ritzer, George, 1996. Sociological Theory. 4th Edition. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. New York
Rogers, E.M., R.B. Burdge, P.F. Korsching, and J.F. Donnermeyer, 1988. Social Change in Rural
Societies: An Introduction to Rural Sociology, 3rd Edition. Englewood Cliffs: NJ, Prentice Hall
Rogers, E.M. 2003. Diffusion of Innovations. 5th Edition. The Free Press. New York
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1 SOCIOLOGY/RURAL SOCIOLOGY

First conceived of as Social Physics and used by the French Auguste Comte (1738-1857), Sociology is
the term used to denote the scientific study of people in group relationships. It is the scientific study of
social behaviour. Sociology focuses on patterned and recurrent relationships between and among
people as well as on the social factors that have influence on the patterned relationships. Thus three key
issues feature heavily in the definition of sociology as a subject matter: a science; patterned and
recurrent relationships; and social factors shaping the relationships.
1.1 Sociology as a science
Simply stated, science is “definite knowledge acquired through empirical methods”.

Use of scientific knowledge: Knowledge helps us understand and explain some aspects of the world
around us. More elaboratively, knowledge helps us to describe, explain, predict, and understand aspects
of the world in which we live.
1.2 Sociology Focuses on Relationships
Sociologists are interested in patterned human relationships rather than individual behaviour.
Yet if you visited almost any college classroom, you would find similar patterns of behaviour: students
remain in their seats while professors lecture, professors assign grades, students take examinations,
students ask questions etc. Although individual students and professors differ from class to class, they
related to one another in patterned ways. This patterned relationship is the subject matter of sociology.
1.3 Sociology Focuses on Social Factors
The sociological approach assumes that the behaviour of a group is not determined by the characteristic
of its individual members. Emile Durkheim, a pioneering nineteenth century French sociologist,
developed the approach that assumes that the behavior of a group is not determined by the
characteristic of its individual members but the social factors. Thus, Durkheim argued for example that
we do not attempt to explain the nature of bronze from its component parts of lead, copper and tin.
Instead, we consider bronze an alloy, a unique metal produced by the synthesis of several distinct
metals. The hardness of bronze is not predictable from its components, each of which is soft and
malleable. Durkheim reasoned that if a combination of certain metals produces a unique metal, some
similar process might happen in groups of people.
1.4 CULTURE
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Beliefs
A belief is a symbolic statement about reality. It states what is real and what is not real or what is true of
false. Symbols are representations of ideas so their meaning can be communicated among individuals
within the same society.
Values
Values are symbolic statements of what is right and important. Values are broad cultural principles
embodying ideas about what most people in a society consider desirable.
Norms
A norm is a symbolic statement of expected behavior. Unlike beliefs and values (which are symbolic
statements of ideas and preferences), norms represent the actual rules of the game. The norms of society
provide standards for behavior that are generally consistent with its values and beliefs, specifying what is
appropriate or inappropriate, and the limits of what is allowable. Many norms are designed for specific
roles.
There are two types of norms: (i) prescriptive and (ii) proscriptive. Prescriptive norms specify what
should be done while Proscriptive norms specific what should not be done
Attitude/behaviour
Attitude is a relatively enduring set of beliefs possessed by an individual about an object. The objects
about which we have opinions or attitudes include people, actions, and ideas:

Attitudes represent our evaluation or feelings about the world around us. Attitudes are possessed by each
of us, and as such, individuals within the same society display widely divergent opinions about the same
thing. However, one’s culture (beliefs, values, and norms) is important in determining our attitudes.
Attitudes are generally indicative of how people will behave. They are predispositions to act. Thus studies
of attitudes are so numerous as they provide a clue of expected behavior. However, many other factors
intervene in translating attitudes into behavior, including individual abilities, competing motives etc.
1.5 SOCIAL STRUCTURE
Expected behaviour of members of a society is facilitated within the context of that society’s social
structure.
Social structure refers to the total pattern of organization of a society, including established customs, laws
and institutions. It refers to various positions occupied by individuals in a social system. Individual’s
position in the social structure is mirrored in the patterned relationships among individuals and groups. It
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touches on one part of the subject matter of sociology.

Status
In society, every member occupies a series of positions, and associated with each position is a set of
specific responsibilities. These positions include parent, doctor, student, police officer, professor etc. The
socially defined position of an individual relative to other positions in society is called status: it is a slot
that a person occupies within a society. Like many terms in sociology, status becomes meaningful only
when two or more specific individuals are compared; our status depends upon who we are and with
whom we are compared. A status or position may be either temporary or permanent. Each of us occupies
many temporary statuses. Thus, we go to a bank and occupy the status of a customer, and transact our
business with somebody who holds the position of a bank teller. Later in the same day, we may have a
conversation with the same person, who now has the status of a neighbour. Some statuses are based on
specific situation, such as the status of a patient.
Roles
A role is a set of socially defined expectations about the beliefs, values, attitudes, and behavioral norms
associated with a distinctive status.
Examples of roles: father, parent, husband, farmer etc

Social Class
Geologist study layers of rock, called strata. We also find layer upon layer pattern existing in society.
Social strata in society are organized on the basis of status and role. Individuals occupying certain
positions in society have more wealth, power, and prestige than individuals holding other statuses.
Social stratification is the process by which positions in society are differentiated into layers with
resultant inequalities. A social stratum includes individuals occupying statuses associated with
approximately the same level of wealth, power and prestige.
1.6 SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
Social organization refers to the way in which individuals and relationships are ordered with reference to
the goals of the society concerned. The organization of individuals as they relate to societal goals takes
the form of group formation.
1.7 SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
Social institutions refer to the organized systems of social relationships.
Why social institutions
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To ensure its survival, every society must fulfill five basic needs (also referred to as functional
prerequisites since without them the society cannot perform or even survive): the replacement of
members, the socialization of new members, a sense of purpose, the production and distribution of goods
and services, and the maintenance of order and security. Societies have evolved institutions to provide for
those needs. The family provides for the replacement of new members, education for the socialization of
the new members, religion for instilling a sense of purpose, an economy for the production and
distribution of goods and services, and a government for the maintenance of order and security. The
above-mentioned institutions are called universal institutions because they can be found in all societies
regardless whether those societies are complex or not. Although specific institutions are provided for each
need, there is a considerable amount of overlapping, and the five major institutions are quite interrelated.
Major characteristics of institutions
A number of characteristics are common to all social institutions including the following: (1) each social
institution is related to a fundament social need (2) social institutions provide values, norms and roles that
regulate human relations (3) they set up patterns of interrelated roles, and (4) they are resistant to change
1.8 RURAL SOCIOLOGY
Rural sociology is a sub-field of sociology devoted to issues/problems related to rural people and life. It is
a scientific study of rural people in group relationships. Some of the other sub-fields in sociology are
include: family sociology, industrial sociology, demography; criminology; educational sociology etc.

The Country Life Commission, created by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt in 1910 identified the main
social problems of rural America and the studies that followed fostered the emergence of Rural Sociology
as a problem-oriented and applied discipline. Rural Sociology (and agriculture economics) was formalized
as a teaching, research and extension activity within the colleges of agriculture in the U.S. with the passage
of the Purnell Act in 1925. The Act made provision for use of Federal funds to study rural communities
(i) Deals with groups of people: students/farmers/girls/secondary school girls/university
students etc. it is different from psychology: which deals with mental processes of
individuals
(ii) Deals with relationships/interactions (e.g. among livestock keepers and between livestock keepers
and professionals). Social interaction exists when two or more persons mutually influence each
other's behaviour
Interactions/relationships are shaped by both individuals and social factors through the process of
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socialization, a process through which an individual's personality is shaped.

(iii) it is a problem-oriented science that aims at solving social problems in rural areas
Do we have social problems in rural Tanzania? Then, rural sociology has something to offer. What is a
social problem? A problem emanating from social factors and whose solution lies primarily in social rather
than technical approaches:
Examples: Animal diseases afflict many of our herds even though technical solutions (drugs, vaccines,
quarantines) are available to control the diseases.

The ability and intention to solve a social problem (assuming availability of a technical solution) lies in
ones attitude as is translated into a specific behaviour. "Human beings the world over have very different
ideas about what is pleasant and unpleasant, polite and rude, true and false, right and wrong. All these
differences, found within a single biological species, are expressions of human culture" John J. Macionis,
1987.
1.9 Importance of rural sociology
1.9.1 Provides information about rural societies, which is useful at the stage of formulating and
introducing new ideas to rural societies
1.9.2 Rural sociology attempts to find out why the results of a certain intervention/project/programme
have been as they are
1.9.3 Knowledge of rural sociology has clarified the concept of adoption of innovations
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2: SOCIAL CHANGE
2.1 Social change implies alteration in the structure of organization of society or its component parts.
Cultural change on the other hand involves a change in normative, cognitive and material (e.g. from
steam engine to diesel engine) culture. Since social and cultural changes are intertwined with each other
we will use the term change to refer to both social and cultural change.

Society is defined as the largest distinguishable unit of interacting individuals who share a pattern of social
organization that regulates the interaction between them. It is an autonomous group of people engaged in a
broad range of cooperative activities.
Examples of social change:
Types of families:
(i) From extended type towards nuclear type of families: extended family - is one in which parents,
their children and their children's children live together in one housing unit. A family is also called
extended if the ties with relatives outside the nuclear family are maintained through visiting or
economic support
(ii) From two/three generation to one/two generation families
Types of marriage:
From polygamous towards monogamous
From “marriage” towards cohabitation
2.2 Sources of Change
The basic sources of change are innovation, diffusion, crises and conflicts.
2.2.1 Innovation
Innovation is an obvious source of change. For example, introduction of improved technologies in on
farm activities may result in a new form of division of labor along gender lines.
2.2.2 Diffusion
Diffusion involves the spreading of cultural traits from one society to another. Improvement in
transportation and communication has contributed to more efficient diffusion process. However, it has
been found that material culture diffuse more readily than non-material culture e.g. it is easier for
missionaries to distribute bibles than to alter ritual patterns/religious beliefs.
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2.2.3 Crises and Conflicts

Many serve as important sources of change because they alter social structure and relationships and
require adaptation to new conditions.
Example 1 in relation to (economic) crisis: the economic crisis which occurred in Tanzania in the
first half of the 1980s made it necessary for individuals to use personal contacts/networks in order
to obtain goods which were in acute shortage. Currently with or without personal contacts one is
assured of getting a number of consumer commodities because competition in business has endured
that the “customer is indeed king”.

Example 2 in relation to (land use) conflict: the current land use conflict in Arusha involving the
Maasai and the Barbaigs on the one hand and the government and private interests (state, farms,
national parks, bean companies etc) on the other is the result of alienation of communal grazing
land by the latter for investment in farming and wildlife conservation. The conflict has greatly
contributed to the decline in the productivity of livestock due to the diminution of grazing land.
This in turn has affected the availability of food for the pastoralists, especially the poor ones forcing
them to change their food habits (from pastoral diet comprising meat, blood and milk to other
foodstuff eaten by non-pastoral people such as “ugali”) as well as to adopt agropastoralism
requiring a new form of organization both at household and community level.

2.3 Factors Influencing the Response to Change

Sometimes change is readily accepted whereas on other occasions it is strongly resisted. However, in
most cases, society attempts to preserve the status quo. Some of the factors which influence people’s
response to change include:
2.3.1 Social culture background (Beliefs, attitudes, values, traditions and habits)
Acceptance or resistance to change is partly influenced by beliefs, attitudes, values, traditions, and habits.
Change that conflict with existing beliefs, values, traditions and habits is more likely to be strongly
resisted e.g. promotion of piggery in a Moslem community.
2.3.2 Perceived need and demonstrability
When a need is widely perceived among a given group, innovations are more readily accepted. Before an
innovation is accepted and approved by a group, members must be convinced not only that they need a
particular article or practice, but its present form truly satisfies that need. For example, even though an
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early microscope was invented in 1674 by Leeuwenhoek, it was not until the germ theory of diseases had
been established, which led to the need to identify microorganisms, that the value of microscope to
medicine and biology became established.
2.3.3 Costs and vested interests
Costs are another important factor influencing the willingness to accept change. Cost includes both
economic (monetary) and social. In order for an innovation to gain wide public acceptance, it must be
reasonably priced. The limited use of tractors in agriculture in Tanzanian is largely attributed to high costs
involved in purchasing and maintaining them. Change affects people differently. Some individual and
groups are likely to lose more benefits and privileges from change than others. Those who benefit from
the status quo often have vested interests in maintaining it, and are likely to mount considerable
opposition to change when it threatens to diminish their power and rewards, among others. For example,
Ujamaa was strongly opposed by the Tanzanian kulaks because it threatened their accessibility to land
and farm labour for their plantations, estates etc.
2.3.4 Isolation and contact
Because most cultural patterns are transmitted by diffusion, those societies in closest contact with others
are most likely to change than societies with less contact. Ecological factors such as mountains or terrain
that hinders communication may play significant role in facilitating or retarding innovation. For example,
the Hadzape, the Tindiga are very isolated and would therefore have little contact, hence, less innovation.
However, in contemporary times, ecological factors might be by- passed due to modern ways of
communication, such as the television, thereby facilitating innovation.
2.3.5 Change Agents
Change is often proposed by individuals who deem it necessary or desirable. Such persons may be called
change agents. Change agents may be government officials or non-government officials. Generally,
existence of change agents is likely to facilitate social change.
2.4 Theories of Social and Cultural Change
There are different theories that attempt to explain the nature of change. Three influential theoretical
perspectives on the process of change are examined. These are conflict, functionalism (equilibrium), and
rise – and fall (cyclic).
2.4.1 Conflict Theory
For Karl Marx, without conflict no progress. This is the law which civilization has followed to the present
day. According to Karl Marx society consisted of conflicting groups with different values and interests.
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Generally all conflict theorists maintain that the competition between groups for scarce resources
inevitably produces divergence, opposition, and conflict. The enduring struggle of these social groups or
forces makes for continuing change. It is important to note that conflict is not necessarily turbulent, as for
example during collective bargaining.

To discover the direction, quantity and quality of change one need only analyze productive forces of
society, as well as relations of production. Under capitalism, according to Marx the main relationships
are between wage-workers and owners. The common relationship of wage-workers to the forces of
production is that they work upon them for wages but do not own or control them. The common
relationship of owners (or capitalist) to the forces of production is that they own them and realize
profits but do not necessarily work upon them. The conflict of interests between the two occur because
it is to the advantage of wage-workers to get high salaries, while it is to the advantage of owners to get
higher profits, but both salaries and profits must come from the same source. Because of the in-built
conflicts of interest between social classes, different social classes tend to struggle for power against
other classes. Marx was of the view that capitalists who owned the forces of production would
eventually be overthrown by the proletarians who worked for survival wages. After the successful
revolution of the workers, a communistic society without social classes and without exploitation would
replace capitalism. Marx view of conflict is conceptualized in the capitalist system. Dahrendorf’s
conflict theory is situated in the post-capitalist era. He instead points out that conflict arises as those
who possess authority seek to maintain the status quo, while those who lack it attempt to expand their
powers- so the source of conflict is authority relationships and not economic interests.

2.4.2 Functionalism
Although functionalism is associated with the sociologist Talcott Parsons who developed it to its highest
level it had its origins in the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. Basically functionalism regards
society as an organism or a mechanical system made up of parts, which work together for the benefit of the
whole. A function is that work performed by a part for the benefit of the whole. If we use the organic
analogy, for example, we say that a part, an organ such as a heart, performers the function of circulation
which benefits the whole organism by providing oxygen to the blood and removing carbon dioxide which
is a waste product. When applied to social change, functionalism sees the movement of society from the
simple to the more complex. Differentiation and specialization may occur in any part of society. And this
requires that they be integrated with other parts so that the whole society becomes adapted to its
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environment. The parts of society are in equilibrium and any change, for example changes in the economic
institutions, results in temporary disequilibrium until adjustments in the other parts result in a return to
equilibrium. Despite changes, however, the emphasis of functionalist theory is on stability. In the face of
inevitable change which results from the interdependence and interlocking functions of any complex
system, stability and order are maintained by the shared values which are passed down from generation to
generation, or by sanctions embodied in coercive institutions which punish deviance.

However, functionalism has been criticized, among others, as a conservative theory, which seeks to
preserve an order that benefits the rich and powerful. Its stress on stability reveals its obsession with its
need to survive, to preserve its favoured position.

2.4.3 Rise and Fall Theories

These theories are also called "cyclical". The cyclical theories of change hold that societies either go
through cycles of expansion and decline or follow a birth-growth-maturity-death pattern of change. They
therefore do not envision long-run trends in change. They focus on the rise and fall of major civilizations
such as Egyptian, Roman, Chinese e.tc. They compared individual societies to individual persons who are
born, reach adolescence, get old and finally die. Societies also go through the same stages of birth, thrive,
and finally die off as is the case of past empires such as the Roman Empire.
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3: DIFFUSION OF INNOVATIONS
"One reason why there is so much interest in the diffusion of innovations is because
getting a new idea adopted, even when it has obvious advantages, is often very
difficult....Rogers 1983:1"

“Getting a new idea adopted, even when it has obvious advantages, is difficult. Many
innovations require a lengthy period of many years from the time when they become
available to the time when they are widely adopted. Therefore, a common problem for
many individuals and organizations is how to speed up the rate of diffusion of an
innovation…..Rogers 2003:1”

3.1 Definition of diffusion: Diffusion is defined as the process by which an innovation is

communicated through certain channels over time among members of a social system. Diffusion is a
special type of communication in that the messages that are communicated during diffusion are
concerned with new ideas, practice or object.
3.2 Main elements of diffusion: According to the definition, there are 4 main elements in the
concept of diffusion: (i) an innovation; (ii) communication channels; (iii) time; and (iv) a social system
3.2.1 Innovation: An innovation is an idea, practice, or object perceived (not necessarily real) as
new by an individual or other unit of adoption (e.g. company, organization, household, couple etc).
Newness is not necessarily objectively measured in terms of time lapse since its first use or discovery.
The “newness” aspect of an innovation is in terms of:
(a) Knowledge: being aware of the existence of an idea, practice or object (awareness),
(b) Persuasion: not having been able to develop a favourable or unfavourable attitude toward the
idea, practice or object before, or
(c) Decision: not having been at the point of making a decision to adopt or reject the idea,
practice or
object before
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Examples of innovations:
(i) Tractorization,
(ii) Oxenization,
(iii) Cattle dipping,
(iv)Computerization,
(v) e-learning and
(vi)e-commerce

Technological innovations:
Most of the new ideas whose diffusion has been analysed are technological innovations, and we often
use the word “innovation” and technology as synonyms. Because there are innovations that are not
technological, it is therefore not proper to equate innovations with technology.
Technology clusters:
A technology cluster consists of one or more distinguishable elements of technology that are perceived
as being closely interrelated. In the field of agricultural innovations, a technology cluster would consist
of a package of innovations related to crop production and would invariably include: use of improved
seeds, proper spacing, use of fertilizers, use of pesticides etc.
Examples:
(i) The package of rice growing innovations of the Green Revolution in Asia and
(ii) The package of wheat growing innovation of the Green Revolution in Latin America

3.2. 2 Communication channels:

Communication is defined as a process by which participants create and share information with one
another in order to reach a mutual understanding.
A communication channel;
is the means by which messages get from one individual to another. It is the means by which a message
gets from a source to a receiver.
Examples of communication channels:
(i) Radio,
(ii) Newspapers,
(iii) Television,
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(iv)Telephone and
(v) E-mail,

Communication channels should be distinguished from sources of messages.

A source is an individual or an institution that originates a message. Communication channels can be
categorised by using two sets of criteria:
(i) the number of people the channel reaches
(ii) the location of the communication channel with respect to the system of reference.

Using the criterion of number of people reached, communication channels are classified as either
(i) inter-personal or
(ii) mass media in nature.
Inter-personal communication channels
are means of transmitting messages that involve a face to face exchange between two or more
individuals and therefore reaches only few people at a time.
Mass media communication channels
are all those means of transmitting messages that involve a mass medium, which enables a source of
one or a few individuals to reach an audience of many.

Using the criterion of location with regard to the social system of reference, communication channels
are classified as being either
(i) localite or
(ii) cosmopolite.
Localite communication channels
are from within the social system that is being referred to or the social system being investigated.
Cosmopolite communication channels
are those from outside the social system of reference or the social system being investigated. Mass
media are always cosmopolite. Interpersonal communication channels can be localite or cosmopolite.

Heterophily and diffusion

Heterophily is the degree to which two or more individuals who interact are different in certain
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attributes, such as beliefs, education, socio-economic status, e.t.c.

Homophily is the opposite of Heterophily and is defined as the degree to which two or more interacting
individuals are similar in certain attributes. An obvious principle of human communication is that the
transfer of ideas occurs most frequently between two individuals who are similar, or homophilous, than
between two individuals who are heterophilous. How does this principle work with regard to diffusion
of innovations because diffusion deals with communication of new ideas. Communication of new ideas
implies that one participant in the process has the new ideas and the other is not aware of the new ideas.
This implies that the communication parties are not homophilous. The principle of homophilous still
holds true as the two parties would be homophilous on many other attributes, though they are
heterophilous with respect to the new idea.
3.2.3 Time
The time dimension in diffusion is construed on three fronts:
(i) during the innovation-decision process,
(ii) in measuring the innovativeness of individuals its subsequent classification of members of a
system into adopter categories and
(iii) in measuring the rate of adoption.
The innovation-decision process involves time in the sense that the five steps of the process occur in
time ordered sequence of
(a) knowledge,
(b) persuasion,
(c) decision,
(d) implementation and
(e) confirmation.
Furthermore, time is involved in the innovation decision process through the innovation decision
period, which is the length of time required to pass through the innovation decision period. Time is also
involved with regard to concepts of innovativeness and adopter categories. Innovativeness of an
individual is the relative earliness/lateness with which an individual adopts an innovation compared to
other members of a system. Based on ones innovativeness, members of a social system are classified
into five adopter categories of innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards.
The measure of innovativeness and the classification of a systems members into adopter categories are
based upon the relative time at which an innovation is adopted. Finally, time dimension in the diffusion
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of innovations concerns the rate of adoption, defined as the relative speed with which an innovation is
adopted by members of a social system. When the number of individuals adopting a new idea is plotted
on a cumulative frequency basis over time, the resulting distribution is an S-shaped curve. Rate of
adoption is usually measured as the number of members of the system that adopt the innovation in a
given time. It is the time required for a certain percentage of the members of a social system to adopt an
innovation. Rate of adoption therefore looks at adoption for a system, while innovativeness looks at
adoption of individual members in a system

3.2.4 A social system

A social system is defined as a set of inter-related units that are engaged in joint problem solving to
accomplish a common goal (Rogers, 2003:23). The social system has a social structure, defined as the
patterned arrangements of the units in a system, which gives stability and regularity to individual
behaviour in a system. The social structure of a system facilitates or impedes the diffusion of
innovations in the system, largely through norms. Accordingly, a social system affects the diffusion of
innovations in the following ways: (i) it constitutes the boundary within which an innovation diffuses,
(ii) it provides norms that regulate the behaviour of individuals in the system, (iii) it has opinion leaders
and change agents who affect the diffusion of innovations, (iv) it determines the types of innovation
decisions and (v) absorbs the consequences of adoption of innovations. A norm is a symbolic statement
of expected behavior. Unlike beliefs and values (which are symbolic statements of ideas and
preferences), norms represent the actual rules of the game. The norms of society provide standards for
behavior that are generally consistent with its values and beliefs, specifying what is appropriate or
inappropriate, and the limits of what is allowable. Many norms are designed for specific roles.
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4: ADOPTION OF INNOVATIONS

4.1 Meaning of adoption

Adoption is the process through which an individual (or any other decision-making unit) passes from
gaining initial knowledge of an innovation, to forming an attitude (+ve or -ve) toward the innovation, to
making a decision to adopt or reject, to implementation of the new idea, and to confirmation of the
decision (Rogers, 2003:168). Being a decision-making process, adoption is sometimes referred to as the
innovation decision process. The adoption process consists of a series of choices and actions over time
through which an adopting unit (individual or organization) evaluates a new idea and makes a decision
on whether or not the adoption makes use of the innovation. It is the decision to make full use of an
innovation as the best course of action available. Rejection is a decision not to adopt an innovation.
Adoption is the desired end product of diffusion. Given differences among adopting units with regard
to the socio-economic-political context, it is common that not all adopting units make the same
decisions with respect to a particular innovation. Further, the same decision may be made but at
different times, i.e. adopting units do not adopt or reject an innovation at the same time. Some adopting
units adopt some innovations fast, others more slowly, and still others never adopt some innovations at
all.
4.2 Types of innovation decisions
Innovation decisions are made by an adopting unit, which may be an individual or an organization.
There are three types of innovation-decisions:
(i) optional,
(ii) collective and
(iii) authority.
The three types fall on a continuum from optional decisions where the adopting individual has almost
complete responsibility for the decision, through collective decisions where an individual has a say in
the decision to authority decisions where the adopting individual has no influence in the innovation
decision.
Optional
innovation decisions are choices to adopt or reject an innovation that are made by an individual
independent of the decision of other members of a social system.
 17

Collective
innovation decisions are choices to adopt or reject an innovation that are made by consensus among
members of a system. All units in the system usually must conform to the systems decision once it is
made.
Authority
innovation decisions are choices to adopt or reject an innovation that are made by a relatively few
individuals in a system who possess power, status, or technical expertise.

ADOPTION OF INNOVATIONS IN NON-ORGANIZATIONAL SETTINGS

4.3 Adoption stages

When it comes to an adopting unit (individual or organization) decision to adopt or reject an individual
innovation, a five-stage model is involved: the five stages include; Knowledge, Persuasion, Decision,
Implementation, and Confirmation
4.3.1 The Knowledge Stage
The knowledge stage is the first one in the innovation adoption process, and commences when an
adopting unit is exposed to an innovations existence and gains an understanding of how the innovation
functions. The mental activity at the knowledge stage is mainly cognitive (knowing). With regard to
knowledge stage of adoption, there are three types of knowledge, each answering a different question
regarding an innovation:
i. awareness knowledge;
ii. how to knowledge and
iii. principles knowledge
 18

A Model of Five stages in the Innovation-Decision Process

COMMUNICATION CHANNELS

PRIOR CONDITIONS
1. Previous practice
2. Felt needs/problems I. KNOWLEDGE II. PERSUATION III. DECISION IV. IMPLEMENTATION V. CONFIRMATION
3. Innovativeness
4. Norms of the social
    system

1. Adoption
Continued Adoption
Later adoption

Characteristics of the
Decision-Making Unit
1. Socioeconomic
    characteristics
2. Personality     variables
3. Communication
     behaviour
2. Rejection Discontinuance
Perceived Characteristics of the
Continued Rejection
Innovation
1. Relative advantage
2. Compatibility
3. Complexity
4. Trialability
5. Observability

The innovation-decision process is the process through which an individual (or other decision-making unit) passes from first knowledge of an innovation, to forming an
attitude toward the innovation, to a decision to adopt or reject, to implementation of the new idea and to confirmation of this decision
 19

4.3.1.1 The awareness type of knowledge tries to answer the “what is the innovation” question.
Awareness knowledge makes the adopting unit know that the innovation exists. The knowledge is
the first level of knowledge and may motivate the adopting unit to seek second and third types of
knowledge. Although concentrated at the knowledge stage, awareness type of knowledge may also
occur at the persuasion and decision stages of the adoption process
4.3.1.2 The “how to” knowledge type consists of information necessary to use an innovation
properly. The adopting unit must understand what quantity of an innovation to secure, how to use it
correctly, and e.t.c. For complex innovations, the amount of how to knowledge needed for adoption
is much greater than for relatively simple innovations. Accordingly, when adequate amount of “how
to” knowledge is not obtained prior to the trial and adoption stages, rejection and discontinuance of
an innovation are more likely to result.
4.3.1.3 The “principles” knowledge type consists of information dealing with the functioning
principles underlying how the innovation works. It consists of information that is forms the basis for
the functioning of the technology. The “principles” knowledge affords competence of the adopting
unit in evaluating the effectiveness of an innovation. It is usually possible to adopt an innovation
without the “principles” knowledge. However, such adoption suffers the risk of misuse and
discontinuance.
Examples of principles knowledge include:
(i) the germs theory, which underlies the functioning of water boiling, vaccinations,
and latrines in village sanitations and health campaigns
(ii) the fundamentals of human reproduction, which form a basis for family planning
innovations
(iii) the biology of plant growth, which underlies the adoption of fertilizers by farmers

Efforts of change agents by knowledge type

Most change agents concentrate their efforts in creating awareness type of “knowledge” based on the
perception that creation of “principles” knowledge is a more appropriate task for formal education.
Concentration on provision of awareness type of knowledge by change agents is partly and rightly
based on the assumption that it is the awareness type of knowledge that triggers the search for
subsequent types of knowledge and therefore adoption or rejection. However, it is important to note
that the awareness type of knowledge is more efficiently handled by mass media channels.
4.3.2 The Persuasion Stage
Persuasion occurs when an individual forms a favourable or unfavourable attitude toward an
innovation. Attitude is a relatively enduring organization of an adopting unit’s beliefs about an
object that predisposes the adopting unit’s action towards the object. The mental activity at the
 20

persuasion stage is affective (feeling). At the persuasion stage, the adopting unit becomes more
psychologically involved with the innovation such that the individual actively seeks more
information about the innovation, decides what messages relating the innovation are credible. It is at
this stage where such attributes of an innovation as relative advantage, compatibility, and complexity
are especially important in forming a favourable attitude about the innovation. In developing a
favourable or unfavourable attitude toward an innovation, the adopting unit may mentally apply the
new idea to his/her present or future situation before deciding whether or not to try the innovation.
This is a hypothetical trial and projects into the future. At the persuasion stage of adoption, an
individual seeks information that helps the individual to evaluate the innovation’s expected
consequences. The individual seeks information that helps the individual to answer the following
question: what are the innovation’s advantages and disadvantages in my situation? Even though the
type of information that enables the individual to gauge the advantages and disadvantages of a
particular innovation is usually available from scientific evaluations of the innovation, research has
shown that individuals seek for such information from their near peers, who has subjective opinions
of the innovation that are a result of the peers’ personal experience with adoption of the innovation.

Although the main outcome of the persuasion stage in the innovation-decision process is a
favourable or unfavourable attitude toward an innovation, the ultimate outcome of the formed
attitude is change in overt behaviour in the form of adoption or rejection of the innovation by the
adopting unit. However, research has shown that there are many situations where favourable attitude
has not translated into adoption of new ideas by adopting units. The discordance between favourable
attitude and adoption is referred to as Knowledge-Attitude-Practice (KAP) gap.
4.3.3 The Decision Stage
This stage takes place when an adopting unit engages in activities that lead to a choice to adopt or
reject an innovation. Adoption is the decision to make full use of an innovation as the best course of
action available while rejection is the decision not to adopt an innovation. Most adopting units do
not adopt an innovation without first trying out the new idea on a probationary basis to determine the
usefulness of the new idea to their own situation. This small-scale trial is often an important part of
the decision to adopt. It is the trying out a new idea on a partial basis so as to evaluate the innovation
as it holds for the specific context of the adopting unit. Innovations that can be divided for trial are
generally adopted more rapidly than those that cannot be divided for trial. One method for
facilitating trial of innovations is distribution to clients of free samples of new ideas

While trial is normally conceived in terms of the adopting unit trying out the innovation, the trial of
a new idea by a peer is also possible at the decision stage. This type of trial is referred to as “trial by
 21

others” and can substitute, at least in part, for the individual’s trial of an innovation, at least for some
individuals and for some innovations.

While most innovation-decision process is viewed in terms of decision to adopt, decision to reject an
innovation is a possible outcome of the process. In fact, each stage in the innovation-decision
process is a potential rejection point. For instance, it is possible to reject an innovation at the
knowledge stage by simply forgetting about the idea after gaining the initial awareness-knowledge
stage.

Rejection can also occur after a prior decision to adopt. At the decision stage, there are two types of
rejection:
(i) Active rejection, which consists of considering adoption of an innovation (including its trial),
but then deciding not to adopt it
(ii) Passive rejection (also called non-adoption), which consists of never really considering use of
the innovation
The Decision making environment of a farmer
A farmer is essentially a manager of his/her farm enterprise for which the enterprise may comprise
of land, crops, livestock, etc. As a manager, a farmer has to constantly make decisions on not only
what to produce, but also on how to produce what is to be produced. Most of extension intervention
is on how to produce. Extension is a way of attempting to influence the decisions of the farmer, i.e.
to persuade farmers to make certain decisions rather than others in line with what an extension
organization considers to be in the best interest of the farmer.

Apart from individual farmer characteristics and extension effort, the decision making environment
of the farmer as a manager includes: the infrastructural environment; the policy environment; and
the physical environment. The farmer's decision making environment therefore comprises of:
(i) The social environment: culture etc
(ii) The infrastructural environment: credit, inputs, markets, transportation means, technical
services/extension
(iii) Physical environment: land quality/quantity, climatic conditions
(iv) Policy environment: rural development policy, taxation, pricing

As we try to influence farmers' decisions, let us be aware of the complex inter-relationships between
a farmer and the decision making environment in which the farmer is situated. It is not a surprise to
find out that what we consider important to the farmer is not at all important from his/her point of
 22

view. Adoption is the desired end product of diffusion. Given differences among farmers with regard
to the socio-economic-political context, it is common that not all farmers make the same decisions
with respect to a particular technological innovation. Further, the same decision may be made but at
different times, i.e. farmers do not adopt an innovation at the same time.

4.3.4 The Implementation Stage

This stage occurs when an adopting unit puts an innovation to use. Implementation involves overt
behaviour change as the new idea is actually put into practice. Implementation usually follows the
decision stage rather directly, unless it is held up by some logistical problems such as unavailability
of the innovation due to various reasons. A certain degree of uncertainty about the expected
consequences of the innovation still exists for a typical adoption unit at the implementation stage,
even though the decision to adopt has already been made. The adopting unit particularly still wants
to know answers for the following questions, “where can I get the innovation? “How do I use the
innovation? “What operational problems I am likely to encounter and how can I solve them? These
questions were also pertinent during the knowledge stage, but at the knowledge level. At the
implementation stage, the questions are asked with reference to putting the innovation to use and not
on a theoretical basis as is with the knowledge stage. At this stage, active information seeking is
common so as to answer the questions and therefore get rid of the uncertainty. Accordingly,
technical assistance is very crucial and the role of change agents becomes crucial with one to one
communication taking an important stage.

Re-invention: With reference to adoption, the concept of re-invention denotes modifying an

innovation before finally adopting the innovation. Re-invention is defined as the degree to which an
innovation is changed or modified by a user in the process of adopting the innovation.
 Re-invention occurs at the implementation stage for many innovations and for many adopters
 A higher degree of re-invention leads to a faster rate of adoption of an innovation. This stems
from the fact that innovations that are more flexible fits in wider range of adopter’s
conditions.
 A higher degree of re-invention leads to a higher degree of sustainability of an innovation.
Sustainability is here defined as the degree to which an innovation continues to be used over
time after a diffusion programme ends.
 Is re-invention bad or good?

Over adoption: Within the adoption literature, over adoption is defined as the adoption of an
 23

innovation by an individual when experts feel that the individual should have rejected the
innovation. Over adoption may occur because of insufficient knowledge about the innovation by the
adopter, an inability to predict the innovation’s consequences and/or the status conferring aspect of
the innovation.
Example of over adoption due to status conferring: buying a sophisticated mobile phone that
has many features that the adopter shall never use

4.3.5 The Confirmation Stage

Confirmation Stage occurs when an individual seeks reinforcement of an innovation-decision
already made, but he/she may reverse this previous decision if exposed to conflicting messages
about the innovation. In the course of implementing an innovation decision, an adopting unit would
still be getting further messages regarding the innovation already adopted. Sometimes, the
information might be pointing to the “I should not have adopted the innovation” position while at
times the information might be in favour of “it is good I adopted the innovation”.
Discontinuance: Discontinuance is defined as a decision to reject a previously adopted innovation.
There are two variants of discontinuance: (i) replacement and (ii) disenchantment
 Replacement discontinuance is a decision to reject an idea in order to adopt a better idea that
supersedes the earlier adopted idea
 Disenchantment discontinuance is a decision to reject an idea as a result of dissatisfaction
with its performance.
The innovation decision period
The innovation decision period is the length of time in days, months or years, required for an
adopting unit (individual or organization) to pass through the innovation decision process. Even
though the innovation decision process starts with the knowledge stage and ends with the
confirmation stage, the innovation decision period is usually measured as the length of time from
knowledge stage to decision to reject or adopt stage. The innovation decision period takes many
years as the following example on diffusion of hybrid maize in Iowa, U.S.A. illustrates:
 In 1928, hybrid maize was released in Iowa as a new technology
 The diffusion of the technology was heavily promoted by the Iowa Agricultural Extension
Service and by salesperson from seed companies
 In 1933, (5 years after the innovation was released) only 10% of the Iowa farmers had
adopted hybrid maize
 In 1936, (8 years after the innovation was released) only 40% of the Iowa farmers had
adopted hybrid maize
 24

 By 1941, (13 years after the innovation was released) all but 2 of the Iowa farmers had
adopted hybrid maize

Furthermore, even though the hybrid maize seed innovation had a high degree of relative advantage
(increasing production by 20%) over the open-pollinated seed that it replaced, the typical farmer
moved slowly from awareness-knowledge of the innovation to adoption. The innovation decision
period from first knowledge to the adoption decision averaged about 9 years for all respondents. In
addition, the average respondent took 3 to 4 years after planting his first hybrid seed , usually on a
small trial plot of about 0.4ha, before deciding to plant 100% of his maize hectarage with hybrid
varieties.
Length of innovation decision period by type of innovation
Attributes of innovations have also been found to have an influence on the innovation decision
period. Thus, while the average innovation period for the adoption of hybrid maize in Iowa was 9
years, the innovation period for adoption of weed spray in the same area averaged 2.1 years.
Innovations with such attributes as high relative advantage, compatibility with social system and
trialability are adopted faster and therefore have short innovation decision periods.
Communication Channels by Stages in the Innovation-Decision process
Communication channels are differently suited to the different stages in the innovation-decision
process. Communication channels can be classified on two criteria as follows: (i) mass versus
interpersonal and (ii) cosmopolite versus localite channels.
Mass versus interpersonal communication channels
Mass channels are means of transmitting messages that involve a mass medium such as radio,
television, newspapers, which enables a source of one or a few individuals to reach an audience of
many. Mass channels are characterised by: (i) reaching a large audience rapidly, (ii) create
knowledge and spread information and (iii) change weakly held attitudes. Interpersonal channels
involve a face-to-face exchange between two or more individuals. These channels are more effective
in dealing with resistance or apathy on the part of an individual as they provide a two-way exchange
of communication, thus affording clarification. They are also relatively important in changing one’s
strongly held attitude. As a conclusion therefore, mass media channels are relatively more important
at the knowledge stage and inter-personal channels are relatively important at the persuasion stage in
the innovation-decision process
Cosmopolite versus localite communication channels
Cosmopolite communication channels are those linking an individual with sources outside the social
system under study or of reference while localite channels link an individual with sources within the
social system. Cosmopolite channels are relatively more important at the knowledge stage, and
 25

localite channels are relatively more important at the persuasion stage in the innovation-decision
process.
4.4 Adopter categories
Not all individuals in a social system adopt an innovation at the same time. Rather, they adopt in a
time sequence. We could classify individuals of a social system in terms of innovation-decision
period, defined as the length of time required to pass through the innovation-decision process. This
is however more tedious and less meaningful. It is much easier and more meaningful to describe
individuals in terms of adopter categories. Adopter categories are defined as the classification of
members of a social system on the basis of innovativeness. Each adopter category will therefore
have individuals with a similar degree of innovativeness. Innovativeness is the degree to which an
individual is relatively earlier in adopting new ideas than other members of the community (Rogers,
1983:242). On the basis of innovativeness, research has identified five adopter categories, namely
innovators (2.5%), early adopters (13.5%), early majority (34%), late majority (34%), and laggards
(16%).

Notes on the shape of adopter categories:

(i) Past research has generally shown that the adoption of an innovation follows a normal, bell
shaped curve when plotted over time on a frequency basis. If the cumulative number of
adopters is plotted, the result is an s-shaped curve. Using frequency rather than cumulative
frequency produces a bell-shaped curve.
(ii) The percentages are based on normality and bell-shape of the distribution.
4.4.1 Innovators: (2.5%)
(i) Venturesome, very eager to try new ideas.
(ii) Have substantial financial resources
(iii) Have the ability to understand and apply complex technical knowledge.
(iv) Are able to cope with a high degree of uncertainty.
 26

(v) Have an important role of launching a new idea in a social system by importing it: this is the
gate keeping group with regard to flow of new ideas in a social system.
(vi) Are cosmopolite (rather than localite) in terms of social relationships.
(vii) Are not very much respected in the community
4.4.2 Early Adopters :( 13.5%)
(i) Respectable
(ii) Localite
(iii) Greatest degree of opinion leadership: Opinion leadership is defined as the degree to which an
individual is able to informally influence other individuals' attitudes or overt behaviour in a
desired way with relative frequency.
(iv) Serve as role model as they are not too far ahead of the average individual and potential
adopters look to early adopters for advice and information about innovations.
4.4.3 Early majority :( 34%)
(i) Deliberate/Carefully thought out moves
(ii) Frequently interact with their peers but do not attain opinion leadership status
(iii) Provide interconnectedness in a system's network by being links between the very early and
the
relatively late to adopt category
(iv) May deliberate for some time before completely adopting a new idea.
4.4.4 Late majority: (34%)
(i) Sceptical
(ii) Adoption is in response to both economic necessity and peer pressure
(iii) Have relatively scarce resources.
4.4.5 Laggards: (16%)
(i) Traditional
(ii) Last to adopt
(iii) Most localite
(iv) Most are near isolates in social networks

Length of innovation decision period by adopter category

Data from many adoption studies has indicated that earlier adopters have a shorter innovation
decision period than do later adopters.
Example: Beal and Rogers (1960) found that while innovators needed 0.40 years, early
adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards needed 0.55 years, 1.14 years, 2.34 years
and 4.65 years respectively to adopt 2,4-D weed spray among Iowa farmers.
 27

Given the short innovation decision period, it is no wonder that innovators are the first one to adopt
innovations in a social system. In addition to being the first to be exposed to innovations, two other
explanations have been advanced to explain the shorter innovation decision of innovators:
a) innovators utilise technically accurate sources and channels about innovations, such as direct
contact with scientists and
b) they place higher credibility in these sources than does the average individual
Communication Channels by Adopter Categories
Research has indicated a relationship between communication channel and adopter category as
follows:
(i) Mass media channels are relatively more important than interpersonal channels for earlier
adopters than for later adopters
(ii) Cosmopolite channels are relatively more important than localite channels for earlier
adopters than for later adopters

Innovativeness/Needs paradox
The concept explains a paradox in adoption. The paradox is that individuals or other adopting units
in a social system who most need an innovation do not adopt the innovation as fast or do not adopt
the innovation at all when compared with those who do not need the innovation.
Examples:
a) Poorer farmers who would benefit more by adopting agricultural innovations do adopt
late while the relatively well-off farmers, whose needs are not as high as those of poorer
farmers adopt agricultural innovation earlier than the poor
b) Poorer members of society with big families do not adopt family planning innovations
although they are the ones who need more family planning than the relatively wealthy
or elite families
4.5 Measuring adoption
4.5.1 Theoretical foundations of measurement
In the broadest sense, measurement is the assignment of numerals to objects or events according to
rules. A numeral is a symbol of the form: 1,2,.... or I,II, etc. Measurement entails relating objects to
numerals. The ultimate goal of measurement is to specify clearly observable referents/indicants of the
terms contained in one's hypotheses.

The most interesting and difficult work of measurement is the rule. A rule is a guide, a method, or a
command that tells us what to do. A numeral by itself has no quantitative meaning unless we give it
 28

such a meaning; it is simply a symbol of a special kind. Note that the term "numeral" is used because
measurement ordinarily uses numerals, which, after being assigned quantitative meaning, become
number. A number then is a numeral that has been assigned quantitative meaning
4.5.2 Measurement and reality isomorphism
Measurement can be a meaningless business, if not carefully done. The measurement procedure and
the number system should be isomorphic to reality if the measurement has to be meaningful.
Isomorphism means identity or similarity of form. Thus measurement procedures should have
relational and empirical correspondence with reality. This is the rule of correspondence: it is the rule
that assigns to each member of one set some one member of another set. In research, the members of
one set can be individuals, or symbols standing for individuals, and the members of the other set can
be numerals or numbers

4.5.3 The process of measuring a concept

The measurement process begins as the researcher formulates his/her research problem or hypothesis.
Every problem or hypothesis contains terms (concepts or variables) that refer to the aspects of reality
in which the researcher is interested. Problem formulation involves thinking about what the terms
mean in both an abstract and an empirical sense. The measurement process involves moving from the
abstract to the concrete and consists of three steps: (i) conceptualization, (ii) specification of variables
and indicators, and (iii) operationalization
4.5.3.1 Conceptualization is the initial step in measurement and what it does is to clarify the concepts
embedded in one's hypothesis with words and examples, ultimately arriving at precisely stated
definitions. Conceptualization is the process of formulating and clarifying concepts. The process is
linked with theory testing and construction. A beginning researcher would be well advised to rely on
theoretical definitions in the literature in clarifying and formulating concepts rather than embark on
new definitions. However, such definitions are not worked out anew with each research project, nor
are they the arbitrary convention of each individual investigator. Such definitions should be in the
research tradition and logical so as to make sure that others understand what the researcher mean. If
this were not the case, there would be no basis for developing shared knowledge.
Example: Suppose that you were interested in testing the hypothesis that education reduces
prejudice. The hypothesis relates to two terms: education and prejudice. The terms education
and prejudice are mere labels for concepts. During the conceptualization process, one must
know the meaning of the concepts of education and prejudice. This is clarification of the
concepts embedded in the theory. Education can for example be defined as "the extent of one's
intellectual and moral training and knowledge. On the other hand, prejudice can be defined as
an emotional, rigidly held prejudgment about an individual based on his/her group membership
 29

4.5.3.2 Specification of variables and indicators of a concept:

After conceptualization, the next step is to identify such manifestations of one's concepts, and it is at
this point that we move from the language of concepts to a language of variables. Manifestation of
concepts is through indicators (indicants). Indicants are merely a convenient word used to mean
something that points to something else. Indicators are the properties of constructs that we can "see".
They are an indication of an underlying concept. Thus if a boy continually strikes other boys
(striking is an indicant), we may say his behaviour of striking other boys is indicant of his
underlying "hostility" concept for which level of hostility is the relevant variable. Many sociological
or social science concepts are not directly "observable". Thus we cannot "see" intelligence, honesty,
education, prejudice, status, and alienation in the same sense that we can see a table, a horse, or a
coloured pen. This necessitates the use of indicants in measuring such concepts. Thus, even though
we cannot "see" education, we can observe how knowledgeable people are and how much formal
schooling they have. Further, even though we cannot "see" prejudice, we can observe whether
people avoid interacting with blacks, make derogatory statements about members of ethnic groups,
or oppose integrationist policies. These are indicants that we can use to "see" the concepts, and
hence be able to measure them. Years of schooling may be an indicant of the concept "education"
with level of education being the appropriate variable; willingness or unwillingness to move into
racially integrated neighbourhood may be an indicant of the concept of "prejudice" with level/degree
of prejudice as the appropriate variable. As seen from the aforementioned example of the concepts of
education and prejudice, concepts may have two aspects: a concept may signify a single category e.g.
male or prejudiced; or it may imply several categories or values e.g. sex (M/F) degree of prejudice
(Low/Medium/High). Measurement assumes the possibility of assigning different values or
categories to units of analysis; hence we measure concepts that vary, which we refer to as variables.
Thus we give different values to the different levels of the concept of interest.

Many different indicators can be chosen to measure a given concept. However, no two indicators
measure a given concept or variable in the same way and no single indicator is likely to correspond
perfectly to its underlying concept. Indicators provide imperfect representation of concepts for two
reasons: (a) they often contain errors of classification and (b) they rarely capture all the meaning of a
concept
Example: consider willingness to move into a racially integrated neighbourhood as a measure of
anti-Black prejudice. A white person may be unwilling to move into the neighbourhood, not
because of its racial composition, but in preference to a place that is close to his/her work place.
Similarly, some may be willing to move into a racially mixed neighbourhood even though he/she
expresses prejudice in other ways
 30

Because of the imperfect correspondence between indicators and concepts, researchers often choose to
rely on more than one indicator when measuring a concept. Sometimes several measures of a given
concept are analyzed separately, yielding multiple tests or cross-checks of a hypothesis. At other times,
indicators are combined to form a new variable, as when answers to several questions, each a distinct
indicator, are combined to create a variable. In general researchers use several indicators to measure
complex concepts like prejudice, but for simpler concepts like education, researchers use single
indicators. For case adoption, one might use either single indicators or several indicators depending on
one’s conceptualization of the concept of adoption. Thus a researcher who views adoption as being
composed of many elements is likely to measure adoption using many indicators than a researcher who
views adoption as being composed of one indicator, in which case this researcher would measure
adoption using one indicator.
Example: In crop production, “use of improved seeds” can be viewed as an innovation. This is a
case where adoption would be measured by a single indicator. On the other hand, a package
consisting of (i) use of improved seeds, (ii) specific plant spacing, (iii) use of herbicides to control
weeds, and (iv) use of pesticides to control pests can be viewed as an innovation. In this case
adoption would be measured by use of many indicators.

4.5.3.3 Operationalization: This is the final step in measurement and involves the delineation of
procedures necessary for sorting units into categories. The detailed description of the research
operations or procedures necessary to assign units of analysis to the categories of a variable is called
operational definition
Example of operationalization: in our examples of the variables years of schooling and degree of
prejudice toward blacks might be operationalized by asking people questions. The complete
operational definitions would consist of the specific questions asked, together with response
categories and instructions for gathering the data and assigning cases to categories

4.5.4 Assessing the goodness of adoption measurement

Precision and accuracy are obviously important qualities in research measurement, and they probably
need no further explanation. When scientists construct and evaluate measurements, however, they pay
special attention to two technical considerations: reliability and validity. Accordingly, adoption should
be measured both validly and reliably. Once a measure for adoption has been made, it ought to be
assessed to see if the measure is a good measure of adoption. Goodness of a measure is assessed
through the measure’s reliability and validity.
 31

4.5.4.1Reliability
In the abstract, reliability is a matter of whether a particular technique, applied repeatedly to the same
object, would yield the same result each time. Synonyms for reliability are: dependability, stability,
consistency, predictability, and accuracy. Reliability is the accuracy or precision of a measuring
instrument. The synonyms of reliability reflect the three inclinations from which reliability can be
conceptualized. Stability, dependability, and predictability portray the consistency of a device in
measuring the attribute being measured. Stability and accuracy have an inclination on how accurate is
the device in measuring the attribute. Finally reliability can be viewed from the point of minimizing
error variance
4.5.4.2 Validity
In the conventional usage, validity refers to the extent to which an empirical measure adequately
reflects the real meaning of the concept under consideration. It is the extent to which any measuring
instrument measures what it is intended to measure. It refers to the extent of matching, congruence, or
goodness of fit between the operational definition and the concept it is purported to measure. Even
though a highly unreliable measure cannot be valid, a very reliable measure may still not be valid.

From the aforementioned on measuring concepts, adoption can be measured by using one or several
indicators. We use a single indicator if the innovation consists of only one indicator. However, we use
many indicators if the innovation consist of many indicators and is construed as a package.
Example of measuring adoption by a single indicator: If the innovation is “use of improved
seeds”
Example of measuring adoption by many indicators: if the innovation is “timely planting, use of
improved seeds, proper spacing, use of fertilizers etc”. Use of many indicators in measuring
adoption is confined to adoption of technology clusters for the case adoption of technology.
4.6 Rate of adoption
Rate of adoption is defined as the relative speed with which an innovation is adopted by members of
a social system. When the number of individuals adopting a new idea is plotted on a cumulative
frequency basis over time, the resulting distribution is an S-shaped curve. Rate of adoption is usually
measured as the number of members of the system that adopt the innovation in a given time. It is the
time required for a certain percentage of the members of a social system to adopt an innovation. Rate
of adoption therefore looks at adoption for a system, while innovativeness looks at adoption of
individual members in a system
4.7 Factors influencing rate of adoption
Research has identified many factors that influence the rate of adoption of innovations. The factors
can be categorised into 5 main groups:
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(i) communication channels,

(ii) nature of the social system,
(iii) type of innovation decision
(iv) perceived attributes of innovations, and
(v) extent of change agent’s promotion efforts.

Since we have already covered the first 3 groups of the factors, the proceeding part shall cover the
remaining two groups of factors influencing the rate of adoption of innovations.
 33

4.7.1 Perceived attributes of innovation

There are five characteristics of an innovation that have been found to influence the rate of adoption
of an innovation. They include relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability, and
observability
4.7.1.1 Relative advantage
Relative advantage is defined as the degree to which an innovation is perceived as better than the
idea it supersedes. The relative advantage of an innovation as perceived by members of a social
system is positively related the rate of adoption of the innovation. Accordingly, the greater the
perceived relative advantage of an innovation, the more rapid its rate of adoption is going to be.
Relative advantage may be measured in economic terms such as profitability, but social prestige
factors, convenience, and satisfaction are also often important components. Diffusion scholars have
found relative advantage to be one of the strongest predictors of an innovation’s rate of adoption.
Relative advantage is the ratio of the expected benefits and the costs of adoption of an innovation.
Sub dimensions of relative advantage include economic profitability; low initial cost; a decrease in
discomfort; social prestige; a saving of time and effort and immediacy of reward.

Preventive and incremental innovations

A preventive innovation is a new idea that an individual adopts now in order to lower the
probability of some unwanted future event. Such innovations have a slow rate of being adopted
because individuals have difficulties perceiving their relative advantage due to the fact that the
advantages would be realised in the far future. The desired consequence is distant in time, which
makes the relative advantage of a preventive innovation a delayed reward. In contrast, an
incremental innovation provides the desired outcome in the near-term future and its relative
advantages can be easily perceived.
Examples of preventive innovations include:
(i) fastening of automobile seat belts,
(ii) comprehensive automobile insurance,
(iii) afforestation to save the environment and
(iv) preventive (in contrast to curative) medications such as vaccinations.

Effect of incentives on adoption

Incentives are direct or indirect payments of cash or in kind that are given to an individual or a
system in order to encourage behavioural change, including adoption. The main function of an
incentive is to increase the degree of relative advantage of the innovation, and therefore increase the
rate of adoption for the innovation. Incentives can be in any of the following five forms:
 34

(i) Adopter versus diffuser incentives: Incentives may be paid either directly to an adopter or
to another individual who shall then be responsible for persuading an adopter. The individual
responsible for persuading an adopter is called a diffuser;
(ii) Individual versus system incentives: Incentives may be paid to individuals or to the system
to which individuals belong. Example: the government family planning agency in
Indonesia paid a community incentive to villages that achieved a high rate of adoption
of contraceptive use;
(iii) Positive versus negative incentives: Most incentives are positive in that they reward a
desired behavioural change. However, it is possible to penalize an individual by imposing a
penalty or by withdrawing desiderata for not adopting an innovation. Example: the
government of Singapore decreed that the mother in any family with a third or further
child would not be eligible to receive maternity leave and that the parents would have to
pay all hospital and delivery costs, which are otherwise free to all citizens;
(iv) Monetary versus non-monetary incentives: While the majority of incentives are monetary,
non-monetary incentives do also exist. Examples of non-monetary incentives include
reward tours, certificates of recognition, vacations etc;
(v) Immediate versus delayed incentives:
Immediate incentives are paid at the time of adoption while delayed incentives are awarded when
considerable time has passed after one has adopted. Example of delayed incentives: awarding an
incentive for adopting contraceptive use after the use has had an effect on fertility i.e. one gets
an incentive to contraceptive use after one has been able not to conceive for a long period of
time

4.7.1.2 Compatibility:
Compatibility is defined as the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being consistent with
the existing values, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters. An idea that is more
compatible is less uncertain to the adopter and fits more closely with the adopter’s situation. The
compatibility of an innovation as perceived by members of a social system is positively related to its
rate of adoption. Accordingly, an idea that is not compatible with the prevalent values and norms of
a social system will not be adopted as rapidly as an innovation that is compatible. Adoption of an
incompatible innovation often requires prior adoption of a new value system that becomes
compatible with the innovation. Past experiences include experiences related earlier to adoption of
innovations. The past experience gives meaning to future innovations and therefore influence
decisions on the innovations. Innovation negativism is an example of situations where past
innovation experiences shape decisions on future innovations. Innovation negativism is defined as
 35

the degree to which a past innovation’s failure conditions a potential adopter to reject future
innovations. Examples of innovation negativism: In Tanzania, failure of past cooperatives is
propelling many to reject current cooperatives

Naming of an innovation:
The name given to an innovation often affects its perceived compatibility and therefore the rate of
adoption for the innovation. Example: In the U.S. automobile industry, one model was named
Nova, which in means no-go in Spanish. Many potential adopters for buying the model who
knew Spanish were hesitant in buying the model

4.7.1.3 Complexity:
Complexity refers to the degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand and
use. The complexity of an innovation, as perceived by members of a social system, is negatively
related to the innovation’s rate of adoption. Accordingly, new ideas that are simpler to understand
will be adopted more rapidly than innovations that are difficult to understand and use.

On a relative scale, complexity may not be as important as relative advantage and compatibility for
many innovations. However, for some innovations, complexity attains a very important state.
An example of an innovation where complexity has a more important role than relative
advantage and compatibility is the adoption of home computers.
4.7.1.4 Trialability
Trialability is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis. The
trialability of an innovation as perceived by the members of a social system is positively related to
the rate of adoption of the innovation. Thus, new ideas that can be “tried on” on instalment plan will
generally be adopted more quickly than innovations that are not divisible. Relatively earlier adopters
of all innovations perceive trialability as more important than later adopters (Rogers, 2003:258).
This is because earlier adopters would not have seen the innovation as adopted by any of their peers.
On the other hand, later adopters would have seen the innovation by their peers, who would
therefore act as “trial by others”.
4.7.1.5 Observability
Observability is defined as the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others.
Some ideas are easily observed and communicated to other people, whereas other innovations are
difficult to observe or to describe to others. The observability of an innovation as perceived by
members of a social system is positively related to the rate of adoption of the innovation. Thus, the
easier it is for individuals to see the results of an innovation, the more likely they are to adopt
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ADOPTION OF INNOVATION IN ORGANIZATIONS

4.8 The meaning of an organization

An organization is a stable system of individuals who work together to achieve common goals through
a hierarchy of ranks and a division of labor. Organizations are created to handle large-scale routine
tasks through a pattern of regularized human relationships. They constitute an efficient means of
achieving common goals. The efficiency in organizations is achieved in part due to the stability of
organizations that stems from the relatively high degree of structure and its associated communication
patterns. The stability of the structure of organizations accords them predictability, which is obtained
through the following five constituent elements of organizations:

4.8.1 Predetermined goals: Organizations are formally established for the explicit purpose of
achieving certain goals. The objectives of an organization determine, to a large extent, the structure
and function of the organization
4.8.2 Prescribed roles: Organizational tasks are distributed among various positions as roles or
duties. A role is a set of activities to be performed by an individual occupying a given position.
Positions are permanent in organizations as per structure. Individuals occupying the positions in an
organization are not permanent; they come and go leaving the positions intact. Likewise, the behaviour
expected of individuals occupying a given position in an organization remain the same even though
occupied by different individuals
4.8.3 Authority structure: In a formal organization, not all positions have equal authority. Instead,
positions are organized in a hierarchical authority structure that specifies who is responsible to whom,
and who can give orders to whom
4.8.4 Rules and regulations: A formal, established system of written procedures governs decisions
and actions by members of an organization. Rules prescribe procedures for hiring individuals, for
promotion, for firing and for coordinating the control of various activities to ensure uniform operations
4.8.5 Informal patterns: Every formal organization is characterized by various kinds of informal
practices, norms, and social relationships among its members. These informal practices emerge over
time and fulfill an important function in any organization

Given the relative stability of organizations, one might expect that innovation would be rare in
organizations. On the contrary, innovation goes on all the time in most organizations. However, many
barriers and resistance to change exist in organizations.
4.9 The innovation process in organizations
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The innovation process in organizations identifies the main sequence of decisions, actions, and events
that result into organizational innovation. Firstly specified by Gerald Zaltman and colleagues in 1973,
it has been established that innovation in organizations occurs in stages. In their seminal study,
Zaltman and colleagues focused on implementation (putting an innovation into use) as the main
independent variable rather than decision to adopt, which is the most commonly referred to
independent variable in diffusion of innovations for individuals. Data that led to the conclusion that
innovation in organizations occur in stages comes from recallable perceptions of key actors in the
innovation process in organizations and written records of the organization about the adoption
decision.
4.10 Stages in the innovation process in organizations
Just like the innovation process among individuals in a social system, the innovation process in
organizations consists of a sequence of five stages. However, the labels for the stages are different
from those used in the innovation process of individuals in a social system. The five stages in the
innovation process in organizations include:
(i) agenda setting,
(ii) matching,
(iii)redefining/restructuring,
(iv)clarifying, and
(v) routinizing.
The five stages in the innovation process in organizations are neatly grouped into two distinct
sub processes:
i. initiation and
ii. implementation.
While the initiation sub process consist of the agenda setting and matching stages, the implementation
sub process consist of the redefining/restructuring, clarifying and routinizing stages.
4.10.1 Agenda setting
Agenda setting occurs when a general organizational problem is defined that creates a perceived need
for an innovation. The agenda setting process in organizations is usually a continuous process that
determines what the organization will work on first, second and so forth.

In an organization, the agenda setting process consists of (i) identifying and prioritizing needs and
problems and (ii) searching the organization’s environment to locate innovations of potential
usefulness to address the identified organizational problems.
38
 39

At the agenda setting stage, one or more individuals in an organization identify an important problem
and then identify an innovation as one means of coping with the problem. A performance gap is the
discrepancy between an organization’s performance expectations and its actual performance. This
difference can be a strong impetus to seek an innovation, thus triggering the innovation process.
Sometimes however, knowledge of an innovation, rather than the recognition of a problem or need by
an organization and its attendant search for a solution launches the innovation process.
4.10.2 Matching
This is defined as the stage in the innovation process at which a problem from the organization’s
agenda is conceptually/hypothetically fit with an innovation. The process of hypothetically fitting the
problem with the appropriate innovation to solve the problem is planned and designed and not in an ad
hoc manner. During matching, the organization’s members attempt to determine the feasibility of the
innovation in solving the organization’s problem by contemplating the anticipated benefits and the
problems that the innovation might encounter when it is implemented. At the tail end of the matching
process, the organization’s decision makers may conclude that the innovation is mismatched with the
problem or matches the problem. Where the innovation is mismatched with the problem, the
innovation is rejected, thus terminating the innovation process prior to the idea’s implementation.
However, where the matching is in line with the problem, the innovation is implemented.
4.10.3 Redefining/Restructuring
Redefining/restructuring occurs when the innovation is re-invented so as to accommodate the
organization’s needs and structure more closely and when the organization’s structure is modified to fit
with the innovation. At this stage, the innovation imported from outside the organization gradually
begins to lose its foreign character. During the redefining/restructuring stage, both the organization and
innovation are expected to change, at least to some degree
4.10.4 Clarifying
Clarifying occurs as the innovation is put into more widespread use in an organization, so that the
meaning of the new idea gradually becomes clearer to the organization’s members. Clarifying entails
social construction of the meaning/implication of the innovation to members of the organization. It
involves answering the following questions by members of the organization: (i) how does the
innovation work? (ii) what does it do? (iii) who in the organization will be affected by the innovation?
(iv) will the innovation affect me? Clarifying is important in that many individuals in the organization
get to know the innovation, thus accepting the innovation. Too rapid implementation of an innovation
by way of having a widespread use in a short period of time can lead to disastrous results.
 40

4.10.5 Routinizing
Routinizing occurs when an innovation has become incorporated into the regular activities of the
organization and has lost its separate identity. At routinizing, the innovation process is completed.
4.11 Organizational innovativeness
Early (prior to 1970s) studies on innovation in organizations focused on organizational innovativeness,
measured as the adoption or non-adoption of a set of innovations by a sample of organizations. In these
studies, the premise was the same as adoption of individuals where organizations were construed as the
adopting unit and therefore the unit of analysis. During these early studies, scholars simply transferred
the models and methods of investigating innovativeness, developed earlier for individuals, to the study
of organizations. These earlier studies on organizational innovativeness helped illuminate the
characteristics of innovative organizations. Many of these characteristics were equivalent to the
characteristics of innovative individuals. For example, larger-sized organizations have generally been
found to be more innovative, just as are individuals with larger incomes and higher socioeconomic
status. But certain of the organizational characteristics do not have individual counterparts. For
instance, organizational structural characteristics such as formalization, defined as the degree to which
an organization emphasizing following rules and procedures in the role performance of its members,
were found to be negatively related to organizational innovativeness
4.11.1 Size and organizational innovativeness
Size of an organization has consistently been found to be positively related to the organization’s
innovativeness. Thus larger organizations are more innovative than smaller organizations. Size of
organization was measured in terms of total assets, number of employees, number of branches, number
of subsidiaries or number of customers. The finding that larger size is related to organizational
innovativeness might seem surprising, given the conventional business wisdom that smaller companies
can be more flexible in their operations and freer of stifling bureaucracy. The positive relationship
between size of an organization and innovativeness is explained by the fact that larger organizations
have several dimensions that lead to innovativeness: (i) total resources, (ii) slack resources, defined as
the degree to which an organization has more resources than those required for its ongoing operations,
(iii) employees’ technical expertise, (iv) organizational structure etc.
4.11.2 Structural characteristics of organization and organizational innovativeness
In addition to size, organizational innovativeness is related to such independent variable clusters as (i)
leader characteristics, (ii) internal organizational structural characteristics, and (iii) external
characteristics of the organization (Figure 10-2)
 41

4.11.2.1 Individual (Leader) characteristics

Individual (Leader) characteristics centers on attitude toward change, where positive attitude toward
change is positively related to organizational innovativeness. An individual with a positive attitude
toward an innovation is referred to as a champion, who is more formally defined as a charismatic
individual who throws his/her weight behind an innovation, thus overcoming indifference or resistance
that the new idea may provoke in an organization. Accordingly, the presence of a champion
contributes to the success of an innovation in an organization. Innovation champions may be from
among individuals with a high office in an organization such as company president or vice president or
from mid offices such as assistant directors. The important qualities of champions include: (i)
occupying a key linking position in an organization, (ii) possessing analytical and intuitive skills in
understanding various individual’s aspirations, and (iii) possessing well honed interpersonal and
negotiating skills in working with other people in their organizations
4.11.2.2 Centralization
Centralization is the degree to which power and control in a system are concentrated in the hands of a
relatively few individuals. Centralization has usually been found to be negatively associated with
innovativeness, implying that the more power is concentrated in an organization, the less innovative
the organization is. The range of new ideas considered in an organization is restricted when only a
few strong leaders dominate the system. In centralized organizations, top leaders are poorly
positioned to identify operational-level problems or to suggest relevant innovations to meet the needs.
 42

This state of affairs in centralized organizations makes the initiation of innovations less frequent than
in decentralized organizations. However, implementation of innovations is fast in centralized
organizations once a decision to adopt has been made.
4.11.2.3 Complexity
Organizational complexity is positively related to its innovativeness. Complexity is the degree to
which an organization’s members possess a relatively high level of knowledge and expertise and their
degree of professionalism. While high level of knowledge and expertise is usually measured by the
members’ range of occupational specialties, degree of professionalism is expressed by formal training.
4.11.2.3 Formalization
Organizational formalization is negatively related to its innovativeness. Formalization is defined as the
degree to which an organization emphasizes its members to follow rules and procedures. An
organization’s bureaucracy is measured by its degree of formalization.
4.11.2.4 Interconnectedness
Interconnectedness is positively related to organizational innovativeness, implying that the
organizations with high degree of interconnectedness are more innovative than those with a low degree
of interconnectedness. Interconnectedness is defined as the degree to which the units in a social system
are linked by interpersonal communication networks. High degree of interconnectedness implies that
new ideas can flow more easily among organization’s members.
4.11.2.6 Organizational slack
Organizational slack is defined as the degree to which uncommitted resources are available.
Organizational slack is positively related to organizational innovativeness, especially for high cost
innovations.
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5 CHANGE AGENTS AND ADOPTION OF INNOVATIONS

“One of the greatest pains to human nature is the pain of a new idea. It …...makes you think that
after all, your favourite notions may be wrong, your firmest beliefs ill-founded……. Naturally,
therefore, common men hate a new idea, and are disposed more or less to ill-treat the original
man who brings it.” Walter Bagehot, Physics and Politics (1973), p.169.

5.1 Defining a change agent

A change agent is an individual who influences clients' innovation decisions in a direction deemed
desirable by a change agency. In most cases, a change agent seeks to secure the adoption of new
ideas, but he/she may also attempt to slow the diffusion process and prevent the adoption of certain
innovations. Given the above definition of change agent, many occupations fit the definition of
change agent: teachers, consultants, public health workers, agricultural extension agents,
development workers, salespeople and even the clergy (priests, sheikhs, pastors).

Change agents are linkers: they link the change agency and the clients by facilitating the flow of
information from a change agency to clients. In the agriculture and livestock sector of the Tanzania
economy, the Ministries of Agriculture, Food Security and Cooperatives; and Livestock
Development and Fisheries are change agencies while farmers and livestock keepers are clients

Change agents often use opinion leaders in a social system as their lieutenants in diffusion activities
and are usually professionals with training in a technical field. The professional training, sometimes
to the level of degree, and the social status that goes with it, usually means that change agents are
heterophilous from their typical clients, thus posing problems of effective communication about the
innovation change agents are promoting.

5.2 The Sequence of Change-Agent Roles

Role is defined as a pattern of behaviour associated with a distinctive social position. Thus, a
veterinarian has a different role from a teacher or a student. Seven roles can be identified for a
change agent:
a) Developing need for change,
b) Establishing an information-exchange relationship,
c) Diagnosing clients' problems,
 44

d) Creating intent to change among clients,

e) Translating intent into action,
f) Stabilizing adoption and thus preventing discontinuances, and
g) Achieving a terminal relationship with clients
5.2.1 Developing a need for change:
This role is accomplished when the change agent helps his/her clients to become aware of the need
to alter their behaviour. In accomplishing this, the change agent:
(i) Dramatizes the importance of the problems.
(ii) Assures the clients that they are capable of
Confronting the problems
(iii) Points out new alternatives to existing problems.
(iv) Assesses clients’ needs at this stage and helps
the clients to identify the needs required to confront the problem.
5.2.2 Establishing an information-exchange relationship
(i) Developing rapport with clients by
(ii) Enhancing agent's credibility, competence, trustworthy, and empathy with clients' needs and
problems. Empathising with clients’ needs and problems is very important because clients often
must accept the change agent before they accept the innovation the change agent is promoting. The
innovations are judged, in part, on the basis of how the change agent is perceived
5.2.3 Diagnosing Clients problem
The change agent is responsible for analysing the problem in order to determine why existing
alternatives do not meet the clients’ needs. In arriving at good diagnostic conclusions, the change
agent should do the analysis from clients' viewpoint and should be able to empathize

5.2.4 Creating intent to change in the client

After a change agent has explored the various avenues of action that clients might take to achieve
their goals, the change agent then should work on motivating their clients in the innovation that has
been identified as the best course of action for the problem at hand. The best course of action
innovation must be client cantered and not agency- or innovation- cantered.
5.2.5 Translating intent into action
A change agent seeks to influence his/her clients' behaviour in accordance with recommendations
based on client's needs. Since this is at the persuasion and decision stages of the innovation decision
process, interpersonal network influences from near peers are most important. Accordingly, change
agent has to work indirectly through for example use of opinion leaders and peers.
5.2.6 Stabilizing Adoption and thus preventing discontinuances
 45

Change agents have to provide reinforcement messages to newly adopted ideas and practices in
order minimize discontinuances. This role of stabilizing adoption is at implementation and
confirmation stages of the adoption process
5.2.7 Achieving
terminal
relationsh
ip
The end goal of for a change agent is to develop self-renewing behaviour on the part of the client.
The change agent should seek to develop clients' ability to enable clients to help themselves.

5.3 Factors in Change Agent Success

Why are some change agents relatively more successful in introducing innovations than others? The
degree of success is usually measured in terms of the rate of adoption of innovations by members of
a client system. The following eight factors have been identified as having an effect on the
successfulness of change agent:

5.3.1 Change agent effort in contacting clients

Change agent success in securing adoption of innovations by clients is positively related to the
extent of change agent effort in contacting clients. Extent of change agent effort in contacting clients
is normally measured in terms of the number of interpersonal communications with clients in the
clients' system. In addition to the sheer mount of client contact, timing of the contact in relation to
the stage of the diffusion of an innovation is also used to measure the change agent’s effort in
contacting clients. The most commonly used measure of interpersonal communication is “contact”
of change agent with client. Contact of change agent involves two groups of extension methods: (i)
individual and (ii) group; and include home or farm visit, office calls and inquiries, informal
contacts, the model farmer as individual methods; and method demonstration and result
demonstration as group methods.
5.3.2 Change agent oriented to clients rather than to change agency
Change agent success in securing adoption of innovations by clients is positively related positively
related to a client orientation, rather than to a change agency orientation. Client-oriented change
agents are more likely to be feedback-minded, to have close rapport and high credibility in the eyes
of their clients, and thus to base their diffusion activities on clients' needs. Because a change agent's
position is located midway between the bureaucracy to which he/she is responsible and the client
system in which he/she works, the agent is necessarily subject to role conflicts as he/she tries to
 46

please both sides. Role conflict is defined as the clash felt when a person occupies two antagonistic
role positions at the same time. The agent is often expected to engage in certain behaviours by the
change agency system, and at the same time he/she is expected by his/her client system to carry on
quite different actions. This is the source of role conflict.
5.3.3 Extent to which the diffusion programme is compatible with clients’ needs
Change agent success in securing adoption of innovations by clients is positively related to the
degree to which the diffusion programme is compatible with clients' needs. Projects not based on
clients' felt needs often fail or produce unexpected results.
Example: One Indian village was provided with development funds to construct irrigation
wells that could approximately double they crop yields. But the villagers wanted wells for
drinking because they had to carry the water about two miles from a river. The peasants built
the wells in the village center, rather than in their fields, and drank the water, instead of
irrigating their crops.
Change agents must be aware of their clients' felt needs and adapt their diffusion programmes to
them. They should not however, relinquish their role in developing and shaping these needs, so as to
benefit the clients' welfare in the long run.
5.3.4 Change agent's empathy with clients
Change agent success in securing adoption of innovations by clients is positively related to change
agent’s empathy with clients. Empathy is the ability of an individual to project himself/herself into
the role of another person. It is putting oneself into somebody's shoes. Through empathy, change
agents are likely to understand the situation of their clients very well and therefore be able to
diagnose the problems of the clients very well, thus being able to develop appropriate solutions to
the problems of the clients

5.3.5 Change agent's homophily with clients

Change agent success is positively related to his/her homophily with clients. Homophily is the
degree to which pairs of individuals are similar in certain attributes and heterophily is the degree to
which they differ. Some of the important attributes include: social status, education,
cosmopoliteness. Social status is the position of an individual or a group relative to others in a
society. Change agents’ homophily with client works through change agents’ effort in contacting
clients, as measured by the number of interpersonal communications with clients in the clients'
system.

Under normal conditions it is not easy for change agents to be homophilous to majority of clients.
 47

This has been demonstrated by research findings that shows the following with regard to change
agents’ contact with clientele:
 Contact with change agents is positively related to higher socioeconomic status of clients
 Contact with change agents is positively related to greater social participation of clients
 Contact with change agent is positively related to higher formal education of clients
 Contact with change agent is positively related with cosmopoliteness of clients
The fact that change agents are heterophilous with clients of lower socioeconomic status makes
change agents initiate less contacts with clients of lower socioeconomic status, even though equity
concerns advocates more contact with clients of lower socioeconomic status. The most common
explanation by change agents as to why they do not initiate many contacts to clientele with lower
socioeconomic status is that such clientele are “not responsive”.
Use of para-professional aides is one of the ways of increasing change agent contact with clientele
with lower socioeconomic status. A para-professional aide is a less than fully professional change
agent who intensively contacts clients to influence client’s innovation decisions.

However, homophily sometimes act as an invisible barrier to the flow of innovations within a
system. The mechanism through which homophily act as a barrier to the flow of innovations is as
follows: New ideas usually enter a system through higher status and more innovative members. A
high degree of homophily would mean that these elite individuals interact mainly with each other,
not with the majority whom they are heterophilous with. This state of affairs confines the spread of
the innovation to elites, thus not trickling down to non elites. Spread on innovations among
homophilous members of a system is referred to as horizontal spread as opposed to vertical spread,
which is the spread among heterophilous members of a system.

5.3.6 Change agent's credibility in the eyes of clients

Change agent success is positively related to credibility in the clients' eyes: Two facets of credibility
are considered:
(i) competence credibility and
(ii) safety credibility.
Competence credibility is defined as the degree to which a communication source or channel is
perceived as knowledgeable and expert.
Safety credibility is the degree to which a communication source or channel is perceived as
trustworthy (Rogers, 1983:328).
Both competence credibility and safety credibility are required for the success of a change agent.
5.3.7 Change agent's extent of working with Opinion Leaders
 48

Change agent success is positively related to the extent that he/she works through opinion leaders.
The time and energy of change agents are scarce resources. By focusing communication activities
upon opinion leaders in a social system, change agents hasten the rate of diffusion. Economy of
efforts is achieved because contacting opinion leaders takes far less of the agent's resources than if
each member of the client system were to be consulted. Further, by enlisting the aid of opinion
leaders, local sponsorship and sanctioning is achieved.

Nature of Opinion Leaders

Opinion leaders are informal leaders and their leadership status is not a function of the individual’s
formal position or status in the system. Opinion leadership is earned and maintained by the
individual’s technical competence, social accessibility, and conformity to the system’s norms.
Conformity to the system’s norms implies that some opinion leaders are pro change while others are
against change depending on whether the system’s norms are pro change or against change. Opinion
leadership is of two forms:
a) monomorphic and
b) polymorphic.
Monomorphic opinion leadership is the degree to which an individual act as an opinion leader for
only a single topic.
Polymorphic opinion leadership is the degree to which an individual act as an opinion leader for a
variety of topics.
Characteristics of Opinion Leaders
While Opinion Leaders are individuals who have a high ability of influencing other individual’s
attitude or overt behaviour informally in a desired way with relative frequency, the individuals who
are influenced by Opinion Leaders are referred to as followers. Opinion Leaders are characterized by
the following attributes:
Communication:
Opinion Leaders have greater exposure to mass media, are more cosmopolite in social network and
have greater contact with change agents than their followers
Accessibility:
Opinion Leaders have greater social participation than their followers. This characteristic implies
that Opinion Leaders have extensive interpersonal network links with their followers, thus being able
spread messages about innovations more easily.

Socioeconomic status:
Opinion Leaders have higher socioeconomic status than their followers
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Innovativeness:
Opinion Leaders are more innovative than their followers. Since opinion leaders have to be
recognized by their peers as competent and trustworthy experts about innovations, they have to
adopt new ideas before their followers. However, opinion leaders are not innovators.

Measuring Opinion Leadership

There are four main methods of measuring opinion leadership:
(i) sociometric techniques,
(ii) informant’s rating,
(iii) self-designating techniques and
(iv) observation.
A summary of the description, typical questions asked, advantages and limitations of each of the
four main methods of measuring opinion leadership
is presented in Table 8-1
The sociometric method consists of asking respondents whom they sought (or hypothetically might
seek) for information or advice about a given topic, such as a particular innovation. Opinion Leaders
are those members of a system who receives the greatest number of sociometric choices. The
sociometric technique is a highly valid measure of opinion leadership as it is measured through the
perceptions of followers. However, the technique necessitates interrogating a large number of
respondents in order to identify a small number of opinion leaders. Usually one has to specify the
number of sociometric individuals to be named by a respondent rather than leave it to the discretion
of the respondent. Thus, a good question would be “who are the three women/men in this village
with whom you have discussed family planning methods” rather who are the women/men in this
village with whom you have discussed family planning methods”. In using key informants in
identifying opinion leaders, one asks a handful of individuals who are especially knowledgeable on
issues in the system to name individuals who other people sought out for information or advice. The
self-designating technique asks respondents to indicate the degree to which others in the system
regard them as influential. A typical question would be “do you think people come to you for
information or advice more often than to others?
Opinion Leadership can also be measured by observation, in which an investigator identifies and
records the communication behaviour in a system. Observation as a practice has generally been used
infrequently due to the time demand required.
5.3.8 Change agents’ ability to increase clients’ evaluative ability
One of the change agents’ unique inputs to the diffusion process is technical competence. But if the
change agent takes a long range approach to the change process, he/she should seek to raise clients’
technical competence and their ability to evaluate potential innovations themselves. Building the
ability of clients’ to evaluate innovations makes the clients take charge of the adoption process, thus
becoming self propelling.
 6: GROUPS AND GROUP BEHAVIOUR

6.1 GENERAL
Social organization refers to the way in which individuals and relationships are ordered with reference
to the goals of the society concerned. The organization of individuals as they relate to societal goals
takes the form of group formation

A group can be formally defined as people in communication and together geographically with
common interests or goals. The four critical elements of a group are thus: (a) composed of people, (b) in
interaction or communication, (c) together physically, and (d) common interests or goals. Groups
should be differentiated from categories or aggregates. A category is a number of individuals who share
one or more characteristics such as age or occupation. An aggregate is a collection of individuals held
together in a physical sense, but not interacting with each other.
Examples of groups: individuals in a family; individuals in a neighborhood
Examples of categories: SUA's women employees; adults in Tanzania etc
Examples of aggregates: Residents of Mafiga ward

A group is something to lean on when things go wrong. It acts to support and reinforce the
individual’s view of the outside world. Such benefits greatly encourage conformity to group norms.
Membership of a group provides individuals with companionship, social experience, opportunities
for self-expression and social intercourse. Against these benefits, however, individuals must be
prepared to modify their behaviour to fit in with group norms. The more valuable group
membership is perceived, the more the individual will want to conform. Feelings of attachment will
be greater, and the power of the group to compel obedience to established norms is enhanced.
Eventually group behaviour will settle down to a fixed routine: conformity is demanded of new
entrants who must demonstrate their willingness to abide by group norms. The group will continue
to function despite changes of personnel. It becomes a self-perpetuating identity.
Groups and resistance to change
As a consequence of member’s conformity to group norms, groups are often resistant to change.
Members become set in their ways and attitudes; they come to believe the group norm is right – no
matter what the circumstances-and of course any deviation from the norm would have to be
explained and justified by the individual to other members. And if the deviation is not accepted by
the group the deviant member is liable to face social ostracism.

Types of groups
Groups can be primary, secondary, formal, or informal. More realistically, it is useful to consider
primary and secondary groups as polar opposites on a continuum. Thus, although primary relationships
are more likely to occur in primary groups and secondary relationships in secondary groups, it is not
unheard of for primary groups to have secondary relationships and for secondary groups to have
primary relationships

Example of Primary groups having secondary relationships: members of a primary group such
as a family occasionally engage in secondary relationships, as when one member of a family lends
money to another member at given interest rate with a specific repayment date

Example of Secondary groups having primary relationships: members of work groups, for
example, frequently relate to one another in a manner that is personal, demonstrates genuine
concern for one another as total personalities, and is fulfilling in itself

6.2 Primary and Secondary Groups

6.2.1 Primary groups are composed of people who are emotionally close, who know each other
well, who seek one another's company because they enjoy being together, and individuals who have a
"we" feeling. Primary groups include the neighborhood, the family, the child's play group etc. These are
considered as primary groups for two main reasons:
(a) They are the first groups in which a child finds membership, and
(b) They have great influence in the socialization of personality. Personality is defined "as those
characteristics that most directly affect a person's adjustment to his/her environment. Such
characteristics include one's motives, emotions, abilities, and skills in getting along with others"
(Rosenburg and Turner, 1981: 560).
6.2.2 Secondary groups are so labelled because of their relatively less importance in influencing
one's personality. Secondary groups are task oriented and involve only a segment of the lives and
personalities of its members. They include work groups in organizations, volunteer groups etc. The
comparative characteristics of primary and secondary groups are summarized in the table below

PRIVATE PRIMARY GROUPS SECONDARY GROUPS

Small membership: 20-30
Relationship: personal & intimate
Communication: much face to face
Permanency: members are together over a long
period of time
Acquaintance: members well acquainted and
have a strong sense of "we" feeling
Informality is more common: group have no
name, officers, or a regular meeting place
Group decisions: traditional and personally
centered
Large membership: > 30
Relationship: impersonal & aloof
Communication: less face to face
Temporary: members spend relatively little
time together
Acquaintance: members not so well acquainted
and anonymity is prevalent
Formality prevails: group has name, officers
Group decisions: rational and goal directed and
emphasize efficiency

6.3 Group formation

The major catalyst for rapid group formation is physical interaction. Accordingly, the greater the
extent to which individuals share activities, the more they will interact and the higher the probability
that they will form a group. Interaction enables people to discover common interests, likes and
dislikes attitudes, sentiments, etc. Other important factors contributing to group formation include:
Physical proximity. For example, students who sit near to each other in a classroom are more likely
to establish a group than are students who sit in different parts of the room.
Physical attraction. Individual who are attracted to each other physically might form a distinct
group.
Rewards and penalties attached to mixing with certain other people. Rewards include the
gratification of economic and/or social needs; being able to work faster and more efficiently; access
to information, etc. Penalties might involve feelings of embarrassment or personal inadequacy;
frustration at having to rely or other people; being required to work harder than previously, and so
on.
The need to co-operate with others in order to achieve personal objectives. There are situations
where personal objectives are either more efficiently achieved or only achieved through cooperation
with others. In such situations, groups will be formed easily. Example: securing better prices of
produce or getting loan through SACCOS

The need for emotional support. This might be provided by other group members in times of
crisis. Membership of a group can validate a person’s perceptions of events and issues.

6.4 Group development

Typically, groups develop through five stages, as follows:
6.4.1 Forming stage
Members learn about each other, about the nature and purpose of the group and the constraints that
limit its activities. Group structures, status hierarchies and patterns of interaction among members
are determined. Rules of behaviour are established and individuals tell each other about their
perceptions of the group’s structure and objectives. This stage is sometimes referred to as the
‘orientation’ or ‘forming’ phase.
6.4.2 Storming stage
Disputes and power struggles arise. There is internal group conflict, criticism and open questioning
of the group’s goals. This is the ‘confrontation’ or ‘storming’ phase.
6.4.3 Norming stage
Conflicts are resolved and division of work and responsibility among group members is tentatively
implemented. Specialisations develop; individual differences are recognized, ‘who does what’ is
established and therefore disputes disappear. Group norms emerge. This is the ‘differentiation’ or
‘norming’ phase.
6.4.4 Performing stage
Eventually, group productivity increases, there is much collaboration among members and
commitment to the group. Individuals value the contributions of their colleagues and accept their
idiosyncrasies. A decision-making system acceptable to all the group’s members is established.
People get on with their work. This is the ‘collaboration’ or ‘performing’ phase of the process.
6.4.5 Mourning/Adjourning phase
This is the stage at which group members separate in response to disappearance of the “raison
d’être” of the group following accomplishment of the objectives that led to the formation of the
group. This is the stage where the life of the group is “officially” finished. Members can however
regroup if they find an alternative task that needs group approach.

6.5 Group Cohesion

This means the degree to which group members are prepared to co-operate, to continue their
association with the group and to share common goals and perspectives. Cohesion encourages
conformity to group norms and causes groups to be stable in their behaviour. However, it is worth
noting that the increase in pressure for conformity can stifle initiative. Several factors contribute to
the creation of group cohesion, including the following:
6.5.1 Nature of the external environment. The environment in which a group operates consists
of a multitude of physical, technological and social circumstances. If individual see their
environment as hostile they will create affinity to any group offering protection from external threat.
6.5.2 Exclusivity of membership. The extent that members are alike in terms of background,
education, age, outlook, ethnic or social origin, etc. They will be like-minded and share some
common perspectives.
6.5.3 Members’ enthusiasm for group objectives. A group will be more cohesive if its members
feel that its activities are relevant to the achievement of desired organizational goals.
6.5.4 Ease of communication within the group. If interpersonal communication is difficult it is
unlikely that a collective sense of purpose will easily emerge. Note that groups are more prone to
internal cohesiveness the less contact they have with outsiders.
6.5.5 Nature of the task. Individual engaged on identical or integrated tasks encourage cohesion.
A group that is able to reward or punish its own members can exert great pressure on individuals to
conform. Such a group is likely to become extremely cohesive.
6.5.6 Frequency of contact. The more the rate of contacts, the stronger the cohesive in the group.
Infrequent contacts could make group members to stray and become uncommitted to group goals
and could lead to group disintegration.
6.5.7 Size of the group. Often the bigger the group the less cohesive is the group but there are
exceptions e.g. Union members. A membership of 30 is in general considered the ideal group size.

Effects of cohesion
Higher cohesion can result in high morale and productivity. Co-ordination of activities is made
easier, the group will itself monitor the efficiency of its own activities and members are encouraged
to work hard in order to further the group’s interests. Unfortunately, such enthusiasm might be
directed against, rather than in support of, the aims of management for the case of work place groups
where powerful informal groups can arise to oppose management’s wishes. Therefore, high group
cohesion is not always associated with high productivity, low rates of absenteeism and labour
turnover, enthusiasm for work and other desirable characteristics, but rather with the reverse.
Cohesive groups might conspire to restrict output, perhaps even to disrupt the organisation’s work.

Group dynamics
The study of group dynamics is the study of the forces that operate within groups. It investigates
how power and authority structures emerge, communication system, and intra-group conflict.
Dynamic interactions and relationships within a group create change and redefine the roles of its
members.

Group Leadership
Group leadership is very important for the formation and development of groups as well as the
realization of group objectives. Leadership is defined as the act or process of influencing people so
that they will strive willingly and enthusiastically towards the achievement of group goals.
NOTE: The Kiswahili word for leadership is “UONGOZI”, which stands for the following
Kiswahili words “Unganisha”, “Onesha”, “Nyoosha”, “Gawia”, “Onya”, “Zingatia” and
“Imarisha”

Group Leader
A leader is a person who is able to influence the behavior of others. A leader is a person in authority
to influence others. A leader can arouse emotional reactions. Notice that leadership is accomplished
through others and as such effective leaders do not do everything themselves but accomplish tasks
and attain goals through efforts of others: thus effective leaders make things happen. Group
leadership approaches generally range from the dictator to the passive sleeper and somewhere in our
own background we have probably experienced leaders or teachers who fit either extreme. We have
also experienced leaders or teachers who we can call facilitators, and probably remember most
positively. The facilitator is a group leader who encourages a group to be alive, active, productive
and at the same time to feel good about itself and what it is accomplishing. She/he makes a group
session something to look forward to, rather than to be avoided.
The Roles of a Good Leader:
In accomplishing leadership responsibilities, leaders perform the following roles:
 providing direction for group activities;
 defining problems and objectives;
 obtaining information from group members and communicating information to them;
 motivating the group;
 appraising group performance;
 arbitrating disputes between group members;
 offering ideas and opinions and encouraging other to do the same;
 representing the group to outside bodies.

Qualities of a Good Leader

 Appearance: A leader makes a better overall appearance because of his clothes and
grooming.
 Popularity: A leader is always popular and is liked because he/she has won the
group’s respect.
 Security: A leader has a sense of security, resulting from his/her realization of the group’s
attitude towards him/her. His/Her security encourages him/her to be flexible and creative.
 Conformity to group ideal: A leader conforms more closely to the group’s ideal in
appearance behaviour and attitude than the followers. This increases respect and esteem the
group has for him/her.
 Personal and Social Adjustment: A leader makes good personal adjustments, because he is
self-acceptant and confident that he/she has something to contribute to others. He/she
develops social insight and learns how to deal democratically with group members.
 Maturity: Because of his/her age or training, the leader creates impression that he is more
mature than the other group members. He/she controls his/her emotions and takes realistic
approach in everything he/she does.
 Motivation: A leader’s motivation is expressed in his/her willingness to make the sacrifice
of time, effort and personal desires required to play his/her role. One is willing to accept
responsibility for his/her failures as well as his/her successes.
  Extroversion: A leader is able and willing to express his/her feelings towards others and to
turn his energy to activities that will benefit the group. The larger the group, the more
important extroversion is in the leader.

The Facilitator type of Leaders

A facilitator essentially has two major roles when working with a group. S/he thinks about: (i) The
content of the sessions: the groups’ reasons for meeting and the results expected at the conclusion
of the session, and (ii) The support or maintenance of the group: how it is interacting to reach its
goal

Content Management
The group sets its objectives and interacts to reach them. The facilitator can help the group to do this
in some of the following ways:
 Identify clearly what the group’s objectives or reasons for meeting are: Statements of
objectives should be clear, simple and should always be reachable by the group. Consideration of
objectives should be done at the onset of group’s activity/session as it makes it possible for
subsequent activities to the objective. The facilitator should help the group to develop objectives that
are reasonable and reachable.
 Stay with the group objectives: The facilitator must always remember the objectives of
the group and remember especially that these objectives belong to the group. They developed them.
The responsibility of a facilitator is to keep these objectives in front of the group, and constantly and
consistently encourage movement towards attaining the objectives. One way to achieve this is to
simply write the group’s objectives on newsprint or a chalkboard when the objectives are initially
developed. These objectives are then to be literally “in front of the group” throughout the group
session, and constantly referred to during discussions. This tangible reminder assists the facilitator
and the group in working toward its objectives.
 Bring out the varied information, ideas and opinion of all group members: When discussing
a topic, it is important to bring out all of the information necessary for clear understanding. When
attempting to plan it is important to bring out all the varied opinions. If a village group was planning
a vegetable garden, those villagers who have experience with village gardens should be consulted; if
a District Extension Team was planning a consultation, the schedules of each member should be
considered. The facilitator ensures that all participants have been consulted both for information
and/or opinion on a given topic. This widespread consultation often prevents complaints when a
project is implemented, or an action is taken.
 Allow the group to discuss controversial topics openly: A facilitator does not want to
encourage useless arguments, but s/he does want to encourage an atmosphere that permits open
discussion of opinions. A group should be permitted to work out a controversy until a conclusion is
reached. What is important to remember is that all participants are equal and that every idea, no
matter how odd it may seem, should be given equal respect by the facilitator. If the facilitator
insults someone’s idea, no matter how antagonistic or ridiculous it may seem, the rest of the group
will probably become afraid to speak, wondering whether his or her idea will result in the same
reaction from the facilitator. When an unrelated or extremely argumentative statement is made, the
facilitator could simply suggest that the statement may be taking the group away from its
objectives; point out once again to the objective and then ask someone in the group to take the
group back to the topic and at hand. For example, the facilitator could say, “We all know that this
topic is extremely controversial, that we all have strong opinions about; therefore, we must respect
each other’s strong opinion, learn from it and eventually, as a group, come to some kind of
consensus. Now, let us look at our objective once again. Who can add a point that will help us to
get closer to it?”
 Give equal time and respect to all group members: This point follows the previous one in that
wheat is being encouraged is respect for every group member and respect for the idea/opinions of
every group member. Everyone’s ideas should be given equal time and equal respect. This
encourages active participation by all. Yet at times it is obvious that one member is leading the
group away from the topic or that another member is developing a plan that is totally removed from
the group’s plan. The facilitator usually can see when the group is becoming annoyed with a
member or frustrated with his or her diverse idea or pressure to accept them. In this case the
facilitator must again remember to respectfully respond to a person, as the other group members
will be observing this response and will eventually react to it themselves. In a situation like this,
the facilitator can use the group for support. For example, “Now, Saidi seems to be emphasizing
a particular point. Let’s ask some other group members for their opinion, briefly, and see if
in fact this idea is supported by others. We must again – remember our group objective when
considering Saidi’s point”.
Explain and clarify ideas to the group: Use examples frequently to further describe ideas. For
example, the facilitator could say, “your idea is really important and it is supported by an experience
I had in another district in the same area …….”, or “That is an excellent point. An example of that
approach was developed in Babati with their VET and proved to be very successful.” The group
members can also be assisted in explaining what they mean by encouraging their own use of
practical examples. “That is a very relevant idea. Do you know of any areas where it has been
implemented?” “What you are advocating is interesting. Have you had experience in doing this
yourself, or do you know someone with relevant experience?”. Examples take the group from
theory to the reality of daily life. They provide the concrete situations necessary to make a
discussion believable and real to a group.
 Summarise Ideas: This is probably one of the most important tasks of a facilitator, to take
all of the information being given by a group and provide a summary. This requires active listening
and active involvement in all discussions. When the summary is presented, it should always be
presented to the group in a way that encourages the group to comment on its accuracy. For example,
“In my opinion, this is the summary of what we have been saying. This is my opinion, do you agree
with me or do you disagree?” “Would any group member like to summarise the ideas of the group
this far?” “What are the group’s ideas on this summary?” “This is what I hear being said … does
the group agree?” “Are all the points here in the summary? What do we need to add if anything?
What do we need to delete?” When the group has developed its summary, it is best to write it on
newsprint, or on a chalkboard.
 Assist the group in its own plan development: The role of the facilitator is NOT to influence
the content, not to set the objectives, not to develop the plan, but to assist in achieving the objectives
of the group. The facilitator must never offer his or her opinions in a conclusive manner. S/he must
never say, “Well, this sounds like the final decision, doesn’t it?” or “This certainly is the best
conclusion for use.” “We should certainly adopt this idea”. Rather, the facilitator again reviews the
ideas of the group and re-offers them for consensus or conclusions. S/he says, “These seem to be the
ideas of the group. What do you think? Do you agree? Do you disagree?”

In all cases the facilitator assists the group in reaching its own conclusions. In planning activities the
facilitator helps the group achieve its objectives in group sessions, the facilitator helps the group
develop it’s own ideas, theories and information. The facilitator is the group’s guide to decision
making - never the final decision maker.
 Encourage the group to develop its own theories and answers: The facilitator does not have
all of the answers. His or her role is to encourage active participation in problem-solving thinking
by the group. The facilitator should therefore never present all of the information necessary either
for problem solving or content development, but should consistently encourage group development
of ideas. All members of the group come with knowledge and experience and this should be
respected. The process is similar to constructing a building. The ideas and knowledge of the
members are the blocks and mortar that must be joined to develop, to build the final product. We
can visualize in our minds what the final building will look like, we can even draw plans (set
objectives), but the actual construction process must take place before one can move into the
building. Now sometimes some of the materials are not good, they are flawed. Then the builder
must carefully replace these with new materials so that the end product will be the safest and
strongest. It is the same in a group. Sometimes in the development of ideas or theories, opinions or
knowledge that is flawed is given by a group member. In cases like this the facilitator can often ask
the group for assistance in improving an idea or correcting information, e.g. “What does the group
think about this information. Is it correct?” “What about this idea?” “Will it help us to achieve our
objective?” In the end the facilitator works with the group to develop and build its own theory or
programme.

In addition to assisting with content development, the facilitator has the major responsibility of
helping the group to achieve its objectives in a democratic participatory manner. Some important
support tasks for a facilitator include:
 Be lively and energetic: The energy of the group is directly related to the actions of the
facilitator. If the facilitator is lively, talking with the group, drawing out ideas, walking around the
room when necessary, reacting openly to comments, the group stays involved and active. A group
leader who sits behind a desk passively reading or barely communicating will probably put a group
to sleep. At the same time, this does not mean that a leader should be so active that s/he does not
allow the group to participate. The energy should be put into encouraging participation.
 Develop a climate of trust: A facilitator is friendly, open and always respects the ideas of
every group member. Support and encouragement of one group member encourages others to
participate. Building on the contribution of one member is a positive way enables other members to
feel interested in contributing. The facilitator can say, “Now that was a good idea. Can anyone add
specifically to that?” Or “That seems to be very important. Do other members want to add
something?”
 Develop group procedures: A facilitator is never a passive leader, but someone assisting the
group in reaching its goal. This means that at times the facilitator will need to set time limits for
discussion, to give direction, to consult the group for methods, to encourage all to participate, or to
develop small group activities that encourage active participation by all.
 Work with group tension: Very often controversial topics result in group tension. The facilitator
relieves this tension by making the group aware that such tension in fact does exist and could lead to
productive conclusions. By putting a problem in a wider context, and by reminding the group that the
goal is to reach productive conclusions, not to get stuck in internal arguing, the tension could have a
good result. Very often a facilitator can help relieve unnecessary tension by restating argumentative
comments in less threatening ways: S/he could say, “I think the point Esther was making primarily deals
with …..”; “If we concentrate on this issue of ….”; “let’s try to look more closely at this specific point
from your statement …..”.
 Developing conclusions: It is very different to say “We all agree now, don’t we?” than to
say, “Does everyone agree with this statement, conclusion?” The second question allows the
participants to answer as they feel. The first question usually leads to much head nodding and little
real consent.

 Eye contact: A facilitator looks directly at the person s/he is talking with and listens
actively to each participant as s/he speaks. A group member is always very aware of whether or not
a leader is listening and feels little reason to participate if the facilitator is not paying attention
actively.
 Encouraging participation by all: This can be done in several ways. One good way is to
have large groups break into small groups in circles. This allows the quiet ones to participate
without the threatening experience of speaking in front of a large group. This also ensures the
development of various group opinions and the sharing of much more information. Another way is
to be constantly aware of who is and is not participating and to ask the quiet ones for their opinions:
For example, “Godwin, we haven’t heard your ideas yet. Do you have anything to add?” At the
same time this means asking the very active participants to give the quiet ones a chance to talk. For
example, “We have heard many good ideas from you Violet. May be some of the other group
members would like to comment on these” or, “You have provided us with good insights. Do you
agree, Veronica?” At all times the facilitator must remember that members need to be encouraged
to participate and even the very active participants need to be quietened in a respectful way so that
they will not stop.
 Being conscious of group feeling: Are participants getting bored with a topic or are they too
tired to proceed? Generally, if the facilitator is getting bored or tired, the group probably feels the
same. Express this to the group; ask them for ideas on how a session could move along; change the
topic if necessary or postpone the discussion to a time when members are more likely to be active.
Farmer organizations
Farmer organizations are farmer groups with large number of members. They are formal groups
established for specific objectives. As farmer groups, farmer organizations thrive if all members
actively participate in the activities of the organization. Chamala and Shingi (1997:193-201)
classifies farmer organizations into two groups: (i) community-based, resource oriented and (ii)
commodity based market oriented.
Community-based, resource oriented farmer organizations are generally small, have well defined
geographical areas, and are predominantly concerned with inputs. However, the client base is highly
diversified in terms of the crops and commodities they deal with. An example would be a village
level cooperative or association. On the other hand, commodity-based, market oriented farmer
organizations are generally not small and have to operate in a competitive environment. They
specialize in single commodity and opt for value-added products which have expanded markets.
They are designated as output dominated organizations. In commodity-based, market oriented
farmer organizations, research, input supply, extension, credit, collection of produce, processing and
marketing are all integrated to maximize the returns on the investment of members. An example is
Tanga Diary Limited

According to Chamala and Shingi (1997), the following issues influence the extent of participation
of members in farmer organizations:
 The degree of the farmer’s dependence on the inputs of the organized activity
 The degree of certainty of the availability of the outputs
 The extent to which the outputs will be available only as a result of collective action
 The extent to which the rewards asb.sociated with the collective action will be distributed
equitably
 The extent of availability of rewards within a reasonable time frame
 The extent to which the rewards are commensurate with the costs associated with continued
participation