CHAPTER 1

Introduction

1.1 Introduction

The origin of the field of Graph theory [15] can be traced back to the famous

Konigsberg bridge problem [4], which was solved by the swiss Mathematician

Leonard Euler in 1736, by an approach, subsequently called a graph, which resulted

in the birth of this field. Graph theory has developed into a major area of

research in Discrete Mathematics, offering a variety of techniques and tools for

many applications in various fields like operations research (scheduling problem)

[9], computer science (algorithms and computations) [22], chemistry (chemical

molecules) [39] and engineering (communication networks and coding theory) [41]

and many more.

There are many interesting areas of research in graph theory which include

domination in graphs, graph coloring, graph labeling, topological graph theory,

algebraic graph theory, fuzzy graph theory and so on. In fact domination in graphs

and graph coloring are two intensively investigated areas of research in graph theory.

Here we are interested in the study of dominator coloring [11, 12] which combines

the well-studied concepts of domination and coloring.

Graph Coloring

The study of graph coloring was motivated by the celebrated Four color conjecture

[3] in the 19th century, namely, every planar map can be colored with four colors such

that countries sharing a boundary have different colors. Many researchers attempted

to prove the conjecture, thereby contributing to the topic of graph coloring which

has now become a well-established area of graph theory. The conjecture was open for

more than a century. Appel and Haken finally resolved the problem in 1976. Several

variations of coloring have been introduced and studied by many researchers. The

book by Jenson and Toft [20] gives an extensive survey of various graph colorings.

The main data structures used to describe relationships occurring in the real world

are graphs. Many practical problems can be reduced to the problem of graph

coloring (sometimes with some additional constraints). It is known that the problem

of coloring a graph using minimum possible number of colors is NP-hard. The

corresponding decision problem (i.e., is there a coloring which uses at most k colors?)

is NP-complete [21].

The basic graph coloring problem is to assign colors to the vertices of a graph

in such a way that vertices connected by an edge receive different colors. We want

to use as few colors on the vertices as possible. A color class Vi is a set of vertices,

having the same color i and is an independent set, in the sense that no two of the

vertices in this set are adjacent. A proper coloring of G partitions the vertex set V

into color classes. The minimum number of colors required for proper coloring of the

vertices in a graph is called the chromatic number of the graph. Another standard

2
problem is edge coloring which requires assigning colors to the edges of the graph

such that two edges having the same end point cannot have the same color. The

minimum number of colors required to color the edges is the chromatic index of the

graph.

The applications of graph coloring are from such diverse areas as time-tabling,

scheduling, frequency assignment, register allocations, coding theory and resource

allocation and so on. There are several variants of graph colorings such as List

coloring, b-coloring, harmonious coloring, total coloring, sum coloring, rank coloring,

complete coloring, rainbow coloring. Dominator coloring and strong dominator

coloring are also two such variants of graph coloring which we study in this thesis.

Domination in Graphs

The works of Berge in 1958 [3] and Ore in 1962 [43] resulted in domination becoming

a formal theoretical area of graph theory. There has been a rapid growth of research

on this area and a wide variety of domination parameters have been introduced, after

the publication of a paper by Cockayne and Hedetniemi [16]. The domination theory

has gained popularity and remains as a major area of research due to the inspiring

contributions by many renowned graph theorists. The interesting and inspiring

contributions by eminent Indian mathematicians have made the domination theory

popular, especially in India. An excellent treatment of domination is given in

the book by Haynes et al. [16] and survey papers on several advanced topics on

domination are given in the book edited by Haynes et al. [17].

3
 Domination in graphs has applications in several fields. Domination arises in

facility location problems, where the number of facilities (e.g., hospitals, fire stations)

is fixed and one attempts to minimize the distance that a person needs to travel to

get to the closest facility. A similar problem occurs when the maximum distance to

a facility is fixed and one attempts to minimize the number of facilities necessary

so that everyone is serviced. Concepts from domination also appear in problems

involving finding sets of representatives in monitoring communication or electrical

networks.

Dominator Coloring and Strong Dominator Coloring

The concept of dominator coloring of a graph was introduced by Hedetniemi et al.

[18, 19] and studied further by Gera et al. [11, 12] and recently investigated by

Arumugam and Chellai et al. [2, 7].

A dominator coloring of G is a proper coloring in which every vertex of G

dominates every vertex of at least one color class. It is a convention that if {v} is

a color class, then v dominates its own color class {v}. The dominator chromatic

number χd (G) is the minimum number of colors required for a dominator coloring

of G.

We have extended the concept of dominator coloring to strong dominator

coloring. A proper k-coloring of G with partition V1 ∪ V2 ∪ · · · ∪ Vk is said to

be a strong dominator coloring if every vertex u ∈ V dominates at least one color

class Vi and deg(u) ≥ deg(v) for all v ∈ Vi . That is every vertex of G strongly

4
dominates every vertex of at least one color class. The strong dominator chromatic

number χSD (G) is the minimum positive integer k for which G admits a k-strong

dominator coloring. It is a convention that if {v} is a color class, then v strongly

dominates the color class {v}.

1.2 Organization of the Work Done

Chapter 1 provides basic terminology and preliminaries. This includes a survey of

literature review and the motivation for this study.

Chapter 2 is focused on strong dominator coloring of graphs. We have

introduced strong dominator coloring and its corresponding parameter and have

obtained several results involving this parameter. Among the results which we have

established in this direction of our study, we have presented main results in [34, 35].

In Chapter 3, the strong dominator chromatic number of Cartesian product and

strong product of graphs of some interesting graph classes are obtained and also

strong dominator chromatic number of some special classes of graphs is determined

[36].

In Chapter 4, dominator chromatic number of Cartesian product and strong

product of graphs of some interesting graph classes are obtained and also dominator

chromatic number of some special classes of graphs are determined. We have

presented the main results of this chapter in [27, 28, 30, 31, 32, 33].

In Chapter 5, we considered dominator coloring of central, middle and total

graphs of various graph families and obtained their exact values of dominator

5
chromatic numbers. We have some of the important results obtained in [24, 25,

26, 28].

In Chapter 6, we have introduced the concepts of equitable independent,

equitable total, equitable connected domination number and have investigated the

edge addition stability of these parameters on various graph families. Also global

domination and connected global domination upon edge addition stable property

for cycle and path graphs are discussed [29, 37].

1.3 Preliminaries

In this section, we recall the basic concepts and results related to graphs, in

order to provide sufficient background for the study undertaken in this thesis. For

unexplained additional notions, notations and results, we refer to [5, 15, 49].

1.3.1 Basic Definitions

Definition 1.3.1.1 A graph G is a finite non-empty set of objects called vertices

together with a set of unordered pairs of distinct vertices of G called edges. The

vertex set and the edge set of G are denoted by V (G) and E(G) respectively. The

edge e = (u, v) is said to join the vertices u and v. In such a case, u and v are said

to be adjacent. The vertex u and the edge e are said to be incident, as are v and e.

If e1 and e2 are distinct edges of G incident with a common vertex, then e1 and e2

are adjacent edges.

The number of vertices in G is called the order of G and the number of edges in

6
G is called the size of G. A graph is trivial if its vertex set is a singleton.

A vertex u is called a neighbour of a vertex v in G, if uv is an edge of G.

The set of all neighbors of v is the open neighbourhood of v and is denoted by

N (v). The closed neighbourhood of v in G is N [v] = N (v) ∪ {v}. If S ⊆ V , then

S
N (S) = v∈S N (v) and N [S] = N (S) ∪ S.

Definition 1.3.1.2 A graph H is called a subgraph of G if V (H) ⊆ V (G) and

E(H) ⊆ E(G). A subgraph H of a graph G is a proper subgraph of G if either

V (H) 6= V (G) or E(H) 6= E(G). A spanning subgraph of G is a subgraph H of G

with V (H) = V (G).

For a subset S of vertices of G, the induced subgraph is the maximal subgraph

of G with vertex set S and is denoted by hSi. Thus two vertices of S are adjacent

in hSi if and only if they are adjacent in G.

Let v be a vertex of a graph G and |V (G)| ≥ 2. Then the induced subgraph

hV (G)\{v}i is denoted by G− v and it is the subgraph of G obtained by the removal

of v and the edges incident with v. If e ∈ E(G), the spanning subgraph with edge

set E(G)\{e} is denoted by G − e and it is the subgraph of G obtained by the

removal of the edge e.

Definition 1.3.1.3 The degree of a vertex v ∈ V is deg(v) = |N (v)|. A vertex of

degree zero in G is called an isolated vertex and a vertex of degree one is a pendant

vertex or a leaf of G. The vertex which is adjacent to a pendant vertex is called a

support vertex and the edge incident to a pendant vertex is called a pendant edge.

The minimum of {deg(v) : v ∈ V (G)} is denoted by δ(G) or simply δ and the

7
maximum of {deg(v) : v ∈ V (G)} is denoted by ∆(G) or simply ∆.

A graph G is called r-regular if every vertex of G has degree r. A graph G is

said to be regular if it is r-regular for some non-negative integer r.

Let a, b be positive integers, 1 ≤ a < b. A graph is said to be (a, b)− bi-regular

if its vertices have degree either a or b, and if it possesses vertices of degree a and

b. The number of vertices of G of degree a and b will be denoted by na and nb

respectively. In particular, a 3-regular graph is called a cubic graph.

Definition 1.3.1.4 A graph G is complete if every pair of distinct vertices of G

are adjacent in G. A complete graph on n vertices is denoted by Kn .

A clique in G is a complete subgraph of G. The maximum order of a clique in

G is called the clique number of G and is denoted by ω(G) or simply ω. A clique H

in G with |V (H)| = ω is called a maximum clique in G.

Definition 1.3.1.5 A set S ⊆ V (G) is said to be independent if no two vertices in

S are adjacent. The independence number β(G) is the maximum cardinality of an

independent set in G.

A set S ⊆ E(G) is said to be independent if no two edges in S are adjacent. A

set of independent edges in G is also called a matching. A set of independent edges

covering all the vertices of a graph G is called a perfect matching of G.

Definition 1.3.1.6 The complement G of a graph G is the graph with vertex set

V (G) such that two vertices are adjacent in G if and only if they are not adjacent

in G.

8
Definition 1.3.1.7 A bipartite graph is a graph G whose set V (G) can be

partitioned into two nonempty subsets X and Y such that each edge of G has

one end in X and the other end in Y . The pair (X, Y ) is called a bipartition of G.

If further, every vertex in X is adjacent to all the vertices of Y , then G is called

a complete bipartite graph. The complete bipartite graph with bipartition (X, Y )

such that |X| = r and |Y | = s is denoted by Kr,s . In particular, the graph K1,r is

called a star and in particular, the graph K1,3 is called claw.

Definition 1.3.1.8 A k-partite graph G is a graph whose vertex set V can be

partitioned into k nonempty subsets V1 , V2 , . . . , Vk such that no edge has both ends

in any one subset Vi . If further G contains every edge uv where u ∈ Vi , v ∈ Vj ,

i 6= j, then G is called a complete k-partite graph and is denoted by Ka1 ,a2 ,...,ak

where |Vi | = ai , 1 ≤ i ≤ k.

Definition 1.3.1.9 The corona of two disjoint graphs G1 and G2 is defined to be

the graph G = G1 ◦ G2 obtained by taking one copy of G1 and |V (G1 )| copies of G2 ,

and then joining the ith vertex of G1 to every vertex in the ith copy of G2 .

In particular, the corona H ◦ K1 is the graph constructed from a copy of H,

where for each vertex v ∈ V (H), a new vertex v ′ and a pendant edge vv ′ are added.

Definition 1.3.1.10 A path P of length n in a graph G is a sequence

(v1 , v2 , . . . , vn−1 , vn ) of distinct vertices such that for 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1, the vertices

vi and vi+1 are adjacent. We say that P is a v1 − vn path. The vertices v1 and vn are

called the orgin and terminus of P respectively. The vertices v2 , . . . , vn−1 is called

the internal vertices of P . A path on n vertices is denoted by Pn .

9
Definition 1.3.1.11 A cycle of length n ≥ 3 in a graph G is a sequence

(v1 , v2 , . . . , vn , v1 ) of vertices of G such that for 1 ≤ i ≤ n − 1, the vertices vi

and vi+1 are adjacent, vn and v1 are adjacent and v1 , v2 , . . . , vn are distinct. A cycle

on n vertices is denoted by Cn . A cycle Cn of length n is called even or odd according

as n is even or odd.

Definition 1.3.1.12 Let G1 , G2 , . . . , Gk be k disjoint graphs. Then the join of

G1 , G2 , . . . , Gk is the graph G1 + G2 + · · · + Gk obtained from G1 , G2 , . . . , Gk by

joining every vertex of Gi with every vertex of Gj , whenever i 6= j.

The join of cycle graph Cr with K1 , i.e., Cr + K1 is called the wheel graph and

denoted by W1,r . In W1,r , the vertex corresponds to K1 is refered as central vertex

of W1,r and the vertices of Cr are called the rim vertices. For all our discussion, we

considered the following labelling. The central vertex is labelled by v1 and the rim

vertices are consecutively labelled from v2 to vr+1 .

Definition 1.3.1.13 A graph G is said to be connected if every pair of vertices of

G are joined by a path. A maximal connected subgraph of G is called a component

of G.

A graph G having more than one component is called a disconnected graph. An

edge e of a connected graph G is called a cut-edge if G − e is disconnected. A vertex

v of a connected graph G is called a cut-vertex if G − v is disconnected.

Definition 1.3.1.14 A connected acyclic graph is called a tree. A graph having

exactly one cycle is called an unicyclic graph. A disconnected graph in which each

component is a tree is called a forest.

10
Definition 1.3.1.15 A graph G is called planar if it can be drawn in a plane with

no crossing edges.

Definition 1.3.1.16 The Cartesian product of two graphs G1 and G2 , denoted by

G1 × G2 , is the simple graph with V1 × V2 as its vertex set and two vertices (u, v) and

(u′ , v ′ ) are adjacent in G1 × G2 if and only if either (i) u = u′ and v, v ′ are adjacent

in G2 , or (ii) u, u′ are adjacent in G1 and v = v ′ .

The n-dimensional hypercube Qn is defined recursively using Cartesian product

as follows. The hypercube Q1 is the graph K2 , Q2 = K2 × K2 = C4 and for n ≥ 2,

Qn = Qn−1 × K2 .

Definition 1.3.1.17 The strong product G1 ⊠ G2 of two graphs G1 and G2 is

defined on the vertex set V1 × V2 . Two vertices (u, v) and (u′ , v ′ ) are adjacent in

G1 ⊠ G2 if and only if (i) u = u′ and v, v ′ are adjacent in G2 , (ii) u, u′ are adjacent

in G1 and v = v ′ or (iii) u, u′ are adjacent in G1 and v, v ′ are adjacent in G2 . So

the Cartesian product graph G1 × G2 is a subgraph of the strong product graph

G1 ⊠ G2 .

Definition 1.3.1.18 The Mycielskian of G is the graph µ(G) with vertex set

V (µ(G)) = V ∪ V ′ (= {vi′ /vi ∈ G, 1 ≤ i ≤ n}) ∪ V ′′ (= {w}) and the edge set

E(µ(G)) = E ∪ E ′ (= {vi vj′ , vi′ vj /vi vj ∈ E}) ∪ E ′′ (= {vi′ w/1 ≤ i ≤ n}). The vertices

v and v ′ are called twins of each other and w is called the root of µ(G).

Definition 1.3.1.19 The Kneser graph K(n, r) is defined as follows. Let S be a

set with cardinality n and let Σ be the collection of all r-subsets of S. K(n, r) has

11
vertex set Σ. Two vertices are adjacent if and only if the corresponding r-subsets

are disjoint.

Definition 1.3.1.20 The central graph of G [48], denoted by C(G) is obtained by

subdividing each edge of G exactly once and joining all the non-adjacent vertices of

G in C(G).

Definition 1.3.1.21 The middle graph M (G) [40] of G is defined as follows. The

vertex set of M (G) is V (G)∪E(G). Two vertices x, y of M (G) are adjacent in M (G)

if either (i) x, y are in E(G) and x, y are adjacent in G or (ii) x is in V (G), y is in

E(G) and x, y are incident in G. In other words, M (G) is obtained by subdividing

each edge of G exactly once and joining all these newly added vertices of adjacent

edges of G.

Definition 1.3.1.22 The total graph [40] T (G) of G is defined as a graph with

vertex set V (G) ∪ E(G) and two vertices x, y of T (G) are adjacent in T (G) if either

(i) x, y are in V (G) and x is adjacent to y in G or (ii) x, y are in E(G) and x, y are

adjacent in G or (iii) x is in V (G), y is in E(G) and x, y are incident in G. In other

words, M (G) is obtained by subdividing each edge of G exactly once and joining all

these newly added vertices of adjacent edges of G.

Definition 1.3.1.23 The shadow graph D2 (G) of a connected graph G is

constructed by taking two copies of G say G′ and G′′ and joining each vertex v ′

in G′ to the neighbours of the corresponding vertex v ′′ in G′′ . Let G1 , G2 , . . . , Gm ,

m ≥ 2 be n copies of a graph G.

12
Definition 1.3.1.24 The graph G′ obtained by adding an edge between Gi and

Gi+1 for i = 1, 2, . . . , m − 1 is called path union of G [45], denoted by P (mG).

Definition 1.3.1.25 The vertex switching [46] at a specified vertex v of G, denoted

by Gv (or Ĝ) is obtained by removing all the edges incident with v and joining edges

between v and vertices which are not adjacent to v in G.

e is obtained
Definition 1.3.1.26 Duplication of a vertex v of G [47], denoted by G,

by adding a new vertex v ′ to G such that v ′ is adjacent to every vertex that is

e If all the n vertices of G are duplicated

adjacent to v in G, i.e., N (v ′ ) = N (v) in G.

e∗ .
simultaneously, we obtain n-vertex duplication of G, denoted by G

Definition 1.3.1.27 The helm graph Hr is the graph obtained from a wheel graph

W1,r by attaching a pendant edge at each vertex of the r-cycle. It has 2r + 1 vertices

and 3r edges. A flower graph F lr is the graph obtained from a helm graph Hr

by joining each pendant vertex to the central vertex of the helm by an edge. It

has 2r + 1 vertices and 4r edges. The sun flower graph Sfr is the resultant graph

obtained from the flower graph F lr by adding r pendant edges to the central vertex.

It has 3r + 1 vertices and 5r edges [10].

Definition 1.3.1.28 The Gear graph Gr [10] also known as a bipartite wheel graph,

is obtained from a wheel graph W1,r by subdividing edges in the outer cycle. Gear

graph Gr has 2r + 1 vertices and 3r edges.

Definition 1.3.1.29 The fan graph Fn is constructed by joining n copies of the

cycle graph C3 with a common vertex. Fn has 2n + 1 vertices and 3n edges.

13
Definition 1.3.1.30 For integers r, s ≥ 1, the jelly fish graph J(r, s) is the graph

with vertex set V (J(r, s)) = {v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 } ∪ {x1 , x2 , . . . , xr } ∪ {y1 , y2 , . . . , ys } and

edge set E(J(r, s)) = {(v1 , v2 ), (v2 , v3 ), (v3 , v4 ), (v4 , v1 )} ∪ {(v1 , xi )/1 ≤ i ≤ r} ∪

{(v3 , yj )/1 ≤ j ≤ s}.

Definition 1.3.1.31 For integers r ≥ 3 and s ≥ 2, the umbrella graph U (r, s)

is the graph with vertex set V (U (r, s)) = X ∪ Y , where X = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xr } and

Y = {y1 , y2 , . . . , ys } and edge set E(U (r, s)) = {(xi , xi+1 )/i = 1, 2, . . . , r − 1} ∪

{(yi , yi+1 )/i = 1, 2, . . . , s − 1} ∪ {(xi , y1 )/i = 1, 2, . . . , r}.

Definition 1.3.1.32 A shell Sn is the graph obtained by taking n − 3 concurrent

chords in a cycle Cn on n-vertices. The vertex at which all the chords are concurrent

is called the apex vertex. The shell is also called a fan Fn−1 . i.e., Sn = Fn−1 =

Pn−1 + K1 . A multiple shell is defined to be a collection of edge disjoint shells that

have their apex in common. A double shell consists of two disjoint shells Sr and Ss

with a common apex is also known as a bow graph and is denoted by B(r, s).

e be the new graph

Definition 1.3.1.33 Let P be a graph parameter and let G

obtained from a graph G by performing a graph operation (operator) on G. The

e 6= P (G) and P -operator stable

graph G is said to be P -operator critical [14] if P (G)

e = P (G), for all possible such operations on G.

if P (G)

1.3.2 Domination and Coloring in Graphs

The concept of domination was introduced by Ore and Berge [3, 43]. An excellent

treatment of domination is given in the book by Haynes et al. [16] and survey papers

14
on several advanced topics on domination are given in the book edited by Haynes

et al. [17]. The concept of graph coloring is given in the book by Jenson and Toft

[20]. The concept of dominator coloring of a graph was introduced by Hedetniemi

et al. [18, 19] and studied further by Gera et al. [11, 12] and recently investigated

by Arumugam and Chellai et al. [2, 7].

Definition 1.3.2.1 Let G = (V, E) be a graph. A subset S of V is called a

dominating set of G if every vertex in V − S is adjacent to at least one vertex in

S. A dominating set S is called a minimal dominating set if no proper subset of S

is a dominating set. The domination number γ(G) of a graph G is the minimum

cardinality of a minimal dominating set in G.

Definition 1.3.2.2 A subset S of V is a strong (weak) dominating set of G if

every vertex in V − S, there exists u ∈ S such that uv ∈ E(G) and deg(u) ≥ deg(v)

(deg(u) ≤ deg(v)). The minimum cardinality of a minimal strong (weak) dominating

set of G is called the strong (weak) domination number of G and is denoted by γs (G)

(γw (G)).

Definition 1.3.2.3 A dominating set S of G is an independent dominating set

[1] if the induced subgraph hSi has no edges. The independent domination number

γi (G) of a graph G is the minimum cardinality of a minimal independent dominating

set in G and S is called a connected dominating set if the induced subgraph hSi is

connected. The connected domination number γc (G) of a graph G is the minimum

cardinality of a minimal connected dominating set in G and it is called a total

dominating set [8] if the induced subgraph hSi has no isolated vertices. The total

15
domination number γt (G) of a graph G is the minimum cardinality of a minimal

total dominating set in G.

Definition 1.3.2.4 A dominating set D of a graph G is called a global dominating

set if D is also a dominating set of G. The minimum cardinality of a minimal global

dominating set is denoted by γg and is called the global domination number of G.

A connected dominating set D of a graph G is called a connected global dominating

set if D is also a connected dominating set of G. The connected global domination

number of G is the minimum cardinality of a minimal connected global dominating

set and is denoted by γcg .

Definition 1.3.2.5 A proper coloring of G is an assignment of colors to the vertices

of G in such a way that adjacent vertices receive different colors. A color class is

the set of vertices, having the same color. The color class corresponding to a color

i is denoted by Vi . Note that every such color class is an independent set.

Definition 1.3.2.6 A dominator coloring of G is a proper coloring in which every

vertex of G dominates every vertex of at least one color class. The dominator

chromatic number χd (G) is the minimum number of colors required for a dominator

coloring of G.

Theorem 1.3.2.7 [11] Let G be a connected graph of order n ≥ 2. Then χd (G) = 2

if and only if G is a complete bipartite graph of the form Ka,b , where 1 ≤ a ≤ b ≤ n

and a + b = n.

16
Theorem 1.3.2.8 [11] Let G be a connected graph of order n. Then χd (G) = n if

and only if G is the complete graph Kn .

Theorem 1.3.2.9 [14] Let T be a tree of order n ≥ 2. Then

γ(T ) + 1 ≤ χd (T ) ≤ γ(T ) + 2.




 ⌈n/3⌉ if n = 4





Theorem 1.3.2.10 [11] For the cycle Cn , we have χd (Cn ) = ⌈n/3⌉ + 1 if n = 5








⌈n/3⌉ + 2 otherwise.

Theorem 1.3.2.11 [12] For the path Pn , n ≥ 2, we have





⌈n/3⌉ + 1 if n = 2, 3, 4, 5, 7
χd (Pn ) =



⌈n/3⌉ + 2 otherwise.

Theorem 1.3.2.12 [11] Let G be a connected graph. Then

max{χ(G), γ(G)} ≤ χd (G) ≤ χ(G) + γ(G).

Corollary 1.3.2.13 [14] For any bipartite graph G, γ(G) ≤ χd (G) ≤ γ(G) + 2.

Proposition 1.3.2.14 [12] For a connected graph G of order n ≥ 3,

χd (G) ≤ n − β0 (G) + 1, and this bound is sharp.

Proposition 1.3.2.15 [12] If G is a disconnected graph with components

Xk
G1 , G2 , . . . , Gk with k ≥ 2, then max χd (Gi ) + k − 1 ≤ χd (G) ≤ χd (Gi )
i∈{1,2,...,k}
i=1
and these bounds are sharp.

Observation 1.3.2.16 [2] For any graph G, ω(G) ≤ χ(G) ≤ χd (G).

Corollary 1.3.2.17 [2] If G is any graph of order n, then χd (G ◦ K1 ) = n + 1.

17
Theorem 1.3.2.18 [2] For any graph G, χd (G) + 1 ≤ χd (µ(G)) ≤ χd (G) + 2.

Further if there exists a χd -coloring c of G in which every vertex v dominates a color

class Vi with v 6∈ Vi , then χd (µ(G)) = χd (G) + 1.

18