Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1
2CHAPTER 2. PHYSICS OF ACOUSTIC WAVE PROPAGATION
Equilibrium
Rarefraction Compression
F = −k(du/l)k̂, (2.1)
2. 3-D Acoustic Springy Cube: Hooke’s Law says that the sur-
rounding disturbed medium exerts a pressure on the face of the
cube that is linearly proportional to the corresponding volume
change of the cube. That is,
1-D Spring
du
{
equilibrium disturbed state
}
3-D Acoustic Cube du dydz + dv dxdz + dw dxdy
dV =
V } dx dy dz
}
dv
dy
= du + dv + dw
dx dy dz
{
disturbance du
dz
du dv dw
dw {
dx
equilibrium disturbed state
Figure 2.2: (Top) Spring in (left) equilibrium and (right) disturbed from
equilibrium. (Bottom) Elemental cube of air in (left) equilibrium and
(right) disturbed from equilibrium. In this case the cube has expanded
so net tensional forces of surrounding medium must be expanding cube.
Note that the 1st-order volume change is outlined by the solid heavy
lines, where the higher-order terms are associated with the corner parts.
2.3. NEWTON’S LAW: ∂P/∂X = −ρ(X, Y, Z)∂ 2 U/∂T 2 5
.. ..
P(x, y, z, t) P(x+dx, y, z, t)
For an arbitrary force distribution the general form of Newton’s law is:
• The minus sign is used so that we are consistent with the notation
for pressure. If P (x + dx, y, z, t) is positive and greater than
P (x, y, z, t) in Figure 2.3 then the cube should accelerate to the
left, which it will according to the above form of Newton’s Law.
which also solves the homogeneous wave equation 2.12. This can be
shown by plugging equation 2.15 into equation 2.12 to get
k 2 = (ω/c)2 . (2.17)
Wavelength
0
1 0.02
0.5 0.04
Period
−0.5
0.08
−1
0.2 0.1
0.15 0.2
0.15
0.1
0.1 0.12
0.05
0.05
Time (s) 0 0.05 0.1 0.15
0 0 Offset (m)
Offset (m)
c = λ/T. (2.18)
The constant
q c is also defined in terms of the material properties of the
rock as c = κ/ρ, otherwise known as the compressional wave velocity.
Note: The function ei(kx−ωt) describes a right-going plane wave
and ei(kx+ωt) describes a left-going wave. To see this, note that we
follow a wavefront if the phase φ = (kx − ωt) stays constant for an
increase in both t and simultaneous increase in x (such that x/t = ω/k).
Because x increases this means that the wave is moving to right with the
compressional velocity given in equation 2.18. Conversely, φ = (kx+ωt)
is a constant if t increases and x decreases; thus, the wave is moving to
left.
10CHAPTER 2. PHYSICS OF ACOUSTIC WAVE PROPAGATION
solves the wave equation 2.12, where the wavenumber vector is given by
k = (kx , kz ) and the observation vector is given by r = (x, z). Similar to
the 1-D dispersion equation, the 2-D dispersion equation can be derived
by plugging 2.19 into equation 2.12 to get
The real part of equation 2.19, i.e., cos(kx x + kz z − ωt), plots out as
straight lines perpendicular to the wavenumber vector k, and these lines
propagate in a direction parallel to k as t increases. This is easy to prove
because the general equation for a straight line is given by k · r = cnst,
where k is a fixed vector perpendicular to the straight line. The locus of
points that satisfy this equation defines the wavefront where the phase
(i.e., φ = kx x + kz z − ωt) is a constant. Thus as the time increases, i.e.
as cnst increases, the straight line also moves such that the direction
of movement is parallel to the fixed k vector, as shown in Figure 2.5.
Therefore equation 2.19 represents a harmonic plane wave propagat-
ing along the direction parallel to k. Similar to the discussion for a 1-D
plane wave, the shortest distance between two adjacent peaks of the
wavefront isqdefined to be the wavelength λ and is given by λ = 2π/k,
where k = kx2 + kz2 is known as the wavenumber. Using this defini-
tion of k and that for ω the 2-D dispersion relation takes the same form
as equation 2.18. A good illustration of the relationship between the
wavenumber vector and the direction of wave propagation is given in
the movie. Here the left figure is a plot of points in (kx,kz) space, and
the right figure is the corresponding snapshot of the harmonic plane
wave. Note that as the length of the wavenumber vector increases the
wavelength decreases, and as the wavenumber direction changes so does
the direction of the propagating wave.
2.5. SOLUTIONS OF THE WAVE EQUATION 11
APPARENT WAVELENGTHS
T
λx λ x = λ/cos( φ )
λz
φ k
λ z = λ/sin( φ)
1 0.02
0.5 0.04
0
Time (s)
0.06
−0.5
0.08
−1
0.2
0.1
0.15 0.2
0.15
0.1
0.1 0.12
0.05
0.05
Time (s) 0 0.05 0.1 0.15
0 0 Offset (m)
Offset (m)
ik z -ik z
ρc e R e
x
z
ρ’ c’
ik’z
T e
Transmitted Wave
This says that decreasing impedances imply larger particle velocities for
a fixed elastic pressure on a cube’s face. This is exactly what one would
expect in a really soft medium: larger displacements for springier-softer
rocks, which is one of the reasons that earthquakes shake sediment-filled
valleys more than the surrounding bedrock. Conversely, stiffer media
lead to smaller displacements for a given elastic pressure.
Note:
14CHAPTER 2. PHYSICS OF ACOUSTIC WAVE PROPAGATION
Figure 2.8: The pressure at the free surface is always zero because the
air has no stiffness to resist motion. Mathematically, the downgoing
wave has equal and opposite amplitude to the upgoing wave at the free
surface.
1 + Rw = Tw ,
ρc(1 − Rw ) = (1 + Rw )ρ0 c0 , (2.29)
which can be solved for the particle velocity reflection and transmission
coefficients:
where the unprimed variables again refer to the medium of the incident
wave, and the subscript ẇ denotes vertical-particle velocity. Note that
the reflection coefficient above will have opposite polarity compared
to the pressure reflection coefficients. Also, note that in some cases
the transmitted amplitude can be greater than the amplitude of the
incident wave! Does this violate conservation of energy? No, energy is
the squared modulus of amplitude scaled by the impedance (see later
section). Thus, a weaker medium with weak rocks (small impedance)
can have transmit larger amplitude waves than the incident waves in a
much stronger (larger impedance) medium. It takes much more energy
to rapidly displace strong rock 1 mm than it does in a weak rock.
This means that transmission rays bend across an interface, bending to-
wards the vertical when entering a slower velocity medium and bending
towards the horizontal when entering a faster medium (see Figure 2.10).
At the critical incidence angle θcrit the refraction angle of the transmit-
ted ray θ0 is 90 degrees so that Snell’s law says θcrit = arcsin(c/c0 ) if
c0 > c. This gives rise to refraction head waves that propagate parallel
to the interface at the velocity c0 of the underlying medium.
A consequence of Snell’s law is that a medium with a velocity that
increases linearly with depth always turns a downgoing ray back to-
wards the surface, as shown in Figure 2.10. This can easily be shown
by approximating the linear velocity gradient medium with a stack of
thinly-spaced layers, each with a homogeneous velocity that slightly in-
creases with depth. The velocity increase is the same across each layer.
Applying Snell’s law to a downgoing ray shows that each ray trans-
mitted across an interface bends a little bit more towards the horizontl
until it goes back up. As the thickness of eash layer decreases, the ray
trajectory will be the arc of a circle.
Why did we equate the upper and lower medium wavenumbers? We
did this because the apparent horizontal velocities along the interface
must be equal to one another (i.e., vx = ω/kx = vx0 = ω/kx0 ). The hor-
izontal velocities of the incident and transmitted waves must be equal
at the interface otherwise they would break away from one another and
not be coupled at the interface.
How does the formula for transmission coefficient in equation 2.31
change for an oblique incidence angle?
18CHAPTER 2. PHYSICS OF ACOUSTIC WAVE PROPAGATION
V1 dz
V2
V3 ϑ
V4 ϑ’
sin ϑ = sin ϑ ’
V3 V4
PE = P 2 /(2ρc2 ). (2.37)
where the kinetic energy is given by the second to the last term and
the potential energy is given by the last term. For a harmonic plane
wave ρc = P/u̇ this equation becomes:
² = ρu̇2 . (2.39)
As one might expect, it takes more energy to move denser rock with
the same particle velocity as moving lighter rock.
deformed
2
- [ P dx dy ]dz = - P dV = V P dP = 1/2 P V
undeformed ρ c2 ρ c2
Hooke’s
Law
dx
dy
dV = - V dP
dz
undeformed
ρ c2
deformed
P PS
PP
’
PP
PS’
2 2 ∆α 4β 2 p2 ∆β
P P = .5(1 − 4β p )∆ρ/ρ + − , (2.47)
2 cos2 iα β
∆σ = σ1 − σ2 ; β 2 = α2 (1 − 2σ)/(2[1 − σ]),
θ = (θ1 + θ2 )/2 ; ρ = (ρ1 + ρ2 )/2; (2.48)
2.8. ELASTIC WAVE EQUATION 23
gives
where
∆σ
A = R0 ; R0 ≈ 1/2(∆α/α + ∆ρ/ρ); B = B0 + ; (2.50)
(1 − σ 2 )R0
1 − 2σ ∆α/α
B0 = C − 2(1 + C) ; C= ; (2.51)
1−σ ∆α/α + ∆ρ/ρ
The first angle-dependent term in equation 2.49 significantly contrubutes
for 0 < θ < 30 degrees, while the second starts to significantly con-
tribute for θ > 30 degrees.
For θ < 30 degrees, geophysicists will use the small angle approxi-
mation to equation 2.49:
and plot up crossplot curves (Foster et al., 1997) to assess geology. For
example, Figure 2.13 depicts the crossplot of A and B pairs taken from
a well log (i.e., estimate density and P- and S-wave velocities from sonic
log). It shows a linear trend, and the idea is that any deviations from
this trend represent a significant change of geology such as oil or gas
bearing rocks. The departures can be estimated by finding A and B
pairs from the R(θ) vs θ curves estimated from the seismic reflection
amplitudes along a horizon of interest.
Another measure of hydrocarbon anomalies can be estimated by
finding the linearization of the fluid factor (Shuey, 1985):
where tan2 θ ≈ sin2 θ for small angles. This factor is used in the case
history described in the next chapter.
Details for implementing this AVO (i.e., Amplitude vs Offset) pro-
cedure are non-trivial because much data processing must be performed
before the A and B pairs can be picked. Nevertheless, significant oil
and gas deposits have been discovered by the AVO method.
24CHAPTER 2. PHYSICS OF ACOUSTIC WAVE PROPAGATION
Figure 2.13: Crossplot of slope (B) and intercept (A) pairs using well
log data from the North Sea. The dashed line corresponds to the fluid
line for α/β = 1.9. The A and B pairs tend to lie on a trend that is
consistent with the fluid line. Note, the fluid line assumes a constant
density, the actual density profile is used to compute A and B.
Bibliography
[1] Aki, K., and Richards, P., 1980, Quantitative seismology: Theory
and Methods: Freeman Co., NY, NY.
[2] Foster, D., Keys, R., and Reilly, J., 1997, Another perspective on
AVO crossplotting: The Leading Edge, September issue.
[3] Kinsler, L. and Frey, A., 1961, Fundamentals of Acoustics, . ley and
Sons, NY, NY.
2.9 Problems
1. Identify the direct arrival, air wave, surface waves, refraction ar-
rivals, and reflection arrivals in the CSG shown in Figure 2.14.
Estimate the apparent velocity in the x-direction Vx and the as-
sociated period for each event. From these calculations determine
the wavelengths. Show work.
3. The 1-D SH wave equation is the same form as the 1-D acoustic
wave equation, except c becomes the shear wave velocity, P be-
comes the y-component of displacement v, c=sqrt(mu/rho) where
mu is the shear modulus, and the SH wave equation is
25
26 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Figure 2.14: Shot gather from salt lake valley. The trace interval is 5
feet along the horizontal axis and the time units along the vertical axis
are seconds.
SH (or shear horizontal) refers to the fact that the shear wave
particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of particle mo-
tion, and is along the horizontal direction (in and out of plane
of paper). The SH continuity conditions at the interface at z=0
are a). Continuity of y-displacement v + = v − ., b). Continuity
of shear traction: µ∂v/∂z + = µ∂v/∂z − , where µ is the shear
modulus.
Derive the y-displacement reflection and transmission coefficients
for a plane SH wave normally incident on a planar interface in an
elastic medium.