2.

WAVE MOTIONS
Various physical, optical phenomena
→ motion of waves mathematically expressed
(wave equation)

In this chapter: mathematical description of wave phenomena

( from 1-dim. to 3-dim. differential wave equation)

2.1 One-dimensional waves

Traveling wave:
- self-sustaining disturbance of a medium
- transport of energy and momentum
(FYI, https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/08/180821094205.htm)

* transverse waves (propagation perpendicular to displacement)

* longitudinal waves (propagation parallel to displacement )

Sound waves → longitudinal

(disturbance of medium // motion of wave)

Traveling wave on a string or electromagnetic Wave

→ transverse
(Fig. 2.2)

Moving disturbance → expressed in function of position and time:

Y(x, t) = f(x, t)
For t = 0: Y(x, t) = f(x, 0) = f(x)
longitudinal wave

transverse wave
transverse wave on a string
 f  x   e ax
2
Example) Gaussian function
We assumed that the shape of the propagating wave does not change.
↓
Pulse propagating with vt along the x axis
→ the shape does not change!
Introduce a propagating wave:
with a coord. System S’ which is moving with the same speed of
wave (Fig. 2.3)
Y  f  x (no more function of time!)
x '  x  vt
Y  x, t   f  x  vt 

one-dimensional wave function

In the form of Y  x, t  t 0  f  x , (x - vt) is used instead of x

Y  x, t   e  a  x  vt 
2

Gaussian-shaped wave propagating with v in +x direction

Distribution in 1-dim: Wave is moving in a line

( only one parameter in space)
2-dim. wave → propagating across a surface
(wave in a pond)
Moving reference frame
The wave profiles of (a) f(x)=3/(10x2+1) and
(b) f(x)=3/[10(x-vt)2+1]
The Differential Wave Equation
General form of the 1-dim. differential wave equation:

Assume: ① t = const.
Y(x, t) partial derivative (Y(x, t) = f(x’))

using x '  x vt

…*

② x = const.

… **

combining * and **
Y Y
 v
t x
it means, the rate of change of y with t and x are equal
to within a multiplicative constant.

For 2nd order wave equation:

Second derivative of * and **, …..

1-dim. differential wave equation

2.2 Harmonic Waves
Simplest wave form → sin or cos curve
sinusoidal or “harmonic waves”
any wave shape ← superposition of harmonic waves
• Regarding simple function as profile:
Y  x, t  t 0  Y  x   A sin kx  f  x 

propagation number
Unit of kx : [radian]
amplitude
(see Fig. 2.6)
To expressed in progressive wave with v in pos. x-direction:
Y ( x ,t )  A sin k( x  vt )  f ( x  vt )
(this is also the solution of diff. wave equation!)

This wave is periodic in space and time,

Spatial period → Wavelength
λ , usually in [nm]
1 nm = 10-9 m, 1 μm = 10-6 m
1 Å = 10-10 m
Y  x, t   Y  x  , t 
increase or increase about λ  same Y
In case of harmonic wave: equivalent to altering the argument of
sine function by ±2π. Therefore,

 sin k  x  vt   sin k  x     vt   sin  k  x  vt   2 

( = ±k·λ)
2.2 Harmonic waves

A harmonic function, showing a harmonic wave

 Argument of sine function => phase f of sine function
2
kx  x
 ex) Y  x   0 , where sin f = 0
(f = 0, π, 2π, 3π ····)
This occurs at x = 0, λ/2, λ, …

in similar way “temporal period” τ can be derived:

Y  x, t   Y  x, t  t 
sin k(x - vt) = sin k[x - v(t ± t)]
‫׃‬
kvt  2 2
k

‫׃‬

t
v temporal period

1 (temporal frequency)

t
f
velocity: v     m s
A harmonic wave moving along the x-axis within a period
For description of wave motion: mostly used
→ angular (temporal) frequency

2
① angular frequency:   2
t
[radian/s]

② wave number or spatial frequency:

1
    [m-1]


Such parameters and definitions (wavelength, period,

frequency ···) are used for expression of harmonic waves
(see Figs. 2.25~ )

• A wave with one certain frequency:

→ monochromatic wave, but in reality
→ quasi-monochromatic!
The waveform produced by a saxophone
A progressive wave of y(x,t)=A sin k(x−vt),
Moving to the right with a speed of 1.0 m/s
 2.3 Phase and Phase Velocity
Consider one of an arbitrary harmonic functions:

: Phase
At t = x = 0, Y  x, t  x 0  Y  0, 0   0
t 0

generally, Y  x, t   A sin  kx  t  e 

Harmonic wave in case of e = 0

=> y(x,t) = A sin (kx – t)
In case of e = ,
=> y(x,t) = A sin (kx – t + ) = A sin (t – kx)
= A cos (t – kx –/2)
 In Fig. 2. 11,
t
for x = 0 , if t y=A
4
t
t y=0
2
t
t 3  y = -A
4

t  t  y = 0 ···

For Fig 2.13 case: e = π

Y  x, t   y  x, t   A sin  kx  t   
 A sin t  kx 
 
 A cos  t  kx  
 2
-------------------------------------------------
Review: 1-dim. differential wave equation

2Y 1  2Y
 2 2
x 2
v t
Harmonic wave: Y  x, t   A sin  kx  t  2

k
2
  2 
t
The phase of a disturbance such as Y(x, t) is generally given by
Y(x, t) = (kx –t + ε)

For x = const.:
the partial derivative of  with respect to t is the rate of
change of phase in time.
  
  
  t x
For t = const.:
the partial derivative of  with respect to x is the rate of
change of phase with distance.
  
  k
  x t
Thermodynamics
x     t  x
  
  t    x t
the speed of propagation of the condition of constant phase

Now each partial derivative of (x, t), then into upper eq.
x  
     v
  t  k
speed at which the profile moves = phase velocity of the wave

Fig. 2. 14 : Circular wave created on water

Circular waves
2.4 The Superposition Principle

Suppose wave functions Y1 and Y2; each solution of wave eqs.

(Y1 + Y2) , also solution of wave eq.!

Superposition principle
“The resulting disturbance at each point in the region of overlap
is the algebraic sum of the individual constituent waves at that
location.”

 2 Y1 1  2 Y1 2Y2 1 2Y2
 2 and  2
x 2
v t 2 x 2
v t 2

2 1 2
2 
Y1  Y 2   2 2  Y 1  Y 2 
x v t

refer to Fig 2.15

Fig 2.16 → Superposition, depending on amplitude and
phase difference

- In phase, Out of phase

- Superposition of waves possessing different frequencies
(or wavelengths)
Superposition of two equal-wavelength sinusoids y1 and y2
Superposition, depending on amplitude and phase differences
Superposition, depending on amplitude and phase differences
2.5 The Complex Representation

The complex-number representation of wave is more attracted

and mathematically simple to process!

Complex number ~
z  x  iy ( i = 1 )
(see Fig 2.17)

real, imaginary part

In terms of polar coord. (r, q) : x = r · cos q

y = r · sin q
z  r(cosq  i sin q )
~

Euler formula :
e iq  cos q  i sin q , e  iq  cos q  i sin q
e iq  e  i q e iq  e  iq
cos q  sin q 
2 2i

z  r  eiq  r cos q  ir sin q

~
r: magnitude, q: phase angle [radian]

~z : modulus of a complex quantity

~z *: complex conjugate
~z  ~z 
* 1/ 2

z *  ( x  iy )*  ( x  iy )  r(cosq  i sinq )
~
(see p. 30-31)
 Complex representation

Diagram, represented a complex number with its real and

imaginary components
*Any complex number can be represented as the sum of a
real part and an imaginary part
~z  Re( ~z )  i Im( ~z )
1 1
Re( ~z )  ( ~z  ~z * ), Im ( ~z  ~z * )
2 2i

In polar form,
z )  r cos q , Im( ~
Re( ~ z )  r sin q

Expression of a harmonic wave with real part

Y ( x ,t )  Re[ A  e i( t  kxe ) ]
 Y ( x ,t )  A  cos( t  kx  e )

For convenience,
Y ( x ,t )  Aei( t kxe )  Ae i
2.6. Phasors and The Addition of Waves
(rotating arrow and its angle)

A function y = A sin (kx + t) and the phasor diagrams

with t = 0, /3, /2, 2/3, and , respectively
Addition of phasors of two waves with different amplitude and phases
2.7. Plane Waves

The simplest example of a three-dim. wave

Spherical wave in far distance from the source ≈ plane wave (Fig. 2.29)

The mathematical
 expression for a plane that is perpendicular to a
given vector k and that passes through some point (x0, y0, z0) is easy to
derive (Fig 2.21(b))


Position vector in Cartesian coord.: r  xî  yˆj  zk̂
It begins at some arbitrary origin 0 and ends at the point (x,y,z),
  
that is ( r  r0 )  k  0 (perpendicular!)

with k  k xî  k y ˆj  k z k̂

k x ( x  x0 )  k y ( y  y0 )  k z ( z  z0 )  0
kx x  k y y  kz z  a with a  k x x0  k y y0  k z z0  const .

The most concise form of the equation of a plane perpendicular to k
is then,  
k  r  const .

• a set of planes over which
 Y ( r ) varies in space sinusoidally:
 
Y ( r )  A  sin( k  r )
   constant over every
Y ( r )  A  cos( k  r )  plane,
defined by k  r  const .
  
Y ( r )  Ae ik  r
A plane wave moving in the k-direction
The spatially repetitive nature of these harmonic function:

  k 
Y ( r ) Y ( r  ) (k is the magnitude of k )
k 
( k / k is a unit vector parallel to it)

(see Fig 2.22/2.24 ) => each plane, same phase

    
In exponential form: ik ( r   k / k )
Ae ik r
 Ae  A  e e i k
ik r

e i k  1  e i 2 
2
( k  2 , k  )


k = propagation vector, k = propagation number

 
Propagating wave in time:
Y ( r ,t )  A  ei( kr t )
(wavefront : the surfaces joining all points of equal phase)

The phase velocity of plane wave is equal to the propagation velocity

of the wavefront.


Plane wave which is moving along k a distance drk:
The disturbance on a wavefront is constant.


Y ( r ,t ) Y ( rk  drk ,t  dt ) Y ( rk ,t )
Wave fronts for a harmonic plane wave
 
Plane waves, showing the magnitude k unit vector k /k
In experimental form:

A e i ( k r t )
 A  ei( krk  kdrk t dt )  A  ei( krk t )
 kdrk  dt

drk 
=> velocity of a wave:    v
dt k
( = phase velocity)

Consider 2 waves with same  ( namely, k1  k2  2 /  )

, but propagation direction different!

the magnitude of propagation vector in space:


k  k  ( k x2  k y2  k z2 )1 / 2
(see Fig. 2.25 )

Note:
Any three-dim. wave can be expressed as a combination
of plane waves, each having a distinct amplitude and
propagation direction.
Two overlapping waves of the same wavelength traveling
in different directions

Plane harmonic wave in Cartesian coordinates:

2.8 The 3-dim. Differential Wave Equation
i ( k x x  k y y  k z z  t )
plane harmonic wave: Y ( x , y , z ,t )  A  e
 A  e i [ k ( x  y z )t ]

 ,  , are the direction cosines of k

(α² + β² + γ² =1 ) => Prob. 2. 48 homework

from the equation above:

(Y is the solution of differential equation!)

 2Y
  kY
2 2

x 2

 2Y
   kY
2 2

y 2

 2Y
  2 k 2Y
z 2

 2Y
and   Y
2

t 2

with (  2   2   2  1)
 2Y  2Y  2Y
     k Y
2

x 2
y 2
z 2
then combining it with the time derivative,

 2Y  2Y  2Y 1  2Y
 2  2  2
x 2
y z v t 2

3-dim. differential wave equation

Using Laplacian operator:

2 2 2 1  2y
  2 2 2
2
 y  2 . 2
2

 y z  t
2.7 Special Waves

Consider idealized point source of light

→ isotropic propagation in all directions

use spherical coord. => Laplacian operator

1  2  1     1 2
  2 r   sin q 
2

r r  r  r 2 sin q q  q  r 2 sin 2 q f 2

The source is isotropic => independent on q and f !


Y ( r ) Y ( r ,q , ) Y ( r )

therefore the Laplacian of Y,

1   2  
2y  r   r 
r r  r 
2
Spherical waves

(prove it!)
start with Laplacian in Cartesian coord.:
→ use isotropic wave function ψ(r)

regard only x- dependence:

Y Y r
see 
x r x
p. 37-38
 2Y  2Y  r  Y   2 r 
2

 2     2 
x 2
r  x  r  x 

Y ( r ) Y ( r ) ; x² + y² + z² = r²
r 1 1 x
 2x 
x 2 x2  y2  z 2 r
 2 r 1 x   1  1  x2 
  x    1  
x 2 r x x  r  r  r 2 
 2Y 2 Y
Y (r ) 2 
2
 2Y x 2  2Y 1  x 2  Y
r r r  2  1  
x 2 r r 2 r  r 2  r
1 2
Y 
2
( rY )
r r 2

1 2 1  2Y
( rY )  2 r
r r 2 v t 2

2 1 2
( rY )  2 2 ( rY ) …………..*
r 2
v t
1-dim. differential wave equation with wave function (r ψ)

Solution of * : r ψ (r , t) = f(r-vt)
A spherical wave progressing
f (r  vt ) radially outward from the origin,
y (r , t )  . r at a constant speed, and having
an arbitrary function form f.
In case of g(r+vt)?
the wave in converging toward the origin

general solution:
f ( r  vt ) g( r  vt )
Y ( r ,t )  C1  C1
r r

Special case: harmonic spherical wave


Y ( r ,t )   cos k( r  vt )
r
(Fig 2.27/2.28)
 Spherical wavefronts

The flattening of spherical waves with distance

Cylindrical waves

Bessel’s equation

with
Cylindrical waves emerging from a long, narrow slit