PART 2

De Broglie Matter Waves

&
Uncertainty Principle

08-Nov-21 Part 2 1
OUTLINE
• Wave Motion
– Mathematical Representation of a Traveling Wave
– Differential Equation of a Wave Motion
• Some Important Wave Concepts
– Wave Packets
– Phase and Group Velocities
• Wave Phenomena
– Interference
– Diffraction
• Crystal Diffraction and Bragg’s Condition
• De Brogile Matter Waves
• Particle Behaves as a Wave
– Davisson-Germer Experiment
– Merli-Missiroli-Pozzi Electron Double Slit Experiment
• How fast do de Broglie waves travel ?
• Uncertainty Principle

08-Nov-21 Part 2 2
 .
Wave Motion
Mathematical Representation of a Traveling Wave
• Let the displacement of a particle at
the origin (x = 0) be given by Q

y(t )
A cos( t )
2 x
where 2 f Angular frequency
T
• The displacement of a particle (Q) at the right of
the origin lags that of the particle at the origin by
some angle 𝜑. That is

y( x, t ) A cos( t )

• The lag angle 𝜑 is proportional to the distance of the particle from the origin, or to its
coordinate x:
kx
where k is called the propagation constant (wavenumber). Hence for such a particle
Simple wave equation
y( x, t ) A cos( t kx) (1) with constant
amplitude

08-Nov-21 Part 2 3
Important Remarks

• If the wave travels to the left (-x direction), the equation of the wave is
y( x, t ) A cos( t kx)
• If particle Q is at a distance x =  from the Q
origin, it lags by an angle 𝜑 = 2π
2
kx 2 k k x=

• It is important to distinguish carefully between the

speed of propagation of the waveform (vp), and the
𝑑𝑦
particle speed ( 𝑑𝑡 ).

  2 
vp = =  =
T 2 T k
• The quantity (t – kx) is referred to as the PHASE of the wave. The velocity at which a
plane of constant phase angle moves is called the phase velocity.
d dx dx
t kx 0 k 0 vp
dt dt dt k

08-Nov-21 Part 2 4
Differential Equation of a Wave Motion
Differentiating the wave equation 𝑦 𝑥, 𝑡 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥), twice with
respect to t and x , we have:
2
y( x, t ) y( x, t ) 2
A sin( t kx) A cos( t kx) (2)
t t2
2
y( x, t ) y( x, t )
kA sin( t kx) k 2 A cos( t kx) (3)
x x2
2
y ( x, t )
2
From (2) ÷ (3) we have t2 vp2
2
y ( x, t ) k2
x2
One Dimensional Wave Equation

2 2
y (x ,t ) 1 y (x ,t )
0
x2 v2 t2
displacement velocity

08-Nov-21 Part 2 5
 Some Important Wave Concepts
Wave Packets
(Phase and Group velocities)
Consider two waves with the same amplitude A but whose frequencies differ by 
and whose wavenumbers differ by k
y1 ( x, t ) A cos t kx
y2 ( x , t ) A cos ( )t (k k )x
where  and k are small with respect to  and k, respectively.

The RESULTING wave displacement at any given time is:

y ( x, t ) y1 ( x, t ) y 2 ( x, t )
A cos t kx cos ( )t (k k )x

Using the trigonometric identity cos( ) cos( ) 2cos cos ,

we get: 2 2
k 1
y ( x, t ) 2 A cos t x cos ((2 )t (2k k ) x)
2 2 2
08-Nov-21 Part 2 6
 k
The resultant wave is then: y ( x, t ) 2 A cos t x cos t kx
2 2

ENVELOPE moves /2
vg
with group velocity k/2 k The plane waves
y travel with a
phase velocity
vp
k
x

The smaller
k, the
longer wave
x packet x
k 2
x or x
2 k Group Velocity and Phase
Velocity_2 waves .mp4

08-Nov-21 Part 2 7
 In contrast to the continuous beating obtained with just two wave components, if
MANY waves centered around certain k value with a spread ±k interfere
y packet (x , t ) =  A n sin nt − k n x 
n

the net result is a wave

PACKET shown below Group
and whose group velocity Velocity _
Phase
may be written as Velocity-3
waves.mp4

d
vg
dk

When a large
number of sinusoids
are allowed to
interfere a narrow
wave packet results

08-Nov-21 Part 2 8
 Some Important Wave Concepts
Dispersive medium is a medium in which the PHASE VELOCITY (vp=
/k) varies with frequency.
➢ vp  vg

Dispersion relation expresses the variation of  as a function of k.

vg> vp
anomalous  v g = d
dk
Dispersion vg= vp No Dispersion

vp =
k
d vg= 0
vg =
dk 


vg< vp
 Normal
vp =
k Dispersion
k
08-Nov-21 Part 2 9
 dispersive medium

Non dispersive medium

08-Nov-21 Part 2 10
08-Nov-21 Part 2 11
 Wave Phenomena
Interference of light

constructive destructive
interference interference

Young’s double-slit experiment (1802): When monochromatic light passes through two
slits, a striped interference pattern is produced.

08-Nov-21 Part 2 12
 Wave Phenomena

- Conditions of constructive
interference:
Path difference = n n = 0, 1, 2,…
OR
Phase difference = 2n n = 0, 1, 2,…

- Conditions of destructive
interference:
Path difference = (n+1/2) n = 0, 1, 2..
OR
Phase difference = (2n+1) n = 0, 1, 2,

08-Nov-21 Part 2 13
 Wave Phenomena
Diffraction of Light
The phenomenon of diffraction
involves the spreading out of
waves past openings which are
on the order of the wavelength
of the wave.

Fraunhofer Single-Slit Diffraction (1814)

deals with the limiting cases where the light approaching the diffracting object is parallel
and monochromatic.
• Then most (85%) of the light in the diffraction
pattern is concentrated in the central maximum.

• The condition for the first minimum is

sin
a Light Difraction.html

08-Nov-21 Part 2 14
Crystal Diffraction and Bragg’s Condition
(1913)
For a given crystal structure the planes may be classified in terms of the SPACING between
successive planes and the SLOPE of the planes in the crystal

 Below we show some different crystal planes for the DIAMOND structure

08-Nov-21 Part 2 15
• When X-rays are incident on some crystal structure, the different crystal planes
can cause DIFFRACTION of the X-rays.
 An important requirement for observation of the diffraction is that the
wavelength of the X-rays should be COMPARABLE to the SPACING between
successive planes.
 For typical crystal structures this spacing is of the order of a few
ANGSTROMS (10-10 m)

X-RAY DETECTOR
SOURCE

An experimental arrangement for

using Bragg diffraction to determine
the structure of SINGLE-CRYSTAL PATH OF
DETECTOR
samples is illustrated schematically
in the next Figure. CRYSTAL

ASCHEMATIC ILLUSTRATION
Diffractometer.mp4 OF AN X-RAY DIFFRACTOMETER

08-Nov-21 Part 2 16
➢ We now consider a situation where an X-ray beam is incident on a PARTICULAR set
of crystal planes.

➢ Each of the planes causes REFLECTION of a SMALL fraction of the incident X-rays
and waves reflected from SUCCESSIVE planes INTERFERE with each other

➢ For reflection from a set of crystal planes with spacing d and with incident
illumination of wavelength :

• The path difference between ray-I and ray-II is I

d sinq + d sinq = 2d sinq

II
• When this path difference is equal to an INTEGER q q
multiple of the wavelength we obtain constructive q q
d
interference and this leads to the BRAGG’s dsinq dsinq

CONDITION

2d sin n , n 1, 2, 3,
Bragg law.jar
q and n are experimentally found and consequently d is calculated

08-Nov-21 Part 2 17
 De Brogile Matter Waves
Now we have seen already that the photon energy is QUANTIZED and is
determined by the frequency of light:
E hf
By combining this Equation with E= pc and c=f we arrive to the
following wavelength to momentum relation

h
P
Although derived for photons, de-Broglie suggested (1923) that
this relation is in fact completely GENERAL and holds for ALL
different kinds of matter.

mo Louis de Broglie
For a matter P mv & m Nobile Prize (1929)
1 v2 c2

08-Nov-21 Part 2 18
Example:
An electron and a hunting rifle bullet of mass 10 g are moving with the same speed of
820 m/s. Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength for them and comment on the results.
Compare the results with the spectrum of electromagnetic radiation shown in the next
figure

Visible Light (µm)

Solution
ℎ ℎ
∵ v/c << 0.1 ∴  = 𝑃 = 𝑚 𝑣
𝑜 It is clear that (bullet) is very much
6.63 10−34 smaller than (electron) but even
 ( for electron) = −31
= 8.86 10−7 m smaller than the diameter of atomic
9.110  820
nucleus. This explains why it is
6.63 10−34 impossible to detect experimentally
 ( for bullet ) = −3
= 8.08 10−35 m the wave properties of macro-
10 10  820 particles (bullet).

08-Nov-21 Part 2 19
 Particle Behaves as a Wave
Davisson-Germer Experiment (1927)
The first experiment that confirms the existence of de Broglie waves
They were studying the scattering of electrons from a solid using an
apparatus like that sketched below.

Davisson (left) with

Lester Germer, 1927

Electrons from a heated filament were accelerated by a voltage and allowed to strike the
surface of nickel metal.

• There original intent was not to measure the wave nature of the electron.
• They heated the Nickel in Hydrogen flow to eliminate Oxygen molecules.

08-Nov-21 Part 2 20
Classical Physics predicts that the scattered electrons will emerge in all directions with
only a moderate dependence of their intensity on the scattering angle and even less on the
energy of the primary electrons. Davisson and Germer verified these predictions.

In the midst of their work:

• The cathode ray tube was broken and the nickel was oxidized
• To reduce the oxide to pure nickel, the target was baked in a hot even.
• After this treatment, the target was returned to the apparatus and measurements were
resumed.
Now the results were very different !!?
Instead of continuous variation of scattered electron intensity with the angle of incidence,
distinct maxima and minima where observed whose position depended on the electron
energy.
Typical polar graphs of electron intensity after the accident are shown in the next figure.

08-Nov-21 Part 2 21
Heating a block of nickel at high temperature causes the many
small individual crystals, of which it is normally composed, to
form into a single large crystal, i.e. all of whose atoms are
arranged in a regular lattice.

From the Bragg equation: n = 2d sin q

n = 1, d = 0.091nm and q = 65o
 (experimentally) = 2 × 0.091× sin 65 = 0.165 nm

From de Broglie’s formula

KE = eV = 54 eV = 8.64 10−18 J Eo (511875eV = 0.51MeV)
1
KE = mo v 2 → (mo v) 2 = P 2 = 2mo  KE → P = 2mo  KE = 3.97  10−24 Kgms -1
2
h 6.63 10−34
= = −24
= 1.67  10 −10
m = 0.167 nm
P 3.97 10
which agrees well with the observed (experimental) wavelength of 0.165 nm.

The Davisson-Germer experiment directly verifies de Broglie’s

hypothesis of the wave nature of moving bodies.

08-Nov-21 Part 2 22
 Particle behaves as a Wave
Merli-Missiroli-Pozzi Electron Double Slit Experiment (1974)

In this experiment an electron beam is projected at a

screen with two slits and the arrival of electrons at a
distant screen is then monitored.
 The implication of this experiment is that EACH
electron must go through BOTH holes in order to
build up the interference pattern.
ELECTRON SLITS SCREEN
SOURCE

AFTER 28 ELECTRONS AFTER 1000 ELECTRONS

Electron Double Slits Exp.html

AFTER 10,000 ELECTRONS TWO-SLIT PATTERN

08-Nov-21 Part 2 23
 DOUBLE-SLIT EXPERIMENT
INTERPRETATION
• The flux of particles arriving at the slits can be reduced so that only one
particle arrives at a time. Interference fringes are still observed!
Wave-behaviour can be shown by a single electron.
Each particle goes through both slits at once.
A matter wave can interfere with itself.
• Wavelength of matter wave is unconnected to any internal size of particle.
Instead it is determined by the momentum.
• If we try to find out which slit the particle goes through, the interference
pattern vanishes!
We cannot see the wave/particle nature at the same time.
If we know which path the particle takes, we lose the fringes

The importance of the two-slit experiment has been memorably summarized

by Richard Feynman: “…a phenomenon which is impossible, absolutely impossible,
to explain in any classical way, and which has in it the heart of quantum mechanics.
In reality it contains the only mystery.”

08-Nov-21 Part 2 24
 How fast do de Broglie waves travel ?
The angular frequency and wave number of the de Broglie wave associated with a body of
rest mass mo moving with the velocity v are:

2 mc 2 2 mo c 2
2 f [E mc 2 hf ]
h h 1 v 2
c 2

2 2 mv 2 mov
k [ h/p h / mv ]
h h 1 v 2
c 2

De Broglie phase velocity

c2 No physical meaning or de Broglie wave CAN NOT
vp c be represented by simple wave y = A cos(t-kx)
k v
If  and k have continuous spreads instead of the two values in the preceding discussion
De Broglie Group velocity
3
2 2 2 waves associated with
d d / dv 2 mov / h (1 v c )
vg 3
v a body
dk dk / dv 2 2 2
2 mo / h (1 v c )
08-Nov-21 Part 2 25
 Uncertainty Principle
Uncertainty principle was placed by Heisenberg in 1927

“It is impossible to know both the exact position and the

exact momentum of an object at the same time” Werner Heisenberg
A German physicist and the
winner of the Nobel Prize for
Physics in 1932
Mathematically Conjugate x p x 
Variables 2
where x is the uncertainty in the position of an object at some /2

instant and px is the uncertainty in its momentum component in

ℎ /2
the x direction at the same instant. ℏ = 2𝜋 called Dirac constant
/2

 Heisenberg initially felt that this principle was a consequence of

the disturbances inevitably produced by any measuring process.

 Bohr, on the other hand, thought that the basic cause of the uncertainties was the wave-
particle duality so that they were built into the natural world rather than solely the result
of measurement.
 After much argument Heisenberg came around to Bohr’s view

08-Nov-21 Part 2 26
 Uncertainty Principle
Let us study the following two cases to understand the uncertainty principle
Case I: Diffraction of electrons in the single slit experiment
• We can produce the electron beam with a setup that is similar in principle to the electron
gun in a cathode-ray tube.
Electron
• The result of the experiment shows pattern
that about 85% of the electrons
strike the film within the central
maximum; the remainder strike the
film within the subsidiary maxima
on both sides.

• The result also gives additional direct evidence of the wave nature of
electrons. From the diffraction theory, the condition for the first minimum is

sin q1 = { For small q1 , tan q1 ~ sin q1 ~ q1 }
a
• The slit width “a” represents an uncertainty in the y-component of the position of an
electron as it passes through the slit.
y = a ……………….(1)

08-Nov-21 Part 2 27
 Uncertainty Principle
• An electron that strikes the film at the
outer edge of the central maximum, at
angle q1 must have a component of a
momentum py in the y-direction, as well
as a component px in the x-direction,
despite the fact that initially the beam
was directed along the x-axis (=h/ px).

• From the geometry of the situation the two components are related by py/px = tanq1.
 ℎ
Since q1is small, we may use the approximation py = q1 px= × =h/a
𝑎 
• For electrons going into the central maximum, the y-component of the momentum can
lie anywhere between -py and py. Thus the uncertainty in the y-component is

p y = 2 p y = 2h a ……………….(2)
Combing eq.(1) with eq.(2),we get
2h
y p y = a  = 2h ( )
a 2
The narrower the slit width “a”, the broader is the diffraction pattern.

08-Nov-21 Part 2 28
 Uncertainty Principle
Case II: Hypothetical experiment for the determination of the electron
position by a microscope

• We might want to measure the position and

momentum of an object at a certain moment.

• Suppose we look at an electron using light of

wavelength , as in the next Figure. Each photon
of this light has the momentum h/ .

• When one of these photons bounces off an electron, the electron's original momentum
will be changed. The exact amount of the change p cannot be predicted, but it will be
of the same order of magnitude as the photon momentum h/ .

Hence p = h  ……………….(3)

• A reasonable estimate of the minimum uncertainty in the measurement might

be one photon wavelength, so that:
………...…….(4)
x = 

08-Nov-21 Part 2 29
 Uncertainty Principle
• Combing Eq.(3) with Eq.(4),we get

h
x p =   =h ( )
 2

This result is consistent with uncertainty principle (x p  /2)

Arguments like the preceding one, although superficially attractive, must

be approached with caution. The argument above implies that the electron
can possess a definite position and momentum at any instant and that it is
the measurement process that introduces the indeterminacy in x p.
On the contrary, this indeterminacy is inherent in the nature of a moving
body.

08-Nov-21 Part 2 30
 Uncertainty Principle
Uncertainties in energy and time
Consider a case of a free particle of energy E, mass m moving along the x-direction
with velocity v
1 (mv ) 2 p 2
E = mv = 2
=
2 2m 2m
By differentiating both sides
2 p p mv p
E = = = v p
2m m
Then, from x p  /2
E
x 
v 2

t  E 
2

Here, t represents the uncertainty in time of this phenomenon (or measurement).

For example, the term (t) could represent the transition time for an electron while
hopping from a lower energy level to another and then back to the initial level in order to
produce a photon. Also, it could represent the lifetime of an unstable particle that exists for
a short time before decaying into energy.
08-Nov-21 Part 2 31
 Uncertainty Principle
Example 1: An electron (me = 9.11 × 10–31 kg) and a bullet (m = 0.020 kg) each have a
velocity of magnitude of 500 m/s, accurate to within 0.010%. Within what limits could we
determine
. the position of the objects along the direction of the velocity?
Solution
Since v << c, the momentum uncertainty is p = (mov) = mov and the uncertainty in the
proton's velocity is

For the electron,

( ) ( )
p = moe v = 9.11 10−31 kg ( 500 m s ) 1.00  10−4 = 4.56  10−32 kg  m s
h 6.626  10−34 J  s
x = = = 1.16  10−3 m =1.16 mm
(
4 p 4 4.56  10−32 kg  m s )
For the bullet,
( )
p = mv = ( 0.020 0 kg )( 500 m s ) 1.00  10−4 = 1.00  10 −3 kg  m s
h
x = = 5.28  10−32 m
4 p

08-Nov-21 Part 2 32
 Uncertainty Principle
Example 2: An "excited" atom gives up its excess energy by emitting a photon of
characteristic frequency v. The average period that elapses between the excitation
of an atom and the time it radiates is 1.0×10-8 s. Find the inherent uncertainty in the
frequency of the photon.

Solution
The photon energy is uncertain by the amount

(1.054 10−34 )
E  =
2t (2)(1.0 10−8 )
 5.3 10−27 J

The corresponding uncertainty in the frequency

of light is
This is the irreducible limit to
E
f =  8  106 Hz the accuracy with which we can
h determine the frequency of the
radiation emitted by an atom.

08-Nov-21 Part 2 33
 Uncertainty Principle
Example 3: A typical atomic nucleus is about 5.0 × 10-15 m in radius. Use the
uncertainty principle to place a lower limit on the energy an electron must have if it is
to be part of a nucleus. [Hint: From experiments typical binding energies of electrons
in unstable atoms are measured to be on the order of a few eV]
Solution
Let us call the maximum uncertainty in the electron's position x = 5.0×10-15m.The
uncertainty in its momentum
p   1.1 10-20 kg· m/s
2 x
If this is the minimum uncertainty in a nuclear electron's momentum, the momentum p
itself must be at least comparable in magnitude. Let p  1.1×10-20 kg.m/s

Note pc = 1.1×10-20× 3×108 = 3.3×10-12 J = 20.6 MeV >> (moc2= 0.511 MeV)
E 2 = ( pc )2 + (mo c 2 )2 Emin  pc  20.6 MeV

Emin >> binding energies of electrons from which we conclude that nuclei cannot
contain electrons.

08-Nov-21 Part 2 34
 Uncertainty Principle
Example 4: A measurement establishes the position of a proton with an accuracy of
±1.0×10-11 m. Find the uncertainty in the proton's position 1s later. Assume v « c,

Solution
Let us call the uncertainty in the proton's position xo at the time t = 0. The
uncertainty in its momentum at this time is therefore (x p  /2):
p 
2x o
Since v << c, the momentum uncertainty is p = (mv) = m v and the uncertainty
in the proton's velocity is
p
v = 
m 2m x o
The distance x the proton covers in the time t cannot be known more accurately than

t the more we know about the proton's

x = t v  position at t = 0, the less we know
2m x o about its later position at t > 0

08-Nov-21 Part 2 35
 Uncertainty Principle
The value of x at t = 1.0 s is
(1.054 10−34 )(1.0)
x 
(2)(1.762 10−27 )(1.0 10−11 )
 3.15 103 m
This is 3.15 km !!? What has happened
is that the original wave group has spread
out to a much wider one.

This occurred because the phase velocities

of the component waves vary with wave
number and a large range of wave numbers
must have been present to produce the
narrow original wave group.

08-Nov-21 Part 2 36