OSILASI HARMONIS-1

Karakteristik Osilasi Harmonis

Sistem yang berosilasi harmonis memiliki karakteristik :
• Melakukan ‘gerak’ bolak-balik disekitar ‘keadaan’
kesetimbangan (stableequilibrium).
• Pada sistem alamterdapat dua sifat intrinsik besaran
fisika, yang cenderung saling berlawanan, yakni gaya
pulih (return force) dan inersia.
Gaya pulih selalu ingin mengembalikan gangguan 
menjadi nol. Inersia melawan setiap perubahan
gangguan tersebut terhadap waktu 𝑑ΨΤ𝑑𝑡
Supplement-1

Equilibrium (Fnet = 0)
restoring forces

N
Fnet = 0
restoring forces

N
Fnet = toward equil.
 restoring forces

N
Fnet = toward equil.

Restoring forces always push

the system back toward equilibrium
 Osilasi Harmonis Sederhana (OHS)
• Sistem yang berosilasi
harmonis dengan gerak bolak-
balik (‘perubahan’ = ) dekat
keadaan setimbangnya dikenal
sebagai Osilasi Harmonis
Sederhana (OHS)
• Perubahan gerak  sistem
tersebut memiliki representasi
fungsi harmonis (Sinus atau
Cosinus).
 Sinusoidal oscillations
= Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)
Some oscillations are not sinusoidal:
 Not all oscillations are nice Sine curves

Equil. point
T

f=1/T
Mass on a spring
A body of mass m that slides on a frictionless horizontal
surface. The body moves in x direction.

origin is chosen at here

m
 Relaxed state
o x
F
m

o
2
x
d x
F x  kx ax  2
dt
d 2x
 kx  m 2
dt
d 2x k Equation of motion of the
2
 x0 simple harmonic oscillator
dt m
We write a tentative solution to equation of motion of
the simple harmonic oscillator as

xt   c1e it  c2 e  it

xt   a1Sin t   a2Cost 
xt   xm cos(t   )

with
k
 2

m
a)  :
2
If we increase the time by in the solution, then

2
x  xm [cos  (t  )   ]  xm cos(t   )

2
Therefore is the period of the motion T.


2 m
T  2
 k
1 1 k
f  
T 2 m
The quantity  is called the angular frequency.
  2f
b) xm :
xm is the maximum value of displacement. We call it
the amplitude of the motion.

c) t   and  :
The quantity t   is called phase of the motion.
 is called “phase constant.

xm and  are determined by the initial position and

velocity of the particle.
 is determined by the system.
d). Displacement, velocity, and acceleration

Displacement x  xm cos(t   )
dx 
Velocity v x   x m sin( t   )  xm cos(t    )
dt 2
2
d x
Acceleration a x  2   2 xm cos(t   )
dt
  2 xm cos(t     )

When the displacement is a maximum in either

direction, the speed is zero, because the velocity
must now change its direction.
x  xm cos(t   ) xm
x x t
o t
2π  0 T
T  xm

v vt
xm
v   xm sin( t   )
o T t
π
 xm cos(t    )  x 
2
a t
m

a
a   xm cos(t   ) m
2
x  2

 xm cos(t    π)
2
o T t
 xm 2
Energy in Simple Harmonic Oscillation

The potential energy

1 2 1
U  kx  kxm cos 2 (t   )
2

2 2  0
1
U(t)
0.8

The kinetic energy 0.6

1 1
K  mv 2  m 2 xm sin 2 (t   )
0.4
2
0.2

2 2 K(t)
1 2 3 4 5 6

1
 kxm sin 2 (t   ) T/2 T
2

2
• Potential and kinetic energies oscillate with time t
1 2
and vary between zero and maximum value of kxm.
2
• Both U and K vary with twice the frequency of the
displacement and velocity.
The total mechanical energy E is
1
E  K  U  kxm
2

E 1 2
U(x) U ( x)  kx
2
K ( x)  E  U ( x)
K(x)

 xm xm x
 1
K , 0 U  . kxm
2
At the maximum displacement
2
1
U , 0 K. 
2
At the equilibrium position kxm
2
 Torsional Oscillator
Fixed
The figure shows a torsional oscillator. O’
clamp
If the disk is rotated in the horizontal (xy)
plane, the reference line op will move
to the OQ, and the wire oo’ will be m
twisted. The twisted wire will exert a o
restoring torque on the disk, tending to p Q
2 m
return the system to its equilibrium. R
For small twist, the restoring torque is
 z  
Here  is constant ( the Greek letter Kappa ), and
is called torsional constant.
The equation of motion for such a system is
d 2
 z  I z  I dt 2
where I is the rotational inertia of the disk about z
axis.
 d  2
d 2 k
 k  I 2 or 2
 
dt dt I
The solution should be a simple harmonic oscillation
in the angle coordinate  ,
   m cos(t   )
k I
 2
or T  2
I k

A torsional oscillator is also called torsional pendulum. The

Cavendish balance, used to measure the gravitational force
constant G, is a torsional pendulum.
 Simple Pendulum

The figure shows a simple pendulum of length L

and particle mass m.

The restoring force is:

F  mg sin 
If the  is small, 
sin    T
L
k
x
F  mg  mg  mx m
L
m m L 
T  2  2  2 x
mg / L g mg
k
 Physical Pendulum

Any rigid body mounted so that it can swing in

vertical plane about some axis passing through it
is called “physical pendulum”.

In Figure a body of irregular shape is

P pivoted about a horizontal frictionless
axis through P
d

y C

x Mg
The restoring torque for an angular displacement  is
 z  Mgd sin 
For small angular displacement sin    .
 z  Mgd  k
then
I I
T  2  2
k Mgd

(a)The rotational inertia I can be found

T 2 Mgd
I
4 2
(b) Center of oscillation
Suppose the mass of the physical pendulum were
concentrated at one point with distance L from the pivot,
it will form a simple pendulum.
L I
T  2  2
g Mgd
P
I
d L L
 Md
C
The resulting simple pendulum would
O have same period as the original physical
pendulum.
The point O is called the “center of oscillation” of the
physical pendulum.
If we pivot the original physical pendulum from point O, it will
have the same period as it does when pivoted from point P.

• The center of oscillation is often also

P
called the “center of percussion”. Pd L

If an impulsive force in the plane of
CC
oscillation acts at the center of
oscillation, no effect of this force is OO
felt at the pivot point P.

Fig(17-11)
Electromagnetic Oscillations

2
q
UUB E 2Li
1 2
2 C
 Oscillating Quantities
• We will write oscillating quantities with a lower-case symbol, and the
corresponding amplitude of the oscillation with upper case.
Oscillating Quantity Amplitude
Voltage v V
Current i I
Charge q Q

• Examples: q  Q cos(t   )

q2 Q2
 cos 2 (t   )
2C 2C
di d cos(t   )
I
dt dt
 Derivation of Oscillation Frequency
• We have shown qualitatively that LC circuits act like an
oscillator.
• We can discover the frequency of oscillation by looking at
the equations governing the total energy.
q2 1 2
U  UE UB   Li
2C 2
• Since the total energy is constant, the time derivative
should be zero:
dU q dq di
  Li  0
dt C dt dt

dq di d 2 q
• But i
dt
and  , so making these substitutions:
dt dt 2
d 2q q
L 2  0
dt C
• This is a second-order, homogeneous differential equation,
whose solution is q  Q cos(t   )
• i.e. the charge varies according to a cosine wave with
amplitude Q and frequency . Check by taking
two time derivatives of charge:
dq d 2q
 Q sin( t   ) 2
 Q 2 cos(t   )
dt dt
• Plug into original equation:
d 2q q Q
L 2    LQ 2 cos(t   )  cos(t   )  0
dt C C
1 1
 L 2  0 
C LC
Representasi
Osilasi
Harmonis
Sederhana
melalui Gerak
Melingkar
Beraturan
OSILASI HARMONIS TEREDAM
 𝑓 = −𝑏𝑥ሶ

m v
x
0 f
Up to this point we have assumed that no frictional
force act on the system.

For real oscillator, there may be friction, air resistance

act on the system, the amplitude will decrease.

This loss in amplitude is called “damping” and

the motion is called “damped harmonic oscillation”.
m x   k x  bx or writing
 = k/m and  =b/2m we have
x  2 x   2 x  0
Auxillary eq by substituting
x  B exp(rt )
B exp( rt )  r 2  2  r   2   0
r 2  2 r   2  0

r1,2      2  2
Solutions will depend quite a bit on relationship between  and .

r1,2      2   2
x  B1 exp(r1t )  B2 exp(r2t )
There are three cases:
 2   2  0 under damped
 2   2  0 critically damped
 2   2  0 over damped

The under damped case will have complex auxiliary roots and will
have oscillatory behavior. The over damped case will have real
roots and thus have a pure exponential time evolution. The
critically damped case, with a single root, has some non-intuitive
aspects to its solution.
 Under Damped Case
Define 1   2   2 r1,2     i1
x  e   t  B1 exp(i1t )  B2 exp(i1t ) 
We force a real x via x*=x which
x*  e   t  B1 * exp( i1t )  B2 * exp(i1t ) 
 x  e   t  B1 exp(i1t )  B1 * exp(i1t ) 
A
Choose B1  exp( i ) real amp & phase
2
x  e  t
2

A i 1t  
e e  1 
 i  t 

x  Ae   t cos 1t    or e   t sin 1t   

The under damped oscillator has two constants (phase and amplitude) to
match initial position and velocity. The solution dies away while oscillating
but with a frequency other than  = (k/m)1/2.
 1,2
1 x x  Ae  t cos 1t     0
0,8   /4
0,6
0,4   /2
0,2 t
0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5
-0,2
-0,4 1  4 
-0,6

Here is a plot of x(t) for the under-damped case for three different
choices of phase. We have chosen the damping coefficient  to be 1/4 of
the effective frequency 1 so you can see a few wiggles before the
oscillation fades out.
 Over damped case
r1,2      2   2
x  B1 exp(r1t )  B2 exp(r2t )
2   2   2 r1,2      2
x  B1 exp       2  t   B2 exp       2  t 
Defining 1 =    2 and 2 =    2
x  B1 exp(1t )  B2 exp(2t )
In this case both the B1 and B2 coefficients must be real so that x is real. The
two terms are both there to allow us to match the initial position and velocity
boundary conditions. Since 2   both 1=   2 and 2 =   2 are
both positive and thus both terms correspond to exponential decay.
We can re-arrange the blue form to match initial conditions.
 2 exp(1t )  1 exp(2t )   exp(1t )  exp(2t ) 
x(t )  x0    v0  
  2  1    2  1 
The initial condition form is easy to confirm by expanding to 1st order in t.
 Critical damping
r1,2      2   2 but  2   2It is interesting to note that the critically
damped case actually dies away faster than
Hence r1,2    and our usual expression the over damped case. Consider the case
x  B1 exp(rt
1 )  B2 exp(r2t ) becomes
where v0=0.
x   B1  B2  exp(  t )  B3 exp(  t ) The critically damped case will fall off
To get a real x, B3 must be real. But this according to exp(- t)
can’t possibly be right! With only 1 real The over damped case will have a
coefficient we can’t match the initial exp[-(2 t] piece which dies off faster
position and velocity! than the critically damped case. But it will
Appendix C of M&T says in the case of also contain a exp[-(2 t] piece which
degenerate roots, the full solution is of the dies off slower than the critically damped
following form which can be confirmed by case.
direct substitution. For many applications: vibration
 
x  A1  A2 t exp(  t ) abatement, shocks, screen door dampers,
one strives for critical damping.
In terms of initial conditions:
x   x0 1   t   v0t  exp( t )
 Example of Critical Damping
1.2
1
0.8

  3 0
0.6
0.4
  1.50
0.2   0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

We use solutions with x0=1 and v0=0 and consider the case of critical damping
and two cases of over damping. The critical damped case dies out much faster
and the over damped case dies out more slowly as the over damping ratio
increases.
 2 exp(1t )  1 exp(2t ) 
x(t )  x0   over damp
 2  1 
x   x0 1   t   v0t  exp(  t ) critical damp
 Phase Diagram
It is fashionable to view the motion of
mechanical systems as trajectories in a
phase space which is a plot of p (or v)
versus x. Oscillations are a perfect
example of such plots. A first “phase
diagram” is for an un-damped oscillator.
Since we have a purely position dependent
one dimensional force we know that
energy is conserved.
This curve is an
p2 k 2
 x  E ellipse with an area
2m 2 monotonic in energy.
Without damping the particle will execute
endless elliptical orbits of fixed energy in
this phase space p
x orbits can intersect. Otherwise several
In Newtonian mechanics, we specify the
initial conditions as x(0) and p(0) (or v(0)).
This corresponds to one point in the phase
diagram which specifies the initial energy
or the phase space ellipse. We note that
with this choice of coordinates, we have a
clockwise phase space orbit. This is
because of the negative sign in the
equation of motion:
p   kx
Essentially this means that p must decrease
when x is positive and must increase when
x is negative.
The particular phase space orbit will
depend on the nature of the forces but in
general we know that no two phase space
motions would be possible for the same set
of initial conditions.
 Phase Diagrams (continued)
One can construct the phase diagram directly from x(t) and its derivative or (in the
absence of dissipation) from the conservation of energy. Often the phase diagram
can be obtained through a clever separation of variables:
dx dx dx dx / dt  2 x dx  2 x
m  kx    2 x  x dividing :    
dt dt dt dx / dt x dx x
x x x 2
 v 2
x 2
 x 2
x dx   2 x dx  x ' dx '   2  x ' dx '   2
0 0
v0 x0 2 2
 x 2   2 x 2  x 2 0   2v 2 0 This gives the phase diagram ellipse
2
We show the phase diagram for an under
p
damped oscillation. Again we have a 1.5
clockwise motion but this time the energy
1
continuously decreases with time and
eventually disappears. This sort of curve is
0.5
called a logarithmic spiral. We could in
principle obtain this directly from out 0
x
solution. x  B1 exp(1t )  B2 exp(2t ) -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

-0.5
The text shows a way of getting the spiral
by a variable transformation. -1 44
 Critically damped phase diagram
 
x  x0 1   t   v0t exp(  t )
It is very straight-forward to draw the
phase diagram once one has x(t) and its
 
x    x0 1   t   v0t exp(  t )  derivative. We plot plot x and v for 50
times for 3 sets of initial conditions.
  x0  v0  exp(  t )  You can easily visualize the motion
including the maximum displacement

x  v0   v0t  x0  t exp(  t )
2
 and velocity and retrograde motion
1.5
x(0)  1 x(0)  0
Whoops I messed it up. How did I know? x x(0)  1 x(0)  0
1.5 1
x(0)  1 x(0)  1
x What’s wrong with this picture? x(0)  1 x(0)  2
1 0.5

0.5
0
x
-0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
0
0 0.5 1 x 1.5 -0.5
-0.5

-1
-1

-1.5 45
DRIVEN OSCILLATION
 Natural frequency

f= (1/2)g/l f= (1/2)k/m
 Driven oscillators
natural freq. = f0

f = 0.4f0 f = 1.1f0 f = 1.6f0

Resonance (f=f0)
 Driven Oscillations
F  mx  bx  kx  F0 cos  t We need the transient piece to
 0  k / m   b / 2m f  F0 / 2m match the initial velocity and
position, but it always dies out if
x  2  x   0 x  f cos  t
2

there is damping. As a practical

Solutions can be cast in terms of the
matter , it often suffices to know
homogeneous (transient) solution and a
the particular solution.
particular solution x(t )  xt  x p where
We will review the way that the
xt  2  xt   x  0 and the
2
0 t text does this and show an
particular solution is any solution which alternative method using complex
solves DE with the driving term. variable representations.
The under-damped "transient" would be
xt  Ae   t cos 1t    with

1   0 2   2
But how to solve for x p (t) part?
 Algebraic Method
x  2  x   02 x  f cos  t. Try x p =A1 cos  t  A 2 sin  t
-A1 2 cos  t  A1 02 cos  t  A1 2  sin  t
-A 2 2 sin  t  A 2 02 sin  t  A 2 2  cos  t  f cos  t. Collect terms
-A1 2  A1 02 +A 2 2    02   2  A1  2  A2  f
 A1 2  - A2 2  A2 02  0

 A1 
  
2
0
2
 A2 &
  
2
0 
2 2
  2  
2

A2  f
2  2 

 A2 
2  f
A1 
 2
0 2  f

   2
0
2 2
   2  
2
  2
0
2 2
   2  
2

xp 
  2
0   2  f cos  t   2   f sin  t

  
2
0 
2 2
  2  
2
 Contrast this with a “complex” solution
Lets try a complex variable solution f /2
d  Separate into real
 0    i 2 
2 2

x p  d  ei t  d  e it to solve

and imaginary parts:
x  2  x   02 x  f cos  t. f /2   02   2 i 2  
d  2  
We will need a real x p  0   2  i 2    02   2 i 2  

d  ei t  d  e it  d * e it  d * e  it f / 2   02   2 i2 

d 
or d   d * Plug and chug...   
2
0 
2 2
  2  
2

d   02   2  i 2   ei t  We can now assemble the pieces

x p  d  ei t  d  e  i t
d   02   2  i 2   e i t   e e 
f it it
2 f  02   2  ei t  e  i t

d  2
f /2
Note d   d *
 2
0     2  
2 2 2
2
 0    i 2 
2
i  f
e i t
 e  i t 
02   2    2  
2 2
Lets recast this as real functions
 “Complex” solution continued
f  02   2 
e e i t  i t

Extracting the phase and amplitude
xp  2  
0      2   2
Algebraic approach
2 2
2

We would like to write x p in the form
2  f eit  e it  x p  A cos  t    and extract A and 
 2  
0      2  
2 2 2 2i  x p  A cos  cos  t  A sin  cos  t 
A1 cos  t  A2 sin  t

xp 
  2
0   2  f cos  t   2   f sin  t And A 2
A1
 A sin
A cos
 tan 
  2
0 
2 2
  2  
2
 2  
  tan 1  2 

 0
2
  
We get the same result but I
A12 +A 22   A cos     A sin    A2
2 2
believe the technique is much
easier and gives more insight.
A
      2 
2
0
2 2 2


      2  
2
2 2 2 2
0

1
A
02   2    2 
2 2
53
 Phase and amplitude of xp “complex” method
We would like to write x p in the form d  is a ratio of simple terms d   N / D
x p  A cos  t    and extract A and  write every thing in polar form:
We will try to do this directly from i
N Ne N
f /2 d +  d  eid   i D

d  2 using D De
 0    i 2 
2

 N  i N  N 
x p  de i t
 de  i t
d +    e
A i t   A  i t  
 D
 e  e
2 2 d   N / D and  d   N   N
A i  t 
Hence d  ei t  e   Need modulus and phase of N and D
2
N  f / 2 and D   02   2  i 2 
If we write d  in polar form d   d  eid
we can easily read off the phase and N is real  N  f / 2 and  N  0

amplitude A=2 d  and   - d D is a bit tricker...

 Polar forms
Draw the D complex number in an Argand diagram where
D   02   2  i 2  we plot the real part on the horizontal axis and the
imaginary part on the vertical axis. The modulus is the
( D ) length and the phase is the polar angle in such a diagram .
D D | D | eiD | D | cos  D  i | D | sin  D
2 
D d   N / D and  d   N   D
( D)
 02   2
d   ( f / 2) /  2
0     2  
2 2 2

From trig: tan  D  2 

 2
  2     tan 1  2 
2 

 0  
0
d
  2
 

|D |  2
0     2 
2 2 2
x p  A cos  t    A=2 d  and   - d
 2   f cos  t   
 D  tan  1
2  xp 

 0    
2

 2
0     2  
2 2 2

N  f / 2 and  N  0  2  
  tan 1
2 
d   N / D and  d   N   D

  0
 2
   
 Resonance
x p  A cos  t   
Q is a dimensionless variable which
gives the “quality” of the resonance
f  2  
A   tan 
1
2 
02   2    2 
2 2 
 0    
2

Minimize denominator  2  
When    0 , 
2 2
2  
 0    
 
 2 
d
d
  0      2  
2 2 2 2
 
R and    / 2
4 R  02   R2   8 2 R  0
The amplitude resonates at the slightly
2  2   02   R2   R   02  2  2 different value of R in a way that
depends on Q or .
Define a ratio Q=  R It is remarkable that the x(t) response is
2
out of phase with the driver force. At
2
 R  0 low , x(t) and F(t) are in phase. At  
2    2
  2
R 
0 R
0 ,they are out of phase by 900 . At
1   2Q 
1
 2Q 
high , they are out of phase by 1800!
20
Resonance phenomena
3.5

15
A( ) / f Q2 3 
10
Q  10 2.5
2
 ( ) Q2
Q  20 Q  10
 /2
1.5
5 Q  20
1
 / 0
0
0.5
0
 / 0
0 0,5 1 1,5 2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
We plot the amplitude and phase versus
1.2
 R / 0 the driving frequency for 3 different Q
1 values in the upper two plots. The larger
0.8 the Q value -- the sharper the resonance
0.6 both in phase and amplitude. The lower
0.4
the plot shows the ratio of the resonant and
“natural” frequency as a function of Q. For
0.2
Q high quality resonances, the amplitude
0
resonance occurs very nearly at the
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
frequency of un-driven oscillations.
 What’s the deal with transients?
f cos  t    x(t )  xt  x p
xp 
  
2
0 
2 2
  2  
2

time
 2   0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

  tan 
1
2 

   2
0    

Transient solutions are necessary since
as shown above the “particular” xt xp
solution is too specific. All aspects of
xp are specified in terms of the driving time
frequency and driving force. Yet we 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

still need some way of specifying

arbitrary x(0) and v(0). We thus need
to add a function w/ two coefficients.
x  Ae  t cos 1t     x p
A and  give us the freedom to match
x(0) and v(0)
You can get some pretty complicated
motions when driving frequency is very
different from the natural frequency. But
the sum (upper) makes sense when you
look at the 2 components (lower).
 The ubiquitous Q
The dimensionless variable Q= R / 2 
One can show sin 2  t     1/ 2
is a way of characterizing lots of oscillation
 
phenomena. For example if Q is reasonably mf 2  2 
T 
large  /  0  1/ Q where  is the resonance 4   2   2    2   
2 2
 0 
(FWHM) width when expressed in kinetic energy.
 
The kinetic energy of the driven oscillator falls mf 2  02  for    0
by 1/2 of its value at  = 0 when 4   2   2    2   
2 2
 0 0 
  1  To reduce T by 1/2 we must have
  0    0 1   Lets prove this
2  2Q 
02   2    20   2  2 0 
2 2 2

f cos  t   
xp   02   2   0    0     2  0
   2    2  
2 2 2
0
2  0 2  0
0   
 0     0   0 
2
 
T
mx 2
m
 
 f  sin   t    
2   2   2 2  2  2   2 1
  0    
2  0         2    
0 0 Q
mf 2 2  is the FWHM of kinetic energy reson
T sin 2
 t   
2  2   2    2   2
2
0
1.5
More on Q
1
T FWHM Here is a plot to illustrate the
 /  0 FWHM concept on the average
Q4  0.23  1/ Q
kinetic energy of the driven
0.5 oscillator. I have selected a
damping coefficient to create a
fairly broad Q=4 oscillator. Even
 / 0 so the FWHM is close to 1/Q
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2

One can also show for a lightly damped driven oscillator

 Total Energy 
Q  2  
 Energy loss per period 
 How can we show this?
Near resonance  02   2
In the steady state x  x p
 
mf 2 02  sin  t     cos  t    
2 2
f cos  t    T U 
x 2 
  0 
 2
  2 2
  2  
2 

 2
0     2 
2 2 2

 
mf 2   02
 f  sin  t    E 
x 2        2   
2 2 2 2
 0 
02   2    2 
2 2

In steady state, power is being provided

 
mx 2 mf 2   sin  t     by the driving force at the rate power is being
2 2

T 
2 2   2   2 2   2  2  dissapated by the viscous drag.
 0  Power = F v=-(bx)x=-2m x 2
 cos 2  t     
kx 2 kf 2   E loss in one period =- Power dt =
U 
2   2   2    2   
0
2 2
2 f 2 02 (2 m)
 0  
dt sin 2  t   

k

mf 2   0 cos  t    
2 2    2
0     2 2
2   0 2

0   U 
2

2   2   2    2    Now 0 dt sin  t    
2 2 2
m
 0 
 1  cos  2( t   )  
0
dt
2

2
 Eloss (continued)
 
f 2 02 ( m) mf 2   02 
E loss = ; E
 2
0     2 
2 2 2
2   2   2 2   2  2 
 0 
E 1 1 0 Q
   
E loss  2  2 2  2
 Total Energy 
 Q  2   (if    0 )
 Energy loss per period 