University of Cape Town

Department of Physics
PHY2014F
Vibrations and Waves
Part 3
Travelling waves
Boundary conditions
Sound
Interference and diffraction

… covering (more or less)

French Chapters 7 & 8
Andy Buffler
Department of Physics
University of Cape Town
andy.buffler@uct.ac.za
1
 Problem-solving and homework

Each week you will be given a take-home

problem set to complete and hand in for marks ...

In addition to this, you need to work through the following

problems in French, in you own time, at home. You will not be
asked to hand these in for marks. Get help from you friends, the
course tutor, lecturer, ... Do not take shortcuts.
Mastering these problems is a fundamental aspect of this course.

The problems associated with Part 3 are:

7-1, 7-2, 7-3, 7-4, 7-5, 7-6, 7-7, 7-8, 7-9, 7-10, 7-11, 7-15, 7-17,
7-18, 7-19, 7-21

You might find these tougher:

2
 Travelling waves
For a string clamped at both ends the displacement of the
nth normal mode is nπ v
⎛ nπ x ⎞ ω =
y ( x, t ) = A sin ⎜ ⎟ cos ωnt n
L
⎝ L ⎠
λ nπ vt 2π vt
Since L = n then =
2 L λ
⎛ nπ x ⎞ ⎛ 2π vt ⎞
Then write: ψ ( x, t ) = A sin ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟
⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ λ ⎠

And using sin α sin β = 1

2 {sin (α + β ) + sin (α − β )}
A ⎛ 2π x 2π vt ⎞ A ⎛ 2π x 2π vt ⎞
ψ ( x, t ) = sin ⎜ + ⎟ + sin ⎜ − ⎟
2 ⎝ λ λ ⎠ 2 ⎝ λ λ ⎠
A ⎧ 2π ⎫ A ⎧ 2π ⎫
= sin ⎨ ( x + vt ) ⎬ + sin ⎨ ( x − vt ) ⎬
⎩λ ⎩λ
3
2 ⎭ 2 ⎭
 Travelling waves ...2
A ⎧ 2π ⎫ A ⎧ 2π ⎫
ψ ( x, t ) = sin ⎨ ( x − vt ) ⎬ + sin ⎨ ( x + vt ) ⎬
2 ⎩λ ⎭ 2 ⎩λ ⎭

A wave travelling in A wave travelling in

the +ve x-direction the −ve x-direction
with speed v with speed v

The speed v is called the phase velocity and is the speed of

a crest (or any other point of specified phase) ∆x
v=
∆t 4
 Travelling waves ...3
We have shown that a standing wave
⎛ nπ x ⎞ ⎛ 2π vt ⎞
ψ ( x, t ) = A sin ⎜ ⎟ cos ⎜ ⎟
⎝ L ⎠ ⎝ λ ⎠
can be regarded as the superposition of two travelling waves:

A ⎧ 2π ⎫ A ⎧ 2π ⎫
ψ 1 ( x, t ) = sin ⎨ ( x + vt ) ⎬ and ψ 2 ( x, t ) = sin ⎨ ( x − vt ) ⎬
2 ⎩λ ⎭ 2 ⎩λ ⎭

We can think of the standing wave being made up of a travelling

wave being reflected back and forth from the two ends. The
quantity v introduced in the standing wave treatment acquires a
definite physical meaning: phase velocity

5
Formation of standing waves

…two waves having the same

amplitude and frequency,
travelling in opposite
directions, interfere with each
other.

6
 Travelling waves ...4
The travelling waves we have considered are sinusoidal in shape.
Other shapes (wave pulses etc) are possible … and can be
represented as the superposition of sinusoidal waves.
Any functions f ( x − vt ) or g ( x + vt ) are solutions of the
wave equation and represent travelling waves.

f wave at time t1 wave at time t2

x1 x2 x
f ( x1 − vt1 ) = f ( x2 − vt2 )
∴ x1 − vt1 = x2 − vt2
x1 − x2
∴v =
t1 − t2 7
 Travelling waves ...5
Travelling waves can be represented by sine or cosine functions:

⎧ 2π ⎫
ψ ( x, t ) = A sin ⎨ ( x − vt )⎬
⎩λ ⎭
⎧ 2π ⎫
or ψ ( x, t ) = A cos ⎨ ( x − vt ) ⎬
⎩λ ⎭
⎧ ⎛ x v ⎞⎫
= A cos ⎨2π ⎜ − t ⎟ ⎬
⎩ ⎝ λ λ ⎠⎭
⎧ ⎛x ⎞⎫
= A cos ⎨2π ⎜ − ft ⎟ ⎬
⎩ ⎝λ ⎠⎭ wave number
2π
⎧ ⎛ x t ⎞⎫ k=
= A cos ⎨2π ⎜ − ⎟ ⎬ λ
⎩ ⎝ λ T ⎠⎭
= A cos {kx − ωt} (French: k = 1 λ ! )
8
 Travelling waves ...6

Sinusoidal travelling waves:

ψ ( x, t ) = A sin {kx − ωt + φ } waves in +ve
or ψ ( x, t ) = A cos {kx − ωt + φ '} x-direction

ψ ( x, t ) = A sin {kx + ωt + φ } waves in −ve

or ψ ( x, t ) = A cos {kx + ωt + φ '} x-direction

λ ω
Phase velocity vphase = f λ = 2π f =
2π k

9
 Different types of travelling waves

“transverse”

“longitudinal”

... and water waves?

10
 French Wave speeds in specific media
page 209

T
Transverse waves on a stretched string: v=
µ
Y
Longitudinal waves in a thin rod: v =
ρ
Liquids and gases: mainly longitudinal waves
B
Liquids: v = B: bulk modulus
ρ

γp γ RT γ : ratio of specific heats

Gases: v = =
ρ M p : pressure

11
Wave pulses

... not covered in detail.

Read French 216 - 230

12
 French Superposition of wave pulses
page 228

13
14
15
 Reflection of wave pulses
heavy spring light spring very heavy spring

French
page 253

16
 Reflection of wave pulses

heavy string light string

17
 Reflection of wave pulses

Phase change of π No inversion on

(i.e. inversion) on reflection from free end.
reflection from fixed end.
18
 Dispersion
The waves we are most familiar with (e.g. sound waves in air) are
non-dispersive … i.e. waves of different frequency travel at the
same speed.
⎧ 2π ⎫
Travelling wave on a string: y ( x , t ) = A sin ⎨ ( x − vt )⎬
⎩λ ⎭
T
For a continuous string: v = f n = n f1
µ
⎛ nπ ⎞
For a lumpy, beaded string: f n = 2 f 0 sin ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 2( N + 1) ⎠

… high frequency waves may have a different velocity

than low frequency.

19
 Dispersion …2
No dispersion of light in a vacuum.

But light is dispersed into colours by a prism:

sin i c
Snell’s law: = n (λ ) =
sin r v (λ )

refractive index
… important for optic fibre communications … 20
 French
page 213, 232 Dispersion …3
Take two sinusoidal travelling waves of slightly different frequencies:
ψ 1 ( x, t ) = A cos {k1 x − ω1t}
ψ 2 ( x, t ) = A cos {k2 x − ω2t}
Then ψ ( x, t ) = ψ 1 ( x, t ) +ψ 2 ( x, t )
= A cos {k1 x − ω1t} + A cos {k2 x − ω2t}
⎧ ( k1 x − ω1t ) + ( k2 x − ω2t ) ⎫ ⎧ ( k1 x − ω1t ) − ( k2 x − ω2t ) ⎫
= 2 A cos ⎨ ⎬ cos ⎨ ⎬
⎩ 2 ⎭ ⎩ 2 ⎭
⎧ k1 + k2 ω1 + ω2 ⎫ ⎧ k1 − k2 ω1 − ω2 ⎫
= 2 A cos ⎨ x− t ⎬ cos ⎨ x− t⎬
⎩ 2 2 ⎭ ⎩ 2 2 ⎭
= 2 A cos {kx − ωt} cos { 12 ∆kx − 12 ∆ωt}
k1 + k2 ω + ω2 ∆k = k1 − k2 ∆ω = ω1 − ω2
where k= ω= 1
2 2 21
 Dispersion …4

ψ ( x, t ) = 2 A cos {kx − ωt} cos { 12 ∆kx − 12 ∆ωt}

Average Envelope
travelling wave

cos {kx − ωt} cos { 12 ∆kx − 12 ∆ωt}

ω
vphase = ∆ω 2 ∆ω
k Group velocity = vgroup = =
∆k 2 ∆k 22
 Dispersion …5
ω
Phase velocity: vphase =
k
∆ω dω
Group velocity: vgroup = =
∆k dk

… the wave packet moves at vg … so does transport of energy

When analyzing an arbitrary pulse into pure sinusoids …

… if these sinusoids have different characteristic speeds, then
the shape of the disturbance must change over time …
… a pulse that is highly localized at t = 0 will become more
and more spread out as it moves along.

23
 Dispersion …6
Consider surface waves on liquids …
For long wavelength waves (λ ~ m) on deep water (gravity waves):
ω
g
vφ = =
ω = gk then k k 1
∴ vφ = vg
dω 1 g 2
vg = =
dk 2 k
For short wavelength waves (λ ~ mm) on deep water
(capillary waves or ripples):
ω Sk
S vφ = =
ω= k 3
then k ρ 3
∴ vφ = vg
ρ
d ω 3 Sk 2
vg = =
dk 2 ρ
S = surface tension 24
Phase and group velocities of a wave and a pulse
with vφ = 2vg

25
 French
page 237 The energy in a mechanical wave
T
Consider a small segment ds
of a string carrying a wave: dy

T dx
Mass of segment = µ dx
∂y
If u y = x x + dx x
∂t
2
dK 1 ⎛ ∂y ⎞
then kinetic energy per unit length = = µ⎜ ⎟
dx 2 ⎝ ∂t ⎠
Potential energy = T (ds − dx)
⎛ ∂y ⎞
2
⎛ 1 ⎛ ∂y ⎞
2
⎞
where ds = dx + dy = dx 1 + ⎜ ⎟ = dx ⎜1 + ⎜ ⎟ + ... ⎟
2 2

⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎜ 2 ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2
dU 1 ⎛ ∂y ⎞
Then potential energy per unit length = = T⎜ ⎟
dx 2 ⎝ ∂x ⎠ 26
 The energy in a mechanical wave …2
⎧ ⎛ x ⎞⎫
For a travelling wave on a string: y ( x, t ) = A sin ⎨2π f ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
⎩ ⎝ v ⎠⎭
∂y ⎧ ⎛ x ⎞⎫
Then u y ( x, t ) = = 2π fA cos ⎨2π f ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
∂t ⎩ ⎝ v ⎠⎭
⎧ ⎛ x ⎞⎫
= u0 cos ⎨2π f ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
⎩ ⎝ v ⎠⎭
∂y ⎧ 2π fx ⎫ ⎧ 2π x ⎫
At t = 0: u y ( x) = = u0 cos ⎨ ⎬ = u0 cos ⎨ ⎬
∂t ⎩ v ⎭ ⎩ λ ⎭
2
dK 1 ⎛ ∂y ⎞ 1 2 ⎧ 2π x ⎫
then = µ ⎜ ⎟ = µ u0 cos 2 ⎨ ⎬
dx 2 ⎝ ∂t ⎠ 2 ⎩ λ ⎭
λ
2π x ⎫
and K = ∫ µ u02 cos 2 ⎧⎨
1 1
⎬ dx = λµ u 2
in one wavelength
0
2 ⎩ λ ⎭ 4
0

27
 The energy in a mechanical wave …3
Similarly for potential energy:

At t = 0: ∂y 2π A ⎧ 2π x ⎫
=− cos ⎨ ⎬
∂x λ ⎩ λ ⎭

then dU 2π 2 A2T 2 ⎧ 2π x ⎫
= cos ⎨ ⎬
dx λ 2
⎩ λ ⎭
λ
2π 2 A2T
2⎧ 2π x ⎫ 2π AT λ
2 2
and U = ∫ cos ⎨ ⎬ dx = in one wavelength
0
λ 2
⎩ λ ⎭ λ 2
2
1 u0 = 2π fA
∴U = π A µ f λ = λµ u02
2 2 2

1
Over one wavelength, total energy: E = K + U = λµ u02
2
28
 French
page 241 θ
F y0
Transport of energy
by a wave x
⎧ ⎛ x ⎞⎫
y ( x, t ) = A sin ⎨2π f ⎜ t − ⎟ ⎬
⎩ ⎝ v ⎠⎭
A long string has one end at x = 0 and is driven at this point by a
driving force F equal in magnitude to the tension T and applied
in a direction tangent to the string.
At x = 0 : y (0, t ) = A sin 2π ft
⎛ ∂y ⎞ ⎛ 2π fA ⎞
and Fy = −T sin θ ≈ −T ⎜ ⎟ = −T ⎜ − cos 2π ft ⎟
⎝ ∂x ⎠ x=0 ⎝ v ⎠
Then work done:
2π fAT
W = ∫ Fy dy0 = ∫ ( cos 2π ft ) d ( A sin 2π ft )
v
( 2π fA ) T
2

=
v ∫ ( cos 2
2π ft ) dt 29
 Transport of energy by a wave …2

For one complete cycle: from t = 0 to t = 1/f :

1 f
u02T u02T 1
Wcycle =
2v ∫
0
(1 + cos4π ft ) dt = = λµ u02
2vf 2
2
Then mean power input P = Wcycle 1 = 0 T = 1 µu 2v
u
f 2v 2
0

… thus P = energy per unit length × velocity

… energy flows along medium at velocity v …

… and at vg if the medium is dispersive

30
 Doppler effect

... frequency changes of traveling waves due to motion of source

and/or detector ...
S: source of waves (sound) λ
D: detector S D
vS : speed of source
vD : speed of detector v
v : speed of travelling wave = f λ

When both vS and vD are

zero,then the number of S vD D
wavelengths
vt
passing D in time t is
λ
31
 Doppler effect ...2

For the case of stationary S and moving D:

For moving D we must add (or S vD D

subtract) vD t λ wavelengths.
v
vt λ ± vD t λ
Observed frequency: f ' =
t
v ± vD
=
λ
Source frequency: f = v λ

v ± vD
∴ f '= f
v
32
 Doppler effect ...3
For the case of moving S and stationary D:
In time period T, S moves a
distance vS T .
S D
vS
Wavelength at D is therefore
shortened (or lengthened) by vS T .
Observed wavelength: λ ' = λ ∓ vS f
v v vS v ∓ vS
∴ = ∓ =
f' f f f
v D
∴ f '= f
v ∓ vS

For both source and detector moving:

v ± vD
f '= f 33
v ∓ vS
 Doppler effect ...4
At supersonic speeds vS > v , this relationship no longer applies:
All wavefronts are buched along a
V-shaped envelope in 3D ... called a
Mach cone ... a shock wave exists
alongs the surface of this cone since the
bunching of the wavefronts causes an
abrupt rise and fall of air pressure as the vS = v
surface passes any point ... causes a
“sonic boom”

vS = v vS > v vt
θ
vt v vS t
sin θ = =
vS t vS
34
“Mach number”
 Doppler effect ...5

supersonic
aircraft
travelling
bullet

bow wave
of a boat

... get a “sonic boom” whenever

the speed of the source of the Cherenkov
waves is greater than the speed of radiation
waves in that medium.
35
Doppler effect ...6

36
 Physical optics
Electromagnetic radiation can be modelled as a wave or a beam of
particles ... all observed phenomena can be described by either model,
although the treatment my be easier with one, or the other.
EM radiation propagates in vacuo, and may be thought of as E and
B fields in phase with each other, and propagating at right angles
to each other and to the direction of propagation.

Velocity of EM radiation in vacuum = constant, c

In a medium of refractive index n, v = c n
EM wave from a point source:
E is in phase around each circle ...
c ... get a coherent plane
wave at a large distance
vacuum from point source 37
 Interference

If we use two in-phase sources to

generate waves on the surface of a
liquid it is easy to observe
interference effects. At certain
points the waves are in phase and
add constructively, and at other
points they are out of phase,
interfere destructively, giving zero
amplitude.

... this is not an everyday observation with light sources ... the
wavelength of light is small (400-800 nm) ... ordinary light
sources are enormously larger than this ... and are not
monochromatic.
38
 Interference ...2

Try this ...? ... no interference

fringes observed ...
light from different
double portions of source is
filter slit screen incoherent ... no fixed
phase relationship
Thomas Young performed a classic interference experiment in 1801:

... interference fringes

observed on screen ...
filter double
pinhole
slit screen
39
 Interference ...3

... but why do we see fringes at all ...

doesn’t light travel in straight lines?
Huyghens showed that one could
regard each point on a wavefront as
being a source of “secondary wavelets”
wavefronts
... the envelope of these secondary
wavelets form a subsequent wavefront
...

40
 Huyghens’ Principle

screen

plane
wave
travelling
in this
direction

Aperture similar size

to a wavelength ...
large angular spread
Aperture large compared with from small aperture
a wavelength
41
... some spreading of wave
 Young’s double slit experiment

back to Young’s
experiment ...

... the two slits in

the second screen
act as coherent
sources

42
 Young’s double slit experiment ...2

θ
y
d

D
screen
Path difference = d sin θ

Maxima on screen when d sin θ = mλ

m = 0, ±1, ±2, ...
Minima on screen when d sin θ = ( m + 12 ) λ
y = D sin θ for small θ
mλ
∴y = D for maxima 43
d
Young’s double slit experiment ...3 ... a more detailed treatment

r2 P
r
θ
d
r1

Suppose a plane wave illuminates the slits ... the waves from
the two slits are in phase at the slits.
Since the distances r1 and r2 differ, the waves will have a phase
difference at P.
E1 = E0 cos(kr1 − ωt )
Electric fields of the two waves: E2 = E0 cos(kr2 − ωt )
... both waves have the same amplitude at P ... not quite right
since r1 and r2 are different distances ... but ok. 44
 Young’s double slit experiment ...4

Total field: E = E1 + E2 = E0 cos(kr1 − ωt ) + E0 cos(kr2 − ωt )

⎧ k ( r1 + r2 ) ⎫ ⎧ k ( r1 − r2 ) ⎫
= 2 E0 cos ⎨ − ωt ⎬ cos ⎨ ⎬
⎩ 2 ⎭ ⎩ 2 ⎭
⎧k ⎫
= 2 E0 cos {kr − ωt} cos ⎨ d sin θ ⎬
⎩2 ⎭
⎧π d ⎫
= 2 E0 cos {kr − ωt} cos ⎨ sin θ ⎬
⎩ λ ⎭

We now take I = E 2 (time average of E 2 )

2
E
Thus for one slit only: I1 = E02 cos 2 (kr1 − ωt ) = 0
2
2
E0
similarly: I2 =
2 45
 Young’s double slit experiment ...5
Write I 0 = I1 = I 2 = 12 E02

⎧π d ⎫
For both slits: I = 4 E cos {kr − ωt} cos ⎨ sin θ ⎬
2 2 2

⎩ λ
0
⎭
2 ⎧π d ⎫ 2φ
∴ I = 4 I 0 cos ⎨ sin θ ⎬ = 4 I 0 cos
⎩ λ ⎭ 2
2 ⎧π d
So I will have maxima when cos ⎨ sin θ ⎫⎬ = 1
⎩ λ ⎭
πd
or when sin θ = mπ m = 0, ±1, ±2, ...
λ
or d sin θ = mλ

This approach gives us additional information ...

46
 Young’s double slit experiment ...6
Double slit interference pattern
⎧π d ⎫
I (θ ) = 4 I 0 cos ⎨ sin θ ⎬
2

⎩ λ ⎭
I
two sources
4I0
(coherent)
two sources
2I0
(incoherent)
I0
single source

m = −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
πd
sin θ = −3π −2π −π 0 π 2π 3π
λ
47
 Young’s double slit experiment ...7

... can also use phasors ... Ψ

Ψ1 Ψ 2
Ψ Ψ 2 = A0 e
j ( kr2 −ωt )

δ j ( kr1 −ωt +δ ) Ψ
= A0 e Ψ2
Ψ1 = A0 e
j ( kr1 −ωt ) Ψ1

Ψ (δ ) Ψ
Ψ2
2 A0 Ψ1

Ψ=0
Ψ2
π Ψ1
0 δ 2π 48
 Interference patterns from thin films
t λ
“Black” (i.e. destructive intereference)
from very thin film indicates that there is a
phase change of π at one of the reflections.

For wedges having small angle α , bright fringes correspond to an

increase of λ 2 in thickness t :
For nearly normal incidence,
x t λ path difference = 2t
dark Minima occur when the
π out of phase path difference = nλ
t =λ 4
bright For minima, 2t = nλ
2π out of phase
t =λ 2 or 2 xnα = nλ
dark Distance between fringes:
3π out of phase xn+1 − xn = λ 2α 49
To obtain fringes on a visible scale a very
small angle is necessary ... such fringes may
be seen on viewing the light reflected from a
soap film held vertically as it “drains” ...

For other interference effects, look up for yourself:

Fresnel bi-prism Lloyd’s mirror
fringes
S1 S
S fringes
S2 S1
fringes Newton’s rings fringes

Michelson
interferometer
50
 Fresnel diffraction
Around 1818 Augustin Fresnel applied Huyghen’s
priciple to the problem of diffraction of light by
apertures and obstacles ... took into account the
realtive phases of the secondary wavelets
consequent upon their having to travel diferent
distances to the point of observation ... analytical
treatment is complicated
... look at the results of a few special cases ...

Shadow of a straight edge

(cast by a point source S)
... no sharp edge to the shadow
... illumination diminishes S
smoothly into the shadow
... with fringes outside the
shadow. 51
Shadow of a narrow slit: centre of
pattern at P may either be a relative
maximum or minimum, depending on S
ratio of slit width to wavelength.

Shadow of a narrow parallel-sided

obstacle: centre always a relative
maximum ... but very faint unless S
obstacle is very narrow.

Shadow of a circular obstacle: wavelets from all round

circumference all reinforce at centre of shadow.

“Poisson” bright spot

S (found by Arago)
52
 Fraunhofer diffraction
... special (limiting) cases of Fresnel
diffraction ... when both the distances
to source and screen both tend to
infinity ... treatment is easier since the
paths of all the wavelets to any point
of interest are parallel.

It is practical sometimes to use a lens ... what would be seen at

infinity is then found in its focal plane.

or

53
 Fraunhofer diffraction
by a single slit
Let slit width be a
... picture below very
much distorted in scale...
P
r
incident a 2
wave dy r0
y θ

y sin θ
−a 2

To find the intensity of the wave at P we “add” the contributions

at P of waves originating from all points of the aperture.
a 2 a 2 a 2
j ( kr0 −ωt )− jky sin θ j ( kr0 −ωt )
∫
j ( kr −ωt )
Ψ (P) = ∫
−a 2
Ae dy = A ∫
−a 2
e dy = Ae
−a 2
e − jky sin θ dy
54
 Fraunhofer diffraction by a single slit ...2
a 2
j ( kr0 −ωt )
Ψ (P ) = A0 e
−a 2
∫ e − jky sin θ dy
a 2
j ( kr0 −ωt ) ⎡ 1 − jky sin θ ⎤
= A0 e ⎢ − jk sin θ e ⎥
⎣ ⎦−a 2
a a
jk sin θ − jk sin θ
j ( kr0 −ωt ) e 2
−e 2
= A0 e
jk sin θ ⎛ sin α ⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎡ e jφ − e − jφ ⎤ ⎝ α ⎠
⎢ use sin φ = 2 j ⎥
⎣ ⎦
j ( kr0 −ωt ) sin ( 2 ka sin θ )
1
∴Ψ (P ) = A0 e a 1
2 ka sin θ
α
Then I = Ψ 2 (P)
2
⎛ sin α ⎞
∴ I (θ ) = I 0 ⎜ ⎟ where α = 12 ka sin θ
⎝ α ⎠ 55
 Fraunhofer diffraction by a single slit ...3
2
⎛ sin α ⎞
∴ I (θ ) = I 0 ⎜ ⎟ where α = 12 ka sin θ
⎝ α ⎠
I0

I (θ )

α = −3π −2π −π 0 π 2π 3π
λ λ λ λ λ λ
sin θ = −3 −2 − 2 3
a a a a a a
Minima at α = mπ where m = ±1, ±2, ...
m 2π λ
or 1
2 ka sin θ = mπ or sin θ = =m 56
a k a
 Fraunhofer diffraction by a single slit ...4
Using phasors ... consider a single slit as N sources, each of
amplitude A0 ... in the example below, N = 10.
The path difference between any two adjacent sources is d sin θ
where d = a N and the phase difference is δ = dk sin θ .
At the central maximum
point at θ = 0 , the waves
Amax = NA0
from the N sources add in
phase, giving the resultant
A0
amplitude Amax = NA0 .
At the first minimum, the N phasors form a
closed polygon ... the phase difference
between adjacent sources is then δ = 2π N
δ = 2π N
When N is large, the waves from the first
and last sources are approximately in phase 57
 Fraunhofer diffraction by a single slit ...5

At a general point r
... where the waves from
two adjacent sources differ
φ 2
in phase by δ ... φ 2
The phase difference
between the first and last r A
wave is φ . φ

As N increases, the phasor diagram approximates the arc of a circle

... the resultant amplitude A is the length of the chord of this arc.
From the figure: sin (φ 2 ) = A 2r or A = 2r sin 12 φ
The length of the arc is Amax ( = NA0 )
Amax Amax
Therefore φ = or r = 58
r φ
 Fraunhofer diffraction by a single slit ...6
A sin 2φ
1
Combining ... A = 2r sin 2 φ = 2
1 max
sin 2 φ = Amax 1
1
φ 2 φ
2 2
I A 2
⎛ sin φ ⎞1 ⎛ sin φ ⎞
1
Then = 2 =⎜ 1 ⎟
2
or I = I0 ⎜ 1 2
⎟
I 0 Amax ⎝ 2 φ ⎠ ⎝ 2 φ ⎠
...where φ is the phase difference between the
first and last waves = ( 2π λ ) a sin θ = ka sin θ

The second maximum occurs when the N A

phasors complete 1 12 circles:
... and the resultant amplitude is the diameter of the circle ...
2
C 23 Amax 2 Amax then 2 4 Amax
The diameter A = = = A =
π π 3π 9π 2

4 1
and I = I 0 2 = I 0 59
9π 22.2
 Interference and diffraction from a double slit

When there are two or more slits, the intensity pattern on a

screen far away is a combination of the single slit diffraction
pattern and the multiple slit interference pattern.

πa
α= sin θ
2
⎛ sin α ⎞ λ
I (θ ) = 4 I 0 ⎜ ⎟ cos 2
β
⎝ α ⎠ πd
β= sin θ
λ

60
 Interference and diffraction from a double slit ...2

intensity pattern
for two slits
if a → 0 :

intensity pattern
for one slit of
width a :
intensity pattern
for two slits
each of width a :
λ λ λ 0 λ λ λ
−2 − −2 2 2
sin θ = a a d d a a
λ λ λ λ
−3 − 3
d d d d 61
Interference patterns from multiple slits (diffraction gratings)

... many slits, with inter-slit spacing d,

illuminated by a plane wave ...
d
As with the double slit, each slit acts as a
source of waves.
Consider each pair of slits as a Young’s double slit.
Slits are coherent, in phase sources for light at an
angle θ n to the nth bright fringe.

For constructive interference d sin θ n = nλ n = 0, ±1, ±2, ...

If m is the number of slits, then amplitude at θ n is A = ma
where a is the amplitude form a single slit
Then I ∼ A2 ∼ m 2 a 2 (...many slits give intense fringes)
62
 Interference patterns from multiple slits ...2
d sin θ
θ
r1
r2 = r1 + d sin θ
r2
r3 r3 = r2 + 2d sin θ
r4 r4 = r1 + 3d sin θ
etc.
to P

Total field at P:
E = E1 + E2 + E3 + ...
= E0 cos(kr1 − ωt ) + E0 cos(kr2 − ωt ) + E0 cos( kr3 − ωt ) + ...
Use complex numbers:
j ( kr1 −ωt ) j ( kr2 −ωt ) j ( kr3 −ωt )
E = E0 e + E0 e + E0 e + ... 63
 Interference patterns from multiple slits ...3
j ( kr1 −ωt ) j ( kr2 −ωt ) j ( kr3 −ωt )
E = E0 e + E0 e + E0 e + ...
j ( kr1 −ωt ) j ( kr1 −ωt + kd sin θ ) j ( kr1 −ωt + 2 kd sin θ )
= E0 e + E0 e + E0 e + ...

= E0 e
j ( kr1 −ωt )
{1 + e jkd sin θ
+ e 2 jkd sin θ + ... + e( N −1) jkd sin θ } ... for N slits

geometric progression

1− (e )
jkd sin θ N
j ( kr1 −ωt )
∴ E = E0 e
1 − e jkd sin θ

= E0 e
j ( kr1 −ωt )
e
N
2
jkd sin θ
(
e
− N2 jkd sin θ
−e
N
2
jkd sin θ
)
e
1
2
jkd sin θ
(e − 12 jkd sin θ
−e
1
2
jkd sin θ
)
e jφ − e − jφ
and using sin φ = ... 64
2j
 Interference patterns from multiple slits ...4

j ( kr1 −ωt ) N −1
jkd sin θ sin ( 12 Nkd sin θ )
∴ E = E0 e E0 e 2

sin ( 12 kd sin θ )

{ (j k r1 + N2−1 jkd sin θ −ωt ) } sin N β

=Ee
sin β
0

πd
where β = 12 kd sin θ = sin θ
λ
Write
j{kr −ωt} sin N β
E = E0 e
sin β

2
⎛ sin N β ⎞
Then, as before, I (θ ) = I 0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ sin β ⎠
65
 Interference patterns from multiple slits ...5
2
⎛ sin N β ⎞ πd
I (θ ) = I 0 ⎜ ⎟ β= sin θ
⎝ sin β ⎠ λ

N=2
I
N=3

N=4

πd
sin θ = −3π −2π −π 0 π 2π 3π
λ
66
 Interference patterns from multiple slits ...6
Phasors for a 10 slit grating (N = 10) ...

δ = 0, 2π

δ = 2π N = 36° Ψ (δ )
10A0

δ = 3π N = 54°
δ = 4π N = 72°
δ = 5π N = 90°
0 π 2π
δ
δ = 6π N = 108° δ = 7π N = 126°
67
 Circular apertures
Different shaped apertures will give
different diffraction patterns.
A commonly encountered aperture in
optics is the circular aperture.
... diffraction pattern described by
a Bessel function, with the first
minimum at
λ
sin θ = 1.22
d
... where d is the diameter

To resolve two objects, θ > θ R

λ
where θ R = sin −1 1.22
d θ < θR
θ > θR θ = θR
Rayleigh criterion 68
Interference and diffraction with water waves
See French 280 - 294

69