LECTURE 1: METHODS, PROCESSES, AND EQUIPMENT
INVOLVED IN HANDLING SOLIDS
POWDER/BULK SOLIDS
• Bulk solids are loose, dry commodities such
as sugar, starch, minerals, chemicals,
pigments, fillers, plastic resin and recycled
plastics.
• These materials make up more than 80
percent of items transported around the
world.
• “On many occasions, the problems with
bulk solids are baked into the design,
resulting in stark performance differences
when compared to fluid lines. Why is that?
The science underpinning bulk solid flow is
dominated by frictional considerations
and is different from that associated with
fluids. While this difference is well
established, it is generally not covered in
depth in undergraduate engineering
courses. As a result, many processing
systems are designed with little
consideration of the flowability of the
material.”
- Carrie Hartford, Bulk Solids
Handling System and Design
BASIC DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LIQUID & BULK SOLID
• Fundamentally, a bulk solid can be
defined as a group of discrete particles of
any size or shape in which stress is
transferred between particles and the
containing bin through frictional forces
rather than by viscous forces. Because of
this internal friction, bulk solids can form
piles.
• Liquids are completely different because
they have no internal friction and cannot
form piles. Liquids are not sensitive to
pressure and are incompressible, whereas
the bulk density of a mass of discrete
particles typically changes as a function of
consolidating pressure (and particle size
distribution).
• Knowing the chemical makeup of a fluid
allows engineers to know the flow
properties as a function of temperature
and pressure, whereas that is not possible
with bulk solids. For example, all sugar has
the same chemical, sucrose, but the flow
properties of powdered sugar versus
granulated sugar will be significantly
different.
• Bulk solids include a wide range of
materials that can behave differently.
• Fine powders, such as cornstarch, titanium
dioxide and microcrystalline cellulose, may
exhibit solids-gas interactions that make
them prone to flooding, fluidization or a
reduced feed rate.
• Large particles – particularly those that are
irregularly shaped, such as wood chips,
switch grass or wheat-midds – may form
interlocking structures, or align in a bin,
making discharge difficult.
• These bulk solids follow fundamental
behaviors that, when understood, can be
used to design equipment that will function
reliably, eliminate stagnant regions and
minimize product degradation.
FLOWABILITY
• The flowability of a bulk solid is a function of
the material and the equipment handling
it. An easy-flowing bulk solid placed in the
wrong piece of equipment can become
difficult to handle, but the material only
appears to be hard to handle. If it is placed
in the correct equipment, it can flow
reliably. When working on the design of a
handling system, the engineer must be
aware of the material flow properties and
choose the appropriate equipment for
reliable flow.
FLOW PATTERNS
• Material will move through a bin in one of
two ways: funnel flow or mass flow.
FUNNEL FLOW
• In funnel flow, an active flow channel forms
above the outlet, with non-flowing material
at the periphery.
• As the level of material in the bin
decreases, layers of the non-flowing
material may not slide into the flowing
channel.
• When the bulk solid has sufficient cohesive
strength, the stagnant material does not
slide into the flow channel, and a stable
“rathole” forms, resulting in a no-flow
condition.
• In this stagnant region, material can gain
strength over time, cake, and oxidize. It
also limits the live storage capacity of the
bin1 and can create cross-contamination
and microbial growth issues.
• In addition to flow stoppages resulting from
ratholes, funnel flow can cause material
degradation, results in a first-in, last-out flow
sequence, and increases the extent to
which sifting segregation (separation of
large and small particles) impacts the
uniformity of the discharging material.
• In these cases, the material exiting storage
can be functionally different from what
entered.
• While funnel flow bins and silos may be
problematic, problems are not a universal
truth, and a large class of bulk materials is
quite well-suited to being handled in these
structures.
 These generally have the following
characteristics:
• Coarse particles – usually a quarter inch in
size and larger
• Free flowing materials – composed of
particles that do not stick to each other
• Non-degrading particles – materials that
do not cake, spoil or oxidize when sitting for
long periods of time without movement
• Segregation not a concern – either the
material is non-segregating or, if it does
segregate, will not affect downstream
processes (for example, if operated on a
batch basis)
• Provided that the bulk material meets all
four characteristics, a funnel flow bin is the
most economical storage device.
• However, if the four criteria above cannot
be satisfied, a funnel flow pattern is no
longer suitable, and a mass flow
discharged pattern should be used.
Bulk solids handling systems are often the weakest
links in the process plant, and their performance
can dictate the performance of the entire
operation.
MASS FLOW
• In mass flow, all the material is in motion
whenever any is withdrawn from the
hopper. Material from the center and the
periphery moves toward the outlet.
• A mass flow discharge pattern provides a
first-in, first-out flow sequence that
maximizes the control of the residence
time in the bin, uses the full bin capacity,
and eliminates ratholing and the
associated problems of the flooding of fine
powders
• A mass flow discharge pattern will
eliminate stagnant regions and diminish
the effects of sifting segregation that may
have occurred as a bin is filled. Caking,
spoilage and oxidation of the bulk material
is minimized because of the first-in, first-out
flow pattern.
• Mass flow also provides a steady discharge
at a consistent bulk density and a flow that
is uniform and controlled. For these
reasons, mass flow is advantageous for
material that is cohesive, fine, will degrade
over time, or in which sifting segregation is
a concern.
Achieving mass flow requires:
• Sizing the bin outlet large enough to
prevent arching
• Ensuring hopper walls are sufficiently
smooth and steep enough to allow for the
flow of the bulk solid along them
• Ensuring withdrawal of material from the
entire outlet area
• These requirements can be met by using a
meaningful method of quantifying the
properties of the bulk solid that dictate its
behavior and applying the measured
properties of the material as the basis for
the design
FLOWABILITY TESTS REQUIRED FOR DESIGN
• To design for the appropriate parameters,
flowability tests need to be conducted on
a representative sample of material. Key
tests required are:
1. Wall friction provides mass flow hopper
angles using a shear tester in accordance
with American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) Standard D 6128.
2. Compressibility gives the bulk density of a
bulk solid as a function of consolidating
pressure. It is used to determine the storage
capacity of equipment and to calculate
material-induced loads. It is measured in
accordance with ASTM Standard D 6683.
3. A cohesive strength test provides opening
sizes to avoid flow stoppages caused by
cohesive arching and ratholing. It is
measured as a function of consolidating
pressure in accordance with ASTM
Standard D 6128.
4. Permeability is the measurement of the
resistance to gas flow through the bulk
solid. When material contains a significant
portion of fines, permeability is particularly
important. The data obtained from this test
are used to calculate the critical, steady-
state flow rate of the material that can
occur during discharge as a function of
outlet size and consolidating pressure.
• Testing conditions must match the process
conditions because temperature, time at
rest, moisture content, chemical
composition and particle size distribution
directly affect a material’s flowability,
which will affect the outcome of the tests.
For example, some material may be
relatively free flowing at ambient
temperatures, but when heated to about
1,400°F, it can sinter together, becoming
progressively stronger at temperatures in
between.
• Another material may experience
plugging issues with the wet material in the
rainy season and dusting issues with the
same material when dry unless the design
has accounted for both conditions.
Humidity can be a factor with hygroscopic
materials during processing, storage and
shipment, causing material to cake
together.
LECTURE 2: FEEDERS AND STORAGE SILOS
FEEDERS
•Feeders are machineries used in assembly and
manufacturing applications to move or
“transport” materials or products to a designated
storage or to other processing equipment.
VOLUMETRIC FEEDERS
• Discharge rate is controlled by feeder speed
based on prior calibration.
• Amount of materials transported is carefully
calculated and controlled by adjusting the speed
at which the screw turns.
• Very accurate feed values to be maintained
• Rotational speed may be present or constantly
adjusted.
GRAVIMETRIC FEEDERS
• Feeder speed based on direct material weight
measurement to result in a precisely controlled
discharge rate.
• Delivery rate is controlled by adjusting the rate
at which the materials is introduced into the
machine.
• Used extensively in controlling the discharge of
bulk materials from storing units and stockpiles and
directing these materials onto the conveyor belts.
• They are especially suitable for a broad range of
bulk materials, are being able to accommodate
a range of particle sizes, and are being
particularly suitable for abrasive materials
ROTARY FEEDERS
• Also known as Rotary Airlocks or Rotary Valves
• They are commonly used in industrial and
agricultural applications as a component-in-a-
bulk or specialty material handling system.
• Rotary table feeders are generally used for the
volumetric feeding of fine bulk materials solids
which have reasonably good flowability.
• They are suitable to install under storage unit
outlet of larger diameter to prevent clogging by
the sluggish material.
• Power comes from an internal combustion
engine or an electrical motor.
VIBRATORY FEEDERS
• Vibratory feeders are used extensively in
controlling the discharge of bulk materials from
storing units and stockpiles and directing these
materials onto the conveyor belts.
• They are especially suitable for a broad range of
bulk materials, are being able to accommodate
a range of particle sizes, and are being
particularly suitable for abrasive materials
SCREW FEEDERS
• Used for handling bulk materials, in which a
rotating helicoid screw moves the material
forward, toward and into a process unit.
• Very similar to screw conveyors in their basic
structure, both which are based on the principles
of the Archimedean screw.
• Capable of delivering dense slurries and dry
granular products with great accuracy at a range
of operational speeds.
• Drives is controlled by servo motors capable of
precise stopstart and speed control
APRON FEEDERS
• Machines that resemble short conveyor belts,
and are also known as plate feeders.
• Allow automatic control of volume of materials
that are added to the process.
• They are constructed from heavy, durable
materials like steel to withstand the load of the
materials fed on it.
• Apron feeders are a version of belt feeders and
are useful for feeding large tonnages of bulk
materials and for those bulk materials which
requires feeding at elevated temperatures. They
are also able to sustain extreme impact loading.
• The apron feeder is costly equipment but its
sturdiness is not surpassed by other feeders
CHAIN FEEDERS
• Chain conveyors utilize a powered continuous
chain arrangement, carrying a series of single
pendants.
• The chain arrangement is driven by a motor, and
the material suspended on the pendants are
conveyed.
ROLLER FEEDERS
• Roller feeders are used to handle dry granules
and powders.
• Material is fed into a hopper at an uncontrolled
rate where it is agitated by guiding vanes so it
keeps a consistent density.
• The material passes between two steel rollers,
which compresses the material into a thin uniform
ribbon.
BOWL FEEDERS
• Used to feed parts an assembly line or piece of
manufacturing equipment
• Individual components exit the feeders at
specific intervals and enter the next step in the
assembly process
• Each bowl feeder uses special sensors to spot
jams or parts that may be misaligned
• One drawback is its precise operation
STORAGE SILOS
A silo (Greek: siros; "pit for holding grain") is a
structure for storing bulk materials. They are used
in agriculture to store grain or fermented feed
known as silage. Silos are more commonly used for
bulk storage of grain, coal, cement, carbon black,
woodchips, food products and sawdust.
TOWER SILOS
• Most common type of silo
• Can be made of concrete, brick, metal, wood,
and other materials.
• Loading and unloading is done with automated
system
• Silos storing grain, cement and woodchips are
typically unloaded with air slides or augers and
can be unloaded into rail cars, trucks or
conveyors.
• An advantage of tower silos is that the materials
tends to pack well due to its own weight, except
in the top few feet.
BUNKER SILOS
• Bunker silos are trenches, usually with concrete
walls, that are filled and packed with tractors and
loaders.
• The filled trench is covered with a plastic tarp to
make it airtight.
• These silos are usually unloaded with a tractor
and loader.
• They are inexpensive and especially well suited
to very large operations.
BAG SILOS
• Bag silos are heavy plastic tubes, usually around
2.4 to 3.6 m in diameter, and of variable length as
required for the amount of material to be stored.
• They are unloaded using a tractor and loader or
skidsteer loader.
• Bag silos require little capital investment.
• They can be used as a temporary measure
when growth or harvest conditions require more
space.
BINS
• shorter than a silo used for holding dry matter
• shape is either round or squared
• contain a hollow perforated or screened central
shaft
LECTURE 3: CONVEYORS & CONVEYING SYSTEM
Conveyors are used:
• When material is to be moved frequently
between specific points
• To move materials over a fixed path
• When there is a sufficient flow volume to
justify the fixed conveyor investment
Conveyors can be classified in different ways:
• Type of product being handled: unit load
or bulk load
• Location of the conveyor: in-floor, on-floor,
or overhead
• Whether loads can accumulate on the
conveyor or no accumulation is possible
CHUTE CONVEYOR
• Unit/Bulk + On-Floor + Accumulate
• Inexpensive
• Used to link two handling devices
• Used to provide accumulation in shipping
areas
• Used to convey items between floors
• Difficult to control position of the items
WHEEL CONVEYOR
• Unit + On-Floor + Accumulate
• Uses a series of skate wheels mounted on a
shaft (or axle)
• Spacing of the wheels is dependent on the
load being transported
• Slope for gravity movement depends on
load weight
• More economical than the roller conveyor
• For light-duty applications
• Flexible, expandable mobile versions
available
ROLLER CONVEYOR
• Unit + On-Floor + Accumulate
• May be powered (or live) or nonpowered
(or gravity)
• Materials must have a rigid riding surface
• Minimum of three rollers must support
smallest loads at all times
• Tapered rollers on curves used to maintain
load orientation
• Parallel roller configuration can be used as
a (roller) pallet conveyor (more flexible
than a chain pallet conveyor because
rollers can be used to accommodate are
greater variation of pallet widths)
GRAVITY ROLLER CONVEYOR
• Alternative to wheel conveyor
• For heavy-duty applications
• Slope (i.e., decline) for gravity movement
depends on load weight
 • For accumulating loads
LIVE (POWERED) ROLLER CONVEYOR
• Belt or chain driven
• Force-sensitive transmission can be used to
disengage rollers for accumulation
• For accumulating loads and
merging/sorting operations
• Provides limited incline movement
capabilities
CHAIN CONVEYOR
• Unit + In-/On-Floor + No Accumulation
• Uses one or more endless chains on which
loads are carried directly
• Parallel chain configuration used as
(chain) pallet conveyor or as a pop-up
device for sortation (see Sortation
conveyor: Pop-up devices)
• Vertical chain conveyor used for
continuous high-frequency vertical
transfers, where material on horizontal
platforms attached to chain link (cf.
vertical conveyor used for low-frequency
intermittent transfers)
SLAT CONVEYOR
• Unit + In-/On-Floor + No Accumulation
• Uses discretely spaced slats connected to
a chain
• Unit being transported retains its position
(like a belt conveyor)
• Orientation and placement of the load is
controlled
• Used for heavy loads or loads that might
damage a belt
• Bottling and canning plants use flat chain
or slat conveyors because of wet
conditions, temperature, and cleanliness
requirements
• Tilt slat conveyor used for sortation
FLAT BELT CONVEYOR
• Unit + On-Floor + No Accumulation
• For transporting light- and medium-weight
loads between operations, departments,
levels, and buildings When an incline or
decline is required
• Provides considerable control over the
orientation and placement of load No
smooth accumulation, merging, and
sorting on the belt
• The belt is roller or slider bed supported; the
slider bed is used for small and irregularly
shaped items
• In 1957, B.F. Goodrich, Co. patented the
Möbius strip for conveying hot or abrasive
substances in order to have “both” sides
wear equally13
• Telescopic boom attachments are
available for trailer loading and unloading,
and can include ventilation to pump
conditioned air into the trailer14
MAGNETIC BELT CONVEYOR
• Bulk + On-Floor
• A steel belt and either a magnetic slider
bed or a magnetic pulley is used
• To transport ferrous materials vertically,
upside down, and around corners
TROUGHED BELT CONVEYOR
• Bulk + On-Floor
• Used to transport bulk materials
• When loaded, the belt conforms to the
shape of the troughed rollers and idlers
BUCKET CONVEYOR
• Bulk + On-Floor
• Used to move bulk materials in a vertical or
inclined path
• Buckets are attached to a cable, chain, or
belt
• Buckets are automatically unloaded at the
end of the conveyor run
VIBRATING CONVEYOR
• Bulk + On-Floor
• Consists of a trough, bed, or tube Vibrates
at a relatively high frequency and small
amplitude in order to convey individual
units of products or bulk material
• Can be used to convey almost all granular,
free-flowing materials
• An Oscillating Conveyor is similar in
construction, but vibrates at a lower
frequency and larger amplitude (not as
gentle) in order to convey larger objects
such as hot castings
SCREW CONVEYOR
• Bulk + On-Floor
• Consists of a tube or U-shaped stationary
trough through which a shaft-mounted
helix revolves to push loose material
forward in a horizontal or inclined direction
• One of the most widely used conveyors in
the processing industry, with many
applications in agricultural and chemical
processing
• Straight-tube screw conveyor sometimes
referred to as an “auger feed” Water
 screw developed circa 250 BC by
Archimedes
PNEUMATIC CONVEYOR
• Bulk/Unit + Overhead
• Can be used for both bulk and unit
movement of materials
• Air pressure is used to convey materials
through a system of vertical and horizontal
tubes
• Material is completely enclosed and it is
easy to implement turns and vertical
moves
DILUTE-PHASE PNEUMATIC CONVEYOR
• Moves a mixture of air and solid
• Push (positive pressure) systems push
material from one entry point to several
discharge points
• Pull (negative pressure or vacuum) systems
move material from several entry points to
one discharge point
• Push-pull systems are combinations with
multiple entry and discharge points
CARRIER-SYSTEM PNEUMATIC CONVEYOR
• Carriers are used to transport items or
paperwork
• Examples: transporting money to/from
drive-in stalls at banks and documents
between floors of a skyscraper
VERTICAL CONVEYOR
• Unit + On-Floor + No Accumulation
• Used for low-frequency intermittent vertical
transfers a load to different floors and/or
mezzanines (cf. vertical chain conveyor
can be used for continuous high-
frequency vertical transfers)
• Differs from a freight elevator in that it is not
designed or certified to carry people
• Can be manually or automatically loaded
and/or controlled and can interface with
horizontal conveyors
• Alternative to a chute conveyor for vertical
“drops” when load is fragile and/or space
is limited
VERTICAL LIFT CONVEYOR
• Series of flexible conveyor-carriers rotate in
a loop, where empty carriers flex
perpendicularly to provide access to
loaded carriers moving past them in
opposite direction
RECIPROCATING VERTICAL CONVEYOR
• Carrier used to raise or lower load
• Can be powered (hydraulic or
mechanical) or non-powered
• Non-powered version only be used to
lower a load, where counterweight used to
return empty carrier to top
CART-ON-TRACK CONVEYOR
• Unit + In-Floor + Accumulate
• Used to transport carts along a track
• Carts are transported by a rotating tube
• Drive wheel connected to each cart rests
on tube and is used to vary the speed of
the cart (by varying angle of contact
between drive wheel and the tube)
• Carts are independently controlled
Accumulation can be achieved by
maintaining the drive wheel parallel to the
tube
TOW CONVEYOR
• Unit + In-Floor + Accumulate
• Uses towline to provide power to wheeled
carriers such as trucks, dollies, or carts that
move along the floor
• Used for fixed-path travel of carriers (each
has variable path capabilities when
disengaged from towline)
• Although usually in the floor, the towline
can be located overhead or flush with the
floor
• Selector-pin or pusher-dog arrangements
used to allow automatic switching (power
or spur lines)
• Generally used when long distance and
high frequency moves are required
TROLLEY CONVEYOR
• Unit + Overhead + No Accumulation
• Uses a series of trolleys supported from or
within an overhead track
• Trolleys are equally spaced in a closed
loop path and are suspended from a chain
• Carriers are used to carry multiple units of
product
• Does not provide for accumulation
• Commonly used in processing, assembly,
packaging, and storage operations
POWER-AND-FREE CONVEYOR
• Unit + Overhead/On-Floor + Accumulate
• Similar to trolley conveyor due to use of
discretely spaced carriers transported by
an overhead chain; however, power-and-
free conveyor uses two tracks: one
powered and the other nonpowered (or
free)
 • Carriers can be disengaged from the
power chain and accumulated or
switched onto spurs
• Termed an Inverted Power-and-Free
Conveyor when tracks are located on the
floor
MONORAIL
• Unit + Overhead + Accumulate
• Overhead single track (i.e., mono-rail) or
track network on which one or more
carriers ride
• Carriers: powered (electrically or
pneumatically) or nonpowered
• Carrier can range from a simple hook to a
hoist to an intelligent-vehicle-like device
Single-carrier, single-track monorail similar
to bridge or gantry crane Multi-carrier,
track network monorail similar to both a
trolley conveyor, except that the carriers
operate
• independently and the track need not be
in a closed loop, and a fixed-path
automatic guided vehicle (AGV) system,
except that it operates overhead
• Termed an Automated Electrified Monorail
(AEM) system when it has similar control
characteristics as an AGV system
SORTATION CONVEYOR
• Unit + On-Floor/Overhead
• Sortation conveyors are used for merging,
identifying, inducting, and separating
products to be conveyed to specific
destinations.
• Sortation system throughput is expressed in
cartons per minute (CPM).
A sortation system is composed of three
subsystems:
• Merge subsystem — items transported from
picking (storage) or receiving areas on
conveyors and consolidated for proper
presentation at the induct area.
• Induct subsystem — destination of each
item identified by visual inspection or
automatic identification system (e.g., bar
code scanner), then a proper gap
between items is generated using short
variable speed conveyors as they are
released to the sort subsystem.
• Sort subsystem — items are diverted to
outbound conveyors to shipping,
palletizing, staging, and/or secondary sort
subsystems.
SORTATION CONVEYOR: DIVERTERS
• Stationary or movable arms that deflect,
push, or pull a product to desired
destination Since they do not come in
contact with the conveyor, they can be
used with almost any flat surface conveyor
• Usually hydraulically or pneumatically
operated, but also can be motor driven
Simple and low cost
SORTATION CONVEYOR: POP-UP DEVICES
• One or more rows of powered rollers or
wheels or chains that pop up above
surface of conveyor to lift product and
guide it off conveyor at an angle; wheels
are lowered when products not required to
be diverted
• Only capable of sorting flat-bottomed
items Pop-up rollers (not shown) are
generally faster than pop-up wheels
SORTATION CONVEYOR: SLIDING SHOE SORTER
• Sliding shoe sorter (a.k.a. moving slat sorter)
uses series of diverter slats that slide across
the horizontal surface to engage product
and guide it off conveyor
• Slats move from side to side as product
flows in order to divert the product to either
side
• Gentle and gradual handling of products
SORTATION CONVEYOR: TILTING DEVICE
• Trays or slats provide combined sorting
mechanism and product transporter Can
accommodate elevation changes
• Tilt tray sorters usually designed in
continuous loops with compact layout and
recirculation of products not sorted first
time
• Tilt slat sorters carry products on flat-surface
slat conveyor and can handle wider
variety of products compared to tilt tray
SORTATION CONVEYOR: CROSS-BELT TRANSFER
DEVICE
• Either continuous loop, where individual
carriages are linked together to form an
endless loop, or train style (asynchronous),
where a small number of carriers tied
together with potential for several trains
running track simultaneously
• Each carriage equipped with small belt
conveyor, called the cell, that is mounted
perpendicular to direction of travel of loop
and discharges product at appropriate
destination
• Automatically separates single line of
products into multiple in-line discharge
lines