Chapter 5-Slides PDF

EECE671
Chapter 5
Environmental Impacts of Electric Power
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 1

Introduction
• Electric power history and development goes back

to the early days of the 19th century when Faraday
discovered in 1831 the concept of electromagnetic
induction.
• With increased demand, the generation and
distribution systems became more complex and
their environmental impacts became more
alarming.
• The rapid developments have lead to a huge
increase in electricity consumption, and emissions
rates.
7 major concerns related to power industry:
• Exhaustion of natural resources (fossil fuels)

• Global warming, caused by GHG, mainly CO2.
• Acidification of the environment caused by the emission
of NOx and SOx.
• Urban- industrial air pollution, caused by emitted
pollutants mainly PM10, HC, and O3.
• Pollution associated with fuel transport, mainly due to
accidents of huge fuel tankers (oil spills).
• Impacts of electromagnetic fields associated with the
transmission and utilization of electric power.
• Risk of nuclear accidents in nuclear power industry, and
the problem of nuclear waste management (Chernobyl,
Fokochyma).

• Power generation may cause between 0.1-77
deaths/year for each 1000MW generated
(high level of uncertainty involved).
• 3 deaths/1000MW/year is normally taken as

reasonable average.
• Low energy contents of fuels, combined with

low energy conversion efficiencies, lead to
higher quantities of fuel being used and
therefore higher emissions rate per kWh.

Fossil Fuels Contents
FUEL Density carbon hydrogen sulfur oxygen nitrogen

[kg/l]
Fuel oil 0.95 85-90 10-15 0.2-4.2 traces 0.2-0.9
Coal 1.33 70-90 4-5 0.5-5 5-15 1-2
Diesel oil 0.87 84 15-17 0.05-0.5 traces traces
Gas oil 0.8-0.87 84 15 0.05-1.2 traces traces

Natural gas composition:
• methane (CH4): 88 - 95%,

• CO : 5%,
• N2 : 4.5%,
• C 2H 4 : 3%,
• helium and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in very small
quantities.
Cost of natural gas is around $3.5 for each million Btu

compared to $16 for each million Btu for diesel

Typical Emission Rates
Energy Carbon Sulfur Nitrogen
Resources (g/kWh) (g/kWh) (g/kWh)
Diesel 71.47 0.986 0.0822
Natural Gas 49.07  1.10
Biogas 83.18 18.40 
Fuel wood 74.47  0.1489
Fuel-oil 68.46 2.0375 0.815

1. Energy Model of a Power Plant
• To illustrate a typical energy conversion process

inside a power plant consider 10000 lb of coal to
be used on daily basis to generate electricity.
• The coal specifications are:
- energy content : W = 12500 Btu/lb.
- sulfur content by weight: fs = 0.047 (4.7%)
- ash content by weight: fa = 0.1 (10%)

Eloss
Eb Boiler Et Turbine Eq Generator
η=90% η=45% η=90%
Eth
Water Condenser
tank
Figure 5.1: Schematic of power plant energy conversion processes

In reference to figure 5.1, the process takes place as follows:
i- Boiler:
- Input energy to the boiler : Eb = energy content*weight of coal
Eb = 12500*10000 = 125*106 Btu
- Input energy to the turbine, being the output energy from the boiler,
and assuming that the boiler is 90% efficient will be:
Et = Eb*η = 125*106*0.9 = 112.5*106 Btu.
ii- Turbine:
Output mechanical energy from the turbine, with assumed efficiency
of 45%, and into the generator is:
Eg = Et*η = 112.5*106*0.45 = 50.6*106 Btu

iii- Generator:
Energy out of the generator of assumed efficiency of 90%:
Ee = Eg*η = 50.6*106*0.9 = 45.54*106 Btu
Converting into KWh: 45.54*106/3412) = 13347 KWh.
(1kWh = 3412 BTU)
iv- Condenser:
Thermal energy rejected to the condenser:
Eth = Et - Eg = 112.5*106 - 50.6*106 = 61.9*106 Btu.

2. Particulates Collection Devices
• Particulate matters that form 10% of air

pollutants in the atmosphere have diameters
range between 0.1 to 20 µm (microns) knowing
that extreme diameter values such as
0.01microns and 500microns do exist.
• Particles of diameters between 1 and 20microns

are airborne whereas those with diameters
>20microns will be airborne for a short period
before settling in a speed related to their sizes.

2.1. Fabric Filters (Baghouses)
• The oldest and most frequently used devices

for filtering particulates from the polluted gas.
• The cylindrical filter bags, made of porous

materials, are normally around 10m long and
of 15-30cm in diameter.
• They have closed tops and open bottoms and

are normally suspended vertically along rails.
Figure 5.2: Baghouse system

The 'dust cake' that would fall into a collection bin
by means of:
• Mechanical shaking using oscillating rods attached to

the tops of the bags.
• Pulse jet cleaning, in which short pulses of compressed
air are forced down into the bag from the top so as to
expand the bag thus separating its material from the
dust cake. This method is used while other bags are
still in operation.
• Reverse air method, used in most coal power plants, in
which auxiliary fan forces clean air in reverse direction
into the bags. This action removes the dust cakes from
the surface of the bags and drops it into the bin.
2.2. Gravitational Collector
• Flue gas enters the collector from one end

at a minimum velocity of around 3 m/s
where the drag force of the gas drops
slightly allowing the large particles to
settle down due to gravitational force.
• This type of collectors is efficient only for

particulates of diameter > 50m, and has
little maintenance cost.
Figure 5.3:Gravitational collector

For an efficient collection operation, the time required
for dropping a distance H must be equal or less than
time required by the gas to pass through the length of
the chamber L, that is:
H L
t
Vm

Vg
(s)
where: - Vg is the velocity of flue gas entering the separator
(m/s),
- Vm is the settling speed of the particulates (m/s)
 Alternatively, the required length of the
gravitational collector for an efficient operation is:
Vg
L H (m)
Vm


 The minimum particulate diameter that
would be caught is estimated using the
following equation:
d 
18 HV (m) g g
gL p
m
where:
- ρp is the gas density (Kg/m3)
- μg is the gas viscosity ( around 2.95*105 Kg/m.s)
- g is the gravitational acceleration (9.81m/s2)

2.3. Cyclone Separator
• Cyclone, or inertial, separator operates on the

principle of forcing the polluted gas to enter the
device from the top in a cyclonic (spinning) motion
about a vertical axis in order to separate, by
centrifugal force, the particulates from its stream.
• The separated particulates, which are of higher

inertia due to their relatively large sizes, hit the
walls of the chamber and slide into a collection bin.
The cleaned gas reverses its motion and moves
upwards and out from the top of the chamber.

Cyclonic separator

Cyclonic Separators- ctd
• The centrifugal force is proportional to the square

value of the flue gas velocity, Vg, and inversely
proportional to the radius of its trajectory, r.
𝑚𝑉𝑔2
• i.e. centrifugal force = = mω2r
𝑟
• Cyclones, which are normally cheap and easy to

install, are used as pre- cleaning devices in
connection with more complex systems such as the
electrostatic precipitators.

2.4. Electrostatic Precipitators (ESP)
• ESP is the most efficient system used for

collecting particulates even with diameters of
0.05 µm or smaller, and with a high collection
efficiency of around 99%.
• ESPs exert electrostatic forces on the

particulates, not only gravitational or cyclonic.
• To illustrate this, use will be made of Newton’s
law as well as Stoke’s laws.

ESP- ctd
• For centrifugal collectors, the driving force is proportional to the particle
mass which for a constant density is proportional to cubic value of the
diameter (d3).
• The drag force (air resistance) expression is:
Fd = 3πµdVg
• Hence the ratio of driving force to resisting force is proportional to
(d3/d=d2), diameter square.
• As diameter decreases, the ratio fall rapidly.
• In ESP, the resisting force is the same, but the driving electrostatic force
is proportional to d2, and thus the ratio is d2/d=d.
• Hence, the ESP can collect particles with less difficulty than gravitational
collectors as the diameter drops.
• 99% collection efficiency (most efficient of all).

ESP- Stoke’s law
• Newton’s law for forces acting of a particulate
matter of spherical shape settling under the
gravity influence can be expressed as:
𝜋 3 𝜋 3
𝑚𝑎 = 𝜌𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑑 𝑔 − 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑 𝑔 − 𝐹𝑑
6 6
𝜋
• 𝜌𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑑 3 𝑔 … 𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞
6
𝜋
• 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑 3 𝑔…buoyant force
6
• 𝐹𝑑 … drag (air resistance) force

ESP- Stoke’s law
• Drag forces increase with increasing speed.
• So if the particle starts dropping from rest, the
initial drag force is zero, then as the particle
accelerates the drag force increases up to a
point where it will be equal to the gravity force
minus the buoyant force.
• At this point the particle will move with
constant speed, i.e.:
𝑚𝑎 = 0
𝜋
From which: 𝐹𝑑 = 𝑑3 𝑔(𝜌𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 − 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 )
6

ESP- Stoke’s law
• To find a relation between Fd and the constant

velocity of the particle (Vg), mathematical
derivation has been carried out by Stoke, using
a set of assumptions.
• The final outcome is the drag force expression:
Fd = 3πµdVg
Where:
• µ is the viscosity of the fluid through which the
particle is falling (kg/m.s.)
• d is the particle diameter (m)

ESP- Stoke’s law
Solving for Vg gives Stokes equation:
• 𝑽𝒈 = 𝒈𝒅𝟐 (𝝆𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕 − 𝝆𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 )/𝟏𝟖𝝁
• This equation gives good approximation, but not for

very large (greater than 40 microns) or very small
particles (less than 0.5 microns).
• Also, the air density is much smaller than the particle
density and therefore can be dropped out in air
pollution applications.

ESP- Principle of Operation
• The typical voltage applied to the ESP between the
wires and the plates is around 40kV (DC),
• Knowing that the distance between the suspended
wires is around 0.1-0.15m, then the field strength
near the plate will be around 40k/0.1 = 400kV/m.
• The surface area of the plate is much smaller than
that of the wire, and thus by conservation of
charge, the driving potential at the wires will be
much larger, typically around 5-10MV/m.
• As the polluted gas passes through the cylinder,
this high voltage causes electrons from the wires
to flow in flux lines towards the plates thus forming
a corona discharge, a blue glow.

electrodes
L
cleaned gas out
rapper
+ corona discharge
50 KV particle layer on collector surface
_ H D
ground
dirty gas in
charged-wire electrode
collected plates
particulates collection hoppers

Plate electrode
Gas flow
Wire electrode
Electric field
Figure 5.5: Schematic of an ESP

ESP- Efficiency Expressions
Overall efficiency:
mass of particles captured by the ESP
mass of all particles entering the ESP
• Since the particulates speed depends on their sizes,

we use the:
Fractional collection efficiency, or grade

efficiency:
mass of particles of a given size captured by the ESP

mass of all particles entering the ESP

ESP-ctd
• Several expressions have been developed,
• One of the most established equations is the:
Deutsch expression:
V H 2L
 d  1  exp(  m )
HDVg
where:
- Vm is the migration, or drift, particulates velocity towards
the plates (0.03-0.3m/s).
- H is the height of the electrode (m)
- L is the length of the collector plates, the '2‘ is used to
account for both plates
- Vg is the velocity of the polluted gas (0.5-2.5 m/s)
- D is the distance between the collecting plate (m)

Since H.D.Vg = Q... polluted gas volume flow rate through the collector (m3/s)
and H.L = A... area of each plate (m2), then:
2Vm A
 d  1  exp(  )
Q
If the ESP has a cylindrical shape, then the area of the plates will be that
of the whole cylinder and consequently the '2' will be dropped from the
expression.
The migration velocity of the particulates is expressed as:
2.95 10 12  k  ( E ) 2  d
Vm  s
g
where:
k is a constant related to the particles dielectric constant (from 1.5 to 2.4, with an
average of 2).
E is the applied voltage (V)
s is the distance between electrodes and collecting plates (m)
d is the particulates diameter (m)
g is the gas viscosity , around 2.95*105 Kg/m.s

• If the diameter of the charging electrodes is neglected then D = 2s
and the migration velocity becomes:
2
12 E
11.8 10  k    d
Vm  D
g
• This migration velocity can also be estimated by re- arranging the
Deutch efficiency expression so that:
Vm   ln 1   d 
Q
A
• For an efficient operation and using a similar analysis to that
conducted for the gravitational collector, the required length of the
ESP should be:
Vg
H  s
Vm
• If an excessive voltage is applied across the suspended
wires, the electric field becomes high enough to develop
sparking that may damage the material of the plates, and in
some cases may cause fire.
• To avoid this, the field should be equal or smaller than the
spark- developing field whose value has been
approximated as:
Es  6.3 105 (273 p / T ) 0.8  56 106 ( p / T ) 0.8
where:
Es is the sparking field (V/m),
T is the absolute temperature (K) and,
p is the gas pressure (atm).

Example
• A 500- MW power plant has a fuel

consumption rate of 250g/kWh. The fuel oil
used has a sulfur content of 2%,
particulates 0.1%, ash 0.1%, carbon 80%,
and 0.1% nitrogen. Find the daily amounts
of emitted SO2, particulates, and ash,
assuming that 95% of sulfur is converted
into SO2.

2.2. Wet Collectors
• Use sufficient water quantities for capturing the particulates
from the polluted gas stream with high collection efficiency
especially for sizes ranging from 0.1 up to 20μm.
• In comparison to dry systems, wet collectors in general have the
following features:
- No danger of fire or explosion.
- Collection of smaller sizes with higher efficiencies.
- Higher performance per unit volume and hence lower capital costs.
However, the problems associated with their operations include:
- Corrosion caused by water flow inside the system.
- Sludge disposal problems.
- Problem of water freezing in cold days.
- Availability of water.

Types of wet collectors:
a. Spray Towers
 Regarded as the simplest collection device in

which water is sprayed by nozzles into the stream
of the polluted gas.
 The airborne particulates collide with the water
droplets and drop to the bottom of the tower.
 A mist eliminator is positioned at the higher part
to remove excess clean water and small dirty
droplets that, due to their light weight, would rise
with the sprayed gas.

Spray Tower

b. Cyclonic Scrubber
 It is a spray tower with water nozzles being

axially located so that they spray water
radially in a cyclonic form.
 Particulates, when hit by water droplets, will

be pushed towards the wet inner walls and
then downwards through the dust discharge
outlet.

Cyclonic Scrubber.

c. Venturi Scrubber
 Has a rectangular or circular shape which is squeezed right

in the middle in order to increase the relative motion between
sprayed water and the flue gas.
 The area ratio between the air inlet and the squeezed narrow
throat affects the collection efficiency and is usually around
4:1 in most designs.
 Water, when sprayed through the middle throat into the high-
speed gas stream, will break into fine droplets to which
particulates will be attached.
 Venturi scrubbers are commonly equipped with mist
eliminators located at the top to prevent water droplets from
being emitted.

Venturi Scrubber

Example
• A 500- MW power plant has a fuel

consumption rate of 250g/kWh. The fuel
oil used has a sulfur content of 2%,
particulates 0.1%, ash 0.1%, carbon
80%, and 0.1% nitrogen. Find the daily
amounts of emitted SO2, particulates,
and ash, assuming that 95% of sulfur is
converted into SO2.

3. Gaseous Emissions Control
• Although the percentage of sulfur in fuels is low
(<4%) the quantity of SOx gases discharged from
power plants and other industrial combustion
processes is found to be very high.
• There are several methods used to reduce the
concentration of SO2 and NOx pollutants from
emitted gases.
• Mitigation measures could be conducted at any of the
following stages of the energy conversion process:

Stages of mitigation
• At the pre- combustion stage: Using fuel oil with
lower sulfur content. This measure is more
expensive due to the additional refining costs. (or
coal cleaning)
• During the combustion: Modifying the boilers

designs and implementing new procedures and
technologies such as fluidized-bed combustion
(FBC) used mainly in coal- fired power plants.
• At the post- combustion stage: Cleaning the

contaminated flue gas from its pollutants using
technologies such as wet, dry, and alkali scrubbing.

3.1- SO2 Emissions Control
a. Fuel desulfurization
Fuel desulfurization is a pre- combustion mitigation measure associated
with low- quality fossil fuels, mainly coal and fuel oil.
Sulfur in coal: 2 types:

1. Inorganic sulfur is found in the form of iron pyrite (FeS2), a
compound of finely divided crystals, which can be easily removed
from coal by gravity washing.
2. Organic sulfur, on the other hand, is chemically bound in coal and

removing it is not always feasible since it requires more complex
techniques such as coal gasification or coal conversion into synthetic
oil or solid materials .
Coal washing, due to the nature of these compounds, has an overall removal
efficiency less than 20%.

Fuel desulfurization-ctd
• Sulfur in crude oil, used for power utilities, contains up

to 4% sulfur by weight. These sulfur components are
normally concentrated in the high boiling residual
fractions range and therefore their removal requires
additional refining costs.
• These costs, however, are comparable to those
associated with the SO2 removal in the post- combustion
stage.
• Natural gas is almost sulfur- free and hence it offers a

very attractive option for combustion processes where
sulfur emissions have to be avoided.
b. Flue gas desulfurization systems (FGD)
• These systems are post- combustion measures

aimed at reducing SO2 content from the flue gas
before emitting it through the stack.
• FGD systems include:

a. wet- type systems, or wet scrubbers
b. dry- type systems, dry scrubbers
c. alkali scrubbers

b. Flue gas desulfurization systems (FGD)
b.1. Wet FGD Systems (wet scrubbers)

• Most preferred process,
• Involves passing the flue gas through a spray of
water- lime (CaO) slurry which absorbs the SO2
present in the gas.
• Limestone (CaCO3) can be used as well since it is
more abundant than lime and cheaper, however, it
is less efficient.

FGD-ctd
This system consists of 3 main stages:
i- Gas handling and SO2 absorption:
– Flue gas is passed through a particulates collection system (ESP or
gravitational collector) to remove the ash and other solid particulates.
– Then, after being slightly heated to increase its atmospheric dispersion,
the gas is driven into a spray tower where it flows, from the bottom
upwards, against the limestone slurry spray to remove 90% or more of its
SO2 content.
The SO2 in the gas reacts with the calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
slurry to produce calcium sulfite (CaSO3) and calcium sulfate
(CaSO4) that remain in the slurry.
SO2 + H2O H2SO3............absorption

CaCO3 + H2SO3 CaSO3 + CO2 + H2O.........neutralization
CaSO3 + H2O CaSO4 ……………………….oxidation

FGD-ctd
- A mist eliminator is located at the higher exit of the tower to remove any spray
droplets retained by the gas stream.
- The slurry, after being exposed to the gas, enters the reaction tank at the bottom of
the tower. The tank facilitates the oxidation of calcium sulfite slurry, of gel form,
into crystalline hydrated sulfate of calcium, or gypsum (CaSO4). This process
takes place by exposing the sulfite mixture into compressed air at pre-designed
rates. The corresponding oxidation reaction is:
CaSO3 + H2O CaSO4
- A 'feed and bleed' system checks on the pH of slurry where fresh limestone is
added to maintain a pH value of around 6. This system charges fresh slurry
(pH>7) up the tower, and discharges an equivalent amount of already circulated
slurry (pH<6) to a dewatering system.
- The solids are separated from the circulated slurry in a conventional settling tank,
or thickener, and then sent to a filter and centrifuge where water is removed from
the precipitated salts (sulfites). The filtered water is sent back to the spray tower.
The obtained sulfate is a stable solid gypsum which can be used for cement
production, agriculture, or as road base material.

Wet FGD System
CaO
CaO + 2H2O + SO2 + 1/2O2 CaSO4.2H2O (s)

Wet FGD

ii- Reagent preparation:
- This system grinds limestone, entered to the

wet grinding mill through a silo, to produce a
25-40% solids slurry to be fed to the absorber.
These fine particles assure more efficient use
of limestone. The slurry is then stored in an
agitated tank equipped with feed pumps which
operate a continuous flow recycle system
feeding the absorber reaction tank. Fresh
limestone feed is taken off this recycle loop if
the pH control allows.
iii- Gypsum dewatering
• Used to produce a gypsum product with 90% solids, and to re-circulate
process water to absorption and reagent systems.
• Slurry at 10-15% solids from the absorber bleed system is pumped to a
hydroclone where by means of centrifugal forces the crystals are separated
the bulk of the liquid slurry.
• The thickened slurry of 45-55% solids is then recycled to the absorber via a
reclaim water system. Gypsum that remains in the hydroclone is flown into
an agitated filter feed tank for secondary dewatering.
Wet scrubbers have advantages:

- high removal efficiencies (90%)
- good reliability degree
- low flue gas energy requirement.
- less consumption of lime than dry scrubbers.
Disadvantages:
- large water requirement.
- high energy consumption (2-5% of output power)
- higher cost than dry scrubbers.

Features
Wet scrubbers have:
Advantages:
- high removal efficiencies (90%),
- good reliability,
- low flue gas energy requirement,
- less consumption of lime than dry scrubbers.
Disadvantages:
- large water requirement,
- high energy consumption (2-5% of output power),
- higher cost than dry scrubbers.

b.2. Dry FGD systems (dry scrubbers)
The operation is based on using liquid slurry with very little water
content to remove SO2:
- In the 'slurry generation system' a mixer of water and lime (slaker)

allows measured quantities of water and lime into an agitated tank
(tank with a shaker) so as to prepare slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) which
in turn is diluted and processed to remove any impurities.
- The obtained slaked lime slurry is then injected into a 'spray
absorber' through a flow control valve that regulates the amount of
slurry according to the SO2 concentration.
- In the spray absorber, the slurry is sprayed into the pre-heated
flue gas stream to capture SO2, and because of the small spray
droplets size, the slurry is quickly dried by the flue gas high
temperature to form sulfite particles that will be carried along with
the de-sulfurized gas.
The chemical reactions are the same as those of the wet
scrubbers.
- The sulfite particles, together with ash, are then collected in the
fabric filters (or ESP) before the de-sulfurized gas is emitted from
the stack into the atmosphere.
- The collected sulfites are sent to a recycling silo where they are
either disposed
Department or recycled
of Electrical byEngineering
and Computer enriching it with fresh alkaline59
material for another spraying operation.
Dry FGD system
Lime
and
water

Fig.5.11: View of a power plant with FGD installations
Dry FGD Features:
• The disposed material is a dry powder with less disposal
problems.
• Slurry pumping and circulation system has a lower cost.
• No plugging or corrosion problems in sections where slurry
is being passed. (easy to maintain)
• Lower SO2 removal efficiency (70%)
-Both, wet and dry, scrubbers used to be classified as non-

regenerable, or throwaway, systems since the disposed
material was not used again.
- Today, however, FGD gypsum slurry is dewatered and used
for plaster boards and wall plaster in the building industry.
Regenerable systems are also used (single alkali scrubber)

b.3. Single alkali scrubber (Wellman- Lord recovery Process)
• Single alkali scrubbers use water solutions of either sodium (NaOH or

Na2SO3) or ammonia that are excellent absorbers of SO2.
• Its operation is as follows:
- The flue gas coming from the boiler is first passed through a
particulate collection system before being sent to the 'SO2
absorber' (water solution).
- In the absorber, the water solution absorbs SO2 to produce
sodium bisulfite:
- The de-sulfurized gas is emitted through the stack after being
preheated to improve its dispersion rate.
- The sodium bisulfite produced is passed into a 'surge tank' that controls
the flow rate regardless of the SO2 concentration in it.
- From the surge tank the sodium bisulfite is sent to an 'evaporator-
crystallizer' circulation system (the heart of the whole process) where
low- pressure steam, from the turbine exhaust, transfers it into a slurry:

Product SO2
Single alkali scrubber
SO2 Condenser
De-sulfurized
Separator
gas
H2O SO2
Flue gas from plant Reheater
Water +
H2O
Na2SO3
+
Cooling
H2O (reverse
Surge tank Dissolving tank
chemical
NaHSO3
Steam
reaction)
(chemical (2)
reaction)
(1)
Particulate collector Na2SO3

Absorber Surge tank
Evaporator - crystalizer
η = 90 % - 95 %
SO2 + Na2SO3 + H2O → 2 NaHSO3 (g) (1)
2 NaHSO3 → Na2SO3 + H2O + SO2 (2)

- H2O is separated from the SO2 in a condenser and recycled in a
dissolving tank.
- The sulfite slurry is sent to the same dissolving tank where it is re-
dissolved and sent back to the absorber via another surge tank.
- The produced SO2 is used for making:
- SO2 liquid.
- sulfuric acid
- element sulfur by adding hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
A small amount of the water solution oxidizes to non- regenerable

sodium sulfate crystals that must be disposed and hence addition of
fresh sulfate is required.
These systems have high efficiencies of around 90-95% and produce

marketable products, however, they have high energy consumption
since 6-8% of the boiler output are used to reheat the gas before it
is finally emitted.

b.4. Shell flue gas treatment
• This system is one of the commercially established systems for the removal
of SO2 and NOx from the flue gas at the po- combustion stage.
• It is also classified as a regenerable system since its byproducts are used for
other purposes.
• Shell flue gas treating system involves passing contaminated flue gas into a
set a parallel reactors containing copper oxide (CuO) supported on aluminia
(Al2O3). The copper oxide will react with SO2 in the flue gas to give copper
sulfate.
CuO + SO2 + 0.5O2 CuSO4
To remove NO, ammonia is added which in the presence of copper sulfate,

that acts as a catalyst, combines with NO and converts it to nitrogen
molecule.
4NO + 4NH3 + O2 4N2 + 6H2O

b.4. Shell flue gas treatment- ctd
When one reactor is saturated with copper sulfate, the

flue gas in switched to another fresh one, and the spent
reactor is regenerated first by using hydrogen to transform
the copper sulfate into ammonia:
CuSO4 + 2H2 Cu + SO2 + 2H2O
and the obtained copper is then oxidized to give copper

oxide.
The SO2 is usually obtained in sufficient concentrations to
be later converted into useful products such as sulfur or
sulfuric acid.

3.2- NOx Emissions Reduction
• Flue gas from the boiler contains oxides of nitrogen, namely NO
which mounts up to 95% of the emissions, and NO2, the remaining
5%. NO, however, oxidizes further to NO2.
• It has been shown that nitrogen oxides are the main contributors to
the formation of acid rain, ground level ozone, and smog.
According to the USEPA estimates, over 23 million tons of
NOx are emitted annually into the atmosphere, and the
sources of these emissions are almost equally divided
between industrial complexes and transportation sector.
Similar amount is also emitted from the whole European
continent.
• NOx removal from flue gases is more difficult and therefore more
expensive than that of SO2 since it is insoluble. In what follows are
the methods used to control their emissions, mainly from power
plants.

a. Control of combustion temperature
• This mitigation measure, that takes place

during the combustion stage, is applied
mainly for coal and oil fired power plants.
• The formation of NOx is strongly dependent
on the temperature of the combustion
process.
• Therefore, its concentration can be reduced
by lowering this temperature. This can be
achieved by burning the fuel more slowly by
implementing the multi-chamber or multi-
stage process.
• This could lead to emission reduction by up
toDepartment
50%. of Electrical and Computer Engineering 69
a. Control of combustion temperature- ctd
• Alternatively, the combustion temperature can be

reduced by flue- gas recirculation in which part of the
cooled flue gas, before being emitted to the
atmosphere, is re-injected back into the combustion
chamber where it acts as a heat sink thus reducing the
total combustion temperature.
• NOx emissions can as well be reduced by up to 15%
by controlling the amount of air so that only the amount
required for complete combustion is passed into the
boiler.

b. Chemical treatment
Due to the continuous tightening or standards and
regulations, the 50% reduction that could be achieved
by lowering the combustion temperature may not be
sufficient and therefore additional treatment methods,
mainly chemical, have to be considered. Options
include using selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
processes and selective non- catalytic reduction
(SNCR) processes.
Some of the options are:

i - Injecting ammonia (NH3) directly into the flue gas stream, an SCR process
during which significant amounts of ammonia gas will leak into the
atmosphere if the reaction is not complete. Modern technologies, however,
are implemented in which gases are replaced by aqueous solutions of
ammonia. These solutions are injected into the flue gas [nalco].
3NO + 2NH3 2.5N2 + 3H2O
This reaction takes place at optimum temperature of around 1700oF. Below

this value it will be too slow, and at higher temperatures ammonia would
practically burn in the presence of oxygen and more NO is produced, as
shown in the following reaction:
NH3 + O2 NO + 1.5H2O
ii - A more advanced technique is by using a urea- based SNCR [nalco]

process during which NOx emissions are converted into nitrogen, carbon
dioxide and water through reactions with aqueous solutions of urea. Also, the
application of modern blending equipment coupled with computer- control
injection and spraying techniques have lead to NOx removal efficiencies as
high as 90% over a wider range of temperatures.

c. Fluidized bed combustion (FBC)
Chemical treatments described above are efficient but also quite expensive, therefore a number
of economically more feasible alternatives have been developed for reducing NOx and SOx
contents from emitted gases.
FBC is a new technology used for removing both SO2 and NOx from flue gases. It is used in coal-
fired power plants only (first application in Scotland in 1981), and is based on mixing coal with
lime stone (CaCO3) which acts as an absorber of the SO2 obtained during the combustion.
Air used for combustion is forced up through the coal mixture thus keeping it as a mass
suspended within the boiler combustion chamber. The boiler evaporator tubes are in direct
contact with the burning coal and therefore a more efficient heat transfer rate is achieved.
The high heat transfer allows the boiler to operate at lower temperatures, around 800oC
instead of 1500oC. This temperature reduction leads to a significant drop in the NOx
formation. The chemical reaction of the combustion process is as follows:
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 Ca(HCO3)2
The calcium sulfite produced is used to reduce the SO2 contents such that:
Ca(HCO3)2 + SO2 + H2O CaSO3 + 2H2O + 2CO2
The calcium sulfate produced drops to the bottom of the boiler and then removed.
The employment of FBC would lead to elimination of wet scrubbers used in the power industry
since SO2 is efficiently (90%) captured by limestone and this leads to a 10% reduction in the
generating unit cost. However, FBC systems require powerful compressors for supplying very
high combustion air.

Fig.5.13: FBC system

4. Emission Standards
• Emission standards and directives have been

established in various countries to protect public
health and welfare.
• In USA, for example, the National Ambient Air

Quality Standards (NAAQS) have been set since
the early 70's, and have been since then updated
several times.

4.1 Emissions from Fuel Power Plants
• Types of fuel oils used in steam power plants have
different grades according to their contents of sulfur,
ash, and other constituents.
• The choice of a specific sulfur content in the fuel

depends on the location of the power plant and the
local anti-pollution regulations, if any.
• Low-sulfur fuel is commonly used for power plants

located close to residential areas whereas fuel with
higher sulfur content can be used with new plants
that are equipped with pollution control systems like
those discussed earlier.
Typical emission from power plants [g/kWh].
Fuel type CO CO2 SO2 NOx VOC
Natural 0.2 490 0.004 1.5 0.025

gas
Fuel oil 0.19 781 5.4 1.5 0.05
Coal 0.11 1060 5.5 2.4 0.01

5. Mitigation Options for Emissions Reduction
in the Power Sector
• Mitigating GHG and other pollutants emissions is

generally focused on developing strategies and options
that would drastically modify and upgrade the efficiency
of current combustion processes, adopt cleaner fuels and
technologies, or reduce consumption patterns.
• The following mitigation options, that target both the

supply-side as well as the demand-side, have high
impacts in reducing emissions from the electric power
sector, and major industrial complexes:

a. Switching to natural gas
• a highly economic and effective GHG reduction

measure; particularly in the presence of huge gas
reserves and the construction plan for NG network in
different regions of the world.
• Replacement of fuel oil with NG leads to reduction in
GHG emissions by around 30% in comparison to
fuel oil.
Cost of natural gas is around 3.3 cents/kWh
compared to around 9.7 cents/kWh for gas
oil, and around 7 cents/kWh for fuel oil.

b .CHP Scheme Based on Heat Extraction
• Capture the excess heat, from power generation,
for domestic or industrial heating purposes.
• Such systems involve providing hot water, with
temperature in the range of 80-120oC, for district
heating by installing new steam turbines from which
a portion of the steam can be extracted after being
fully expanded in the turbine.
• The overall efficiency is around 70-80%, with 30%
CO2 reduction compared to coal-fired power
stations, and over 10% in comparison with gas fired
combined cycle gas turbines.
• This scheme, however, requires installing of hot
water network that connects the plant to the
residential areas, or to industries.

15%
Typical CHP unit
Stack
Heat (extracted before
100% steam is expanded
Boiler
Fuel in turbine for other
usage) (29%)
Steam Electricity
turbine (32%)
CW losses (24%)
Condenser
c. Combined- cycle gas turbines units
• In CCGT plant, a gas turbine generator generates
electricity and the waste heat from the gas turbine is
used to make steam to generate additional electricity
via a steam turbine.
• This enhances the plant efficiency to levels around
45% to 55%.
• This scheme involves installing, in addition to the
existing gas turbine, a steam turbine to which steam
extracted by the heat recovery unit is fed. The turbine
is coupled to a separate electricity generator thus
generating more electricity.

Heat Loss (25%)
Stack
Combined cycle system
Boiler heat
Exchanger
Heat for local use (15%)
Steam
Fuel turbine
Electricity (40%)
Electric generator
Gas Turbine
Electric generator

d. Load Distribution
• When distributing the load among plants connected to
the national or local grid, plants with highest emissions
concentrations can be used to cover the peak loads.
• Specialized computer programs have been developed

to determine the impact of various planning/loading
decisions on emissions rate and hence assisting in
choosing the optimum operation. The program performs
an economic dispatch, to minimize production cost, or an
environmental dispatch (NOx for example) to minimize
NOx emissions during extremely stable conditions.

e. Proper plants maintenance and boilers
modernization and upgrading
Proper boilers tune-up and power water

treatment in power stations, in addition to regular
maintenance programs, have substantive effects
on energy consumption. Such care will have
long-term sustainability advantages in term of
thermal efficiency and energy saving in power
stations.

f .Regional electric interconnection
Electric power savings and GHG reduction as

offered by this option are expected to provide
saving in capital as well as operation and
maintenance costs for individual countries in
addition to increase the reliability of electricity
supply.

g. Reduction of transmission and
distribution losses
From the present high rate of 14% to 22% in

some countries down to around 7% is an
effective mitigation option which could be
achieved through better maintenance of
transmission network and substations, and
through using higher transmission voltage
levels, (up to 1000KV).

h. Reducing/phasing out subsidies
Considering the high subsidies still provided

by various governments, implementation of
this option would lead to more efficient
utilization of electricity at the consumer side
leading to reduction in electricity demand,
saving energy and reducing emissions.

I. Demand-side management (DSM)
programmes
Consist of activities such as:

• electric utility planning, implementing and
monitoring of activities at the consumer side that
lead to substantive energy savings, and
consequently emissions reductions.
• Day and night tariffs.
• Among these measures is also increasing end-
users efficiency, for example my using more
efficient motors, lighting, and heating systems.
j. Supply and Demand Matching
• Till the early 80's the main task for power

authorities, worldwide, was to match the supply with
the demand, that is to generate enough power to
match the rate of consumption.
• With increasing awareness of environmental issues,
this relation has been reversed and the concept of
matching the demand with the supply is now being
applied.
• Methodologies for reducing the power consumption
rate could include, among other measures,
additional taxes on energy consumption which are
also known as pollution taxes.
k. Renewable Technologies
Switching to cleaner and renewable energy
resources for power generation:
• PV cells.
• Solar water heaters.
• Concentrated solar power (CSP).
• Wind power.
• Hydro power.
• Other forms (tidal, geothermal, …)

Mitigation Options
Mitigation Options
-Power Plants-
Better quality F G D + low- Alternative Energy

fuel oil (Less quality fuel oil fuels & conservation
%S) technologies
More expensive Capital cost Natural gas Loss reduction

In urbanized Space (abundancy) Renewables
regions requirement CHP Wise
Aging power Refurbished or Co-generation consumption
plants new plants Energy-efficient
technologies

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EECE671

Environmental Impacts of Electric Power

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 1

• Electric power history and development goes back

• Exhaustion of natural resources (fossil fuels)

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 3

• 3 deaths/1000MW/year is normally taken as

• Low energy contents of fuels, combined with

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 4

FUEL Density carbon hydrogen sulfur oxygen nitrogen

Coal 1.33 70-90 4-5 0.5-5 5-15 1-2

Diesel oil 0.87 84 15-17 0.05-0.5 traces traces

Gas oil 0.8-0.87 84 15 0.05-1.2 traces traces

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 5

• methane (CH4): 88 - 95%,

Cost of natural gas is around $3.5 for each million Btu

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 6

Energy Carbon Sulfur Nitrogen

Resources (g/kWh) (g/kWh) (g/kWh)

Diesel 71.47 0.986 0.0822

Natural Gas 49.07  1.10

Biogas 83.18 18.40 

Fuel wood 74.47  0.1489

Fuel-oil 68.46 2.0375 0.815

• To illustrate a typical energy conversion process

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 8

Eb Boiler Et Turbine Eq Generator

η=90% η=45% η=90%

Figure 5.1: Schematic of power plant energy conversion processes

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 9

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 10

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 11

• Particulate matters that form 10% of air

• Particles of diameters between 1 and 20microns

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 12

• The oldest and most frequently used devices

• The cylindrical filter bags, made of porous

• They have closed tops and open bottoms and

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 14

• Mechanical shaking using oscillating rods attached to

• Flue gas enters the collector from one end

• This type of collectors is efficient only for

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 17

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 18

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 19

• Cyclone, or inertial, separator operates on the

• The separated particulates, which are of higher

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 20

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 21

• The centrifugal force is proportional to the square

• Cyclones, which are normally cheap and easy to

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 22

• ESP is the most efficient system used for

• ESPs exert electrostatic forces on the

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 23

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 24

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 25

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 26

• To find a relation between Fd and the constant

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 27

Solving for Vg gives Stokes equation:

• 𝑽𝒈 = 𝒈𝒅𝟐 (𝝆𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒕 − 𝝆𝒇𝒍𝒖𝒊𝒅 )/𝟏𝟖𝝁