Open Channel Module PDF

HYDRAULICS MODULE
MODULE CODE: HEng-M2134
MODULE TYPE: CORE
27/09/ 2006 E.C

Course Title: Open Channel Hydraulics
Course Code: HEng – 2133
Ects (5cp)
Prepared By:
Alemu Belay (B.Sc. In Irrigation and Water Resources
Engineering)
Edited By:
Abera Misgana (B.Sc. In Irrigation and Water Resources
Engineering) and
Worku Gadissa (B.Sc. In Soil and Water Engineering)
Course Introduction/Description
Generally this course is organized into six main chapters namely, Open Channel Flow
and its classification, Basic Principles of open channel Flow, computation of open channel
Flow, Gradually Varied Flow, Rapidly Varied Flow and finally Unsteady Flow. The main
topics that are covered in this course are,
 Steady flow in Open channel: classification, continuity equation, velocity and
pressure distribution in open channels, channel transition, energy and momentum
principles;
 Gradually varied flow: definitions, gradually varied flow equations, profiles and
computation of gradually varied flow;
 Rapidly varied flow (RVF): Characteristics of RVF, flow over spillway, flow
under sluice gate, hydraulic jump analysis and its use as energy dissipater,
spatially varied flow.
 Introduction to Unsteady flow: Characteristic of unsteady flow, application of St.
Venant to solve unsteady flow.
Course Objective
The goal of this course is for students to develop an advanced understanding of steady
and unsteady water flow in open channels including streams, rivers, and tidal wetlands.
Target group
Open channel hydraulics course is given for:

 2nd year Hydraulic and water resources engineering students and
 3rd year civil engineering students.
Time frame of the course
ECTS Credits 5cp

Lectures Tutorials Laboratory Home Study
Contact Hours (per week) & &
Seminars Workshop
2 3 0
Practice 3
Requirement of the course
To use water resources wisely Open channel hydraulics course is essential in design of
hydraulic and irrigation structures (such as spillways, weirs, artificial channels, tunnels)
Learning guide
The students should have to follow the following strategies:

 Read what the objective of each chapter says,
 Answer activities before you go to deep reading;
 Read deeply and understand each topics to grasp important knowledge
 Visualize clearly with the environment
 Finally understand and do unit summaries and review questions to advance your
knowledge.
Table of content
Content pages
List of tables--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------V
List of figures-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------VI
CHAPTER ONE
Open Channel Flow and Its Classification----------------------------------------------------------1
1.1 Description of Open Channel Flow-----------------------------------------------------------1
1.2 Classification of Open Channel Flow--------------------------------------------------------3
1.2.1 Real and Ideal Flow------------------------------------------------------------------------6
1.2.2 Incompressible and Compressible Flow-------------------------------------------------6
1.3 Dimensionless Numbers and State of Flow--------------------------------------------------6
1.3.1 Effect of Viscosity--------------------------------------------------------------------------7
1.3.2 Effect of Gravity----------------------------------------------------------------------------9
1.4 Kinds of Open Channels----------------------------------------------------------------------10
1.5 Velocity and Pressure Distributions in Open Channel Flow-----------------------------11
1.5.1 Velocity Distribution in Open Channel Flow------------------------------------------11
1.5.2 Pressure Distributions in Open Channel-----------------------------------------------14
Unit Summary ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------21
Review Questions------------------------------------------------------------------------------------22
CHAPTER TWO
Basic Hydraulics Principles-------------------------------------------------------------------------24
2.1 Geometric Elements of Channel Section---------------------------------------------------24
2.2 Fundamental /Main Principles---------------------------------------------------------------26
2.3 Continuity Principle---------------------------------------------------------------------------26
2.4 Energy Principle-------------------------------------------------------------------------------27
2.4.1 Specific Energy and Critical Depth-----------------------------------------------------30
2.4.2 The Critical State of Flow----------------------------------------------------------------32
2.5 Momentum Principle--------------------------------------------------------------------------35
2.6 Channel Transition-----------------------------------------------------------------------------40
I
2.6.1 Channel transition with a Hump---------------------------------------------------------40
2.6.2 Channel Transition with a Change in Width-------------------------------------------45
2.7 Choking-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------48
Unit Summary-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------50
CHAPTER THREE
Flow Computation Formulas------------------------------------------------------------------------53
3.1 critical Flow------------------------------------------------------------------------------------53
3.2 Computation of critical flow-----------------------------------------------------------------56
3.3 Control Section (Flow Control) -------------------------------------------------------------59
3.4 Flow Measurement----------------------------------------------------------------------------61
3.5 Uniform Flow ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------62
3.5.1 Establishment of Uniform Flow---------------------------------------------------------63
3.5.2 Computation of Uniform flow-----------------------------------------------------------64
3.5.3 Factors Affecting Manning‟s Roughness Coefficient--------------------------------66
3.6 Estimation of Normal Depth and Velocity ------------------------------------------------67
3.7 Equivalent Roughness-------------------------------------------------------------------------70
3.8 Compound Channel Section------------------------------------------------------------------73
3.8.1 Method of Discharge Calculation in Compound Channel Section-----------------74
Unit Summary-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------77
CHAPTER FOUR
Gradually Varied Flow (GVF) ---------------------------------------------------------------------80
4.1Introduction--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------80
4.2 General Equation for Gradually varied flow-----------------------------------------------81
4.3 Classification of Flow Profiles---------------------------------------------------------------86
4.4 Water Surface Profiles------------------------------------------------------------------------91
4.4.1 M – Curves---------------------------------------------------------------------------------91
4.4.2 S – Curves----------------------------------------------------------------------------------96
4.4.3 C – Curves----------------------------------------------------------------------------------99
II
4.4.4 H- Curves---------------------------------------------------------------------------------100
4.4.5 A– Curves---------------------------------------------------------------------------------102
4.5 Serial Combination of Channel Sections--------------------------------------------------103
4.6 Computations of Gradually Varied Flow-------------------------------------------------106
4.6.1 The Direct Step Method (Distance from Depth) ------------------------------------106
4.6.2 Graphical Integration method----------------------------------------------------------108
4.6.3 Standard Step Method-------------------------------------------------------------------109
Unit Summary---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------111
Review Questions-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------111
CHAPTER FIVE
Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF) ----------------------------------------------------------------------114
5.1 Characteristics of RVF----------------------------------------------------------------------114
5.2 Approaches to the Problem-----------------------------------------------------------------115
5.3 Flow over spillways -------------------------------------------------------------------------115
5.3.1Crest Shape of Overflow Spillways----------------------------------------------------116
5.3.2 Discharge of WES Spillway------------------------------------------------------------117
5.4 Broad Crested Weir (BCW) ----------------------------------------------------------------117
5.5 Sharp-Crested Weir (SCW) ----------------------------------------------------------------117
5.5.1 Discharge of Sharp Crested Weir------------------------------------------------------118
5.6 Aeration of the Nappe-----------------------------------------------------------------------119
5.7 Round-Crested overflow spillway---------------------------------------------------------120
5.8 Hydraulic Jump-------------------------------------------------------------------------------122
5.8.1 Practical Applications-------------------------------------------------------------------123
5.8.2 Jump in Horizontal Rectangular channel---------------------------------------------123
5.8.3 Types of Jump----------------------------------------------------------------------------124
5.8.4 Basic characteristics of the Jump------------------------------------------------------125
5.9 Flows under Gates----------------------------------------------------------------------------126
Unit Summary---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------131
CHAPTER SIX
III
Unsteady Flow in Open Channels----------------------------------------------------------------133
6.1Introduction -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------133
6.2 Waves Classification-------------------------------------------------------------------------134
6.3 Basic Equations of Unsteady Flow --------------------------------------------------------135
6.4 Solution by the Characteristics Method --------------------------------------------------137
6.5 Numerical Computation Procedure -------------------------------------------------------140
6.6 Rapidly Varied Unsteady Flow-------------------------------------------------------------143
6.6.1 Upstream Positive Surge----------------------------------------------------------------143
6.6.2 Downstream Positive Surge-----------------------------------------------------------144
6.6.3 Upstream Negative Surge---------------------------------------------------------------145
6.6.4 Downstream Negative Surge-----------------------------------------------------------147
Unit Summary---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------149
References--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------151
IV
List of Tables
Table 1.1: Dimensional expression of forces-------------------------------------------------------7
Table1.2: Pipe flow classification based on Re number------------------------------------------8
Table 1.3: Open channel flow classification based on Re number------------------------------9
Table 2.1: Geometric elements of the most common channel sections-----------------------25
Table 3.1: Estimation of normal depth ------------------------------------------------------------70
Table 4.1: Classification profiles based on bed slope and depth range -----------------------87
Table 4.2: General classification of flow profile-------------------------------------------------90
Table 5.1: Values of K and N for different upstream faces-----------------------------------116
V
List of Figures
Figure1:1: Comparison between pipe flow and open channel-----------------------------------1
Figure 1.2: General classification of open channel flows-----------------------------------------5
Figure1.3: Velocity Distributions of the flow-----------------------------------------------------13
Figure1.4: Pressure distribution in still water-----------------------------------------------------15
Figure1.5: Pressure distribution in a channel with small slope---------------------------------16
Figure1.6: Pressure distribution in a channel with large slope---------------------------------17
Figure1.7: Convex curvilinear flow----------------------------------------------------------------18
Figure1.8: Concave curvilinear flow---------------------------------------------------------------19
Figure 2.1: The Force components on a fluid particle ------------------------------------------27
Figure 2.2: Specific Energy Curve-----------------------------------------------------------------31
Figure 2.3: Momentum passing through a section-----------------------------------------------36
Figure 2.4: Channel transition with a hump-------------------------------------------------------41
Figure 2.5: Specific energy diagram for channel with hump-----------------------------------41
Figure 2.6: Variation of y1 and y2 in subcritical flow over a hump----------------------------42
Figure 2.7: Variation of y1 and y2 in supercritical flow over a hump--------------------------43
Figure 2.8: Channel transition with change in width--------------------------------------------45
Figure 2.9: Specific energy diagram for width constriction------------------------------------46
Figure 2.10: Variation of y1 and y2 in subcritical flow in a width constriction--------------47
Figure 2.11: Variation of y1 and y2 in supercritical flow----------------------------------------47
Figure 3.1: design chart for estimation of critical depth-----------------------------------------58
Figure 3.2: Forces on a column of flowing water------------------------------------------------64
Figure 3.3: Multi-roughness type perimeter------------------------------------------------------70
Figure 3.4: Compound Section---------------------------------------------------------------------73
Figure 4.1: Schématique représentation of gradually Varied flow-----------------------------82
Figure 4.2: The shape of M curves-----------------------------------------------------------------91
Figure 4.3: M1 Profile-------------------------------------------------------------------------------92
Figure 4.4: Water flows from a canal into a pool m2 profile-----------------------------------93
Figure 4.5: M3 Profile-------------------------------------------------------------------------------94
Figure 4.6: General shapes of S curves------------------------------------------------------------96
VI
Figure 4.8: S1 Profile--------------------------------------------------------------------------------97
Figure 4.9: S2 Profile--------------------------------------------------------------------------------98
Figure 4.10: S3 Profile-------------------------------------------------------------------------------99
Figure 4.11: General shapes of C curves----------------------------------------------------------99
Figure 4.12: General shapes of H curves--------------------------------------------------------100
Figure 4.13: H3 curve------------------------------------------------------------------------------102
Figure 4.14: General shapes of A curves--------------------------------------------------------102
Figure 4.15: The Channel Reach for derivation of direct step method----------------------106
Figure 5.2: profile of sharp crested weir---------------------------------------------------------120
Figure 5.3: Hydraulic jump on horizontal bed following over a spillway-------------------123
Figure 5.4: flow over the spillway----------------------------------------------------------------129
Figure 6.1: Reference diagram for the continuity equation -----------------------------------135
Figure 6.2: The x – t plane-------------------------------------------------------------------------139
Figure 6.3: Linear interpolation-------------------------------------------------------------------139
Figure 6.4: upstream positive surge--------------------------------------------------------------143
Figure 6.5: downstream positive surge-----------------------------------------------------------145
Figure 6.6: upstream negative surge--------------------------------------------------------------146
Figure 6.7: negative surge pressure---------------------------------------------------------------146
Figure 6.8: downstream negative surge----------------------------------------------------------147
VII
Open Channel Hydraulics
CHAPTER ONE
Open Channel Flow and Its Classification
At the end of this chapter the students should be able to:

 Know the basic difference between open channel flow and pipe flow
 Illustrate the types of open channel flow and kinds of channels
 Determine the velocity and momentum correction coefficients and understand
the velocity and pressure distributions of open channel flow
1.1 Description of Open Channel Flow

Open channel is a conduit for flow, which has a free surface, i.e. a boundary, exposed to
the atmosphere. The flow of water in a conduit may be either open channel flow or pipe
flow. Open channel is a conduit for flow which has a free surface, (i.e. a boundary exposed
to the atmosphere). The two kinds of flows, i.e. open channel and pipe flow, are similar in
many ways, but differ in one important aspect. Open channel flow must have a free
surface, whereas pipe flow has none, since the water must fill the whole conduit. A free
surface is subject to atmospheric pressure. Pipe flow being confined in closed conduit,
exerts no direct atmospheric pressure but hydraulic pressure.
Figure1:1: - Comparison between pipe flow and open channel
1
Prepared by Alemu Belay Aksum University
Activity1.1
1. Where is the HGL in case of the open channel flow?
2. What is the influence of the change in cross section of the pipe?
3. Is a half–filled pipe flow open channel flow or pipe flow?
In the case of the flowing fluid in open channel, the motion is usually caused by gravity
effects and the pressure distribution within the fluid is generally hydrostatic.
The two kinds of flows are compared in (Fig. 1:1) shown on the left and right side as pipe
flow and open channel flow respectively. Two peizometer tubes are installed on the pipe at
section 1 and 2. The water levels in the tubes are maintained by the pressure in the pipe at
elevations represented by the so called hydraulic grade line. The pressure exerted by the
water in each section of the pipe is indicated in the corresponding tube by the height (y) of
the water column above the centerline of the pipe. The total energy in the flow of the
section with reference to a datum line is the sum of the elevation z of the pipe center line,
p V2
the piezometric height of and the velocity head , where v is the mean velocity of
 2g
flow. The energy is represented in the figure by the energy grade line or simply energy
line. The loss of energy that results when water flows from section 1 to section 2 is
represented by hf. A similar diagram for open channel flow is shown on the right side of
Figure1-1. For simplicity it is assumed that the flow is parallel and has a uniform velocity
distribution and that the slope of the channel is small. In this case, the water surface is the
hydraulic grade line, and the depth of the water corresponds to the piezometric height.
Despite the similarity between the two kinds of flow, it is much more difficult to solve
problems of flow in open channels than in pressure pipes. This is due to the reason that:
 In open channels the position of the free surface is likely to change with
respect to time and space.
 Depth of flow (y), discharge (Q), and bottom slope (S) and slope of the free
surface are interdependent.
 Physical condition of open channels varies more widely than that of pipes.
2
 Cross section of open channel is widely variable and even might not be
rigid.
 Selection of fiction coefficient is difficult and it varied with the position of
the free surface.
Some examples of open channel flow include
- Flow in storm sewer (partially filled sewers),
- Flow in rivers,
- Flow in irrigation canals,
- Flow in gutters along residential streets and etc.
Activity1.2
1. Discuss all the types of flow based on different categories of
classification and give examples for each classification?
1.2 Classification of Open Channel Flow

Open channel flow can be classified into many types and described in various ways. The
following classification is made depending on the change in flow depth with respect to
 dy dy 
time and space  ,  .
 dt dx 
Flow in an open channel is said to be steady if the depth of flow does not change or if it
can be assumed to be constant during the time interval under consideration at a fixed point.
In steady flow the flow variables (velocity, pressure, density, flow path etc) do not vary
with time at the spatial point in the flow. The path followed by an individual water particle
steady flow is streamline flow.
The flow is unsteady if the depth changes with time. In most open channel problems it is
necessary to study flow behavior only under steady conditions however, the change in flow
condition with respect to time is of major concern and the flow should be treated as
unsteady. For instance, flow like floods and surges are typical examples of unsteady flow.
3
In unsteady flow the flow variables (velocity, pressure, density, flow path etc) vary with
time at the spatial points in the flow.
Examples of unsteady flow:
 Oscillatory sea waves,
 Dam break flood waves,
 Surges due to gate operation,
 Floods.
For any flow, the discharge Q at a channel section is expressed by
Q = VA
Where: v is the mean velocity
A is the flow cross sectional area normal to the direction of the flow. In most problems of
steady flow the discharge is constant throughout the reach of the channel under
consideration (in other words the flow is continuous). Using the above equation
Q = V1 A1 = v2A2. This is the continuity equation for a continuous steady flow.
Where: - The subscripts indicate cross-section of different channel sections.

The above equation is obviously invalid where the discharge of a steady flow is non-
uniform along the channel i.e. where water runs in or out along the course of the flow. This
type of flow is called spatially varied or discontinuous flow. Spatially constant flow occurs
when the density and average velocity are the same in all points in a flow field. If these
quantities change along or across the flow lines the flow is spatially variable. Examples are
side channel spillways, roadside gutters, and the flow in uniform canal of constant slope
receiving inflow or having outflow (e.g. main drainage channels and feeding channels in
irrigation systems).The law of continuity of unsteady flow requires considerations of the
time effect. Hence, the continuity equation for continuous unsteady flow should include
time element as a variable.
When space is used as a criteria open channel flow is said to be uniform if the depth of
flow is the same at every section of the channel otherwise it is varied flow. A uniform flow
may be steady or unsteady, depending on whether or not the depth changes with time
4
Steady uniform flow is the fundamental type of flow treated in open channel hydraulics.
The depth of flow does not change during the time interval under consideration. The
establishment of unsteady uniform flow would require that the water surface fluctuate from
time to time while remaining parallel to the channel bottom. Obviously, this is practically
impossible condition.
Flow is varied if the depth of flow changes along the length of the channel. Varied flow
may be either steady or unsteady. Since unsteady uniform flow is rare, the term “unsteady
flow” is used hereafter to designate unsteady varied flow exclusively. Varied flow may be
further classified as either rapidly or gradually varied.
The flow is rapidly varied if the depth changes abruptly over a comparatively short
distance; otherwise, it is gradually varied. A rapidly varied flow is also known as a local
phenomenon; examples are the hydraulic jump and the hydraulic drop. For clarity the
classification of open-channel flow is summarized as below:
Uniform flow
Steady Flow
Gradually Varied (non-
uniform) Flow
Varied Flow
Rapidly Varied (non-
Flow
uniform) Flow
Unsteady uniform flow
(Quasi uniform flow)
Gradually varied
Unsteady Flow unsteady Flow
Unsteady Flow (i.e.

unsteady varied flow)
Rapidly varied unsteady
flow
Figure 1.2:-General classification of open channel flows
5
1.2.1 Real and Ideal Flow

Real flow implies viscosity and frictional (viscous) effects. Ideal flow is hypothetical, ideal
flow assumes no friction, which means that the velocity is zero. There are no frictional
effects between moving fluid layers or between these layers and boundary walls; there is
no energy dissipation due to friction.
1.2.2 Incompressible and Compressible Flow

Incompressible flow assumes a constant density in time and space. Also liquids are slightly
compressible; it is assumed that they are incompressible. Compressible flows consider
liquids that undergo changes in their density due to changes in absolute pressure and/or
temperature.
1.3 Dimensionless Numbers and State of Flow

Forces that may act on a fluid element include are those due to gravity P g, pressure Pp,
viscosity Pv, and elasticity PE. If an element is at a liquid gas interface, there are forces due
to surface tension PT.
If the summation of all the above forces acting on the fluid element is not add up to zero
the element will be accelerated according to Newton‟s 2nd law. Such an unbalanced force
system can be transformed into a balanced system by adding an inertia force PI (=m.a),
which is equal and opposite to the resultant of the acting forces. A fluid in motion always
involves inertia forces.
Thus,
PG + Pp + PE + PT = Resultant = - PI
 F = m *a = P i
PG + Pp + Pv + PE + PT + P I = 0
These forces may be expressed in simplest term dimensionally in table below:
6
Table 1.1: Dimensional expression of forces

Gravity: PG  mg  gL3
Pressure:
Pp  p  A  p  L2
Viscosity:  du  V 
Pv     A     L2   VL
 dy  L
Elasticity: PE  Ev A  Ev L2
Surface tension: PT  L
Inertia: L
PI  ma  L3 2
 L4 T  2
T
In many flow problems some of these forces are not present or insignificant. The state or
behavior of open channel flow is basically governed by the effects of viscosity and gravity
relative to the inertia force of the flow. The surface tension, forces due to pressure and
elasticity of water may affect the behavior of flow under certain circumstances, but it does
not play a significant role in most open channel problems encountered in hydraulic
engineering.
In problems of fluid flow, the inertia force will always exist and hence it is customary to
find out the force ratios with respect to the inertia forces.
1.3.1 Effect of Viscosity

Depending on the effect of viscosity relative to inertia, the flow may be laminar, turbulent,
or transitional. The basis for this classification is a dimensionless parameter known as the
Reynolds number (Re), which is given by the ratio of these two forces:
Inertia PI V 2 L2 VL VL
Re=    
Vis cos ity PV VL  
Therefore,
VL
Re 

7
Where v = characteristic velocity of flow, often taken as the average velocity of flow,
L = characteristic length. In open channel thus, the characteristic length
commonly used is the hydraulic radius, which is the ratio of the flow area (A)
A
to the wetted perimeter (P), ( R  )
P
This dimensionless number Re is more interesting in pipe flow because in pipe flow the
significant forces are inertia and fluid friction due to viscosity. In a flow through a
completely filled pipe, gravity does not change the flow pattern.
The flow is laminar if the viscous forces are so strong relative to the inertial forces that
viscosity plays a significant part in determining flow behavior. In laminar flow, the water
particles appear to move in definite smooth paths or streamlines and infinitesimally thin
layers of fluid seem to slide over adjacent layers. The flow is turbulent if the viscous forces
are weak relative to the inertial forces. In turbulent flow the water particles move in
irregular paths, which are neither smooth nor fixed but which in the aggregate still
represent the forward motion of the entire stream. An open channel flow is laminar if the
Reynolds number Re is small and turbulent if Re is large. Between the laminar and
turbulent state there is a mixed or transitional state. Numerous experiments have shown
that the flow in pipe changes from laminar to turbulent in the range of Re between the
critical value 2,000 and a value as high as 50,000. In this experiment the diameter of the
pipe was taken as the characteristic length in defining the Reynolds number. When the
hydraulic radius is taken as the characteristic length the corresponding range is from 500 to
12,500 since the diameter of a pipe is four times its hydraulic radius.
A  ( D / 2) 2 D
R   
P D 4
Table1.2: Pipe flow classification based on Re number
For pipe flow R taken as characteristic length D taken as characteristic length
Laminar R  500 R 2000

Transitional 500  R  12, 500 2000  R  50,000
Turbulent 12,500  R 50,000  R
8
For practical purposes the transitional state of flow for open channel flow Re ranges
between 500 and 2,000.
Table 1.3: Open channel flow classification based on Re number
For open channel flow R taken as characteristic length
Laminar Re  500
Transitional 500  Re  2000
Turbulent 2000  Re
1.3.2 Effect of Gravity
The effect of gravity upon the state of flow is represented by a ratio of inertia forces to
gravity forces.
PI L2V 2 V2
Fr 2   
PV gL3 gL
This ratio is given by the Froude Number, defined as:
V
Fr 
gL
Where: - V is the mean velocity of flow in m/s,

g is acceleration due to gravity in m/s2 and
L is a characteristic length in m.
In open channel flow the characteristic length is equal to the hydraulic depth (D) which is
defined as the cross-sectional area of the water normal to the direction of flow in the
channel divided by the width of the free surface. For rectangular channels this is equal to
the depth of the flow section.
When Fr2 is equal to unity i.e. V  gD , the state flow at this condition is said to be
critical state. If Fr2 is less than unity or V  gD , the flow is sub critical. In this state the
role played by gravity force is more pronounced, so the flow has low velocity and is often
9
described as tranquil and streaming. If Fr2 is greater than unity or V  gD , the flow is
supercritical. In this state the inertia forces become dominant, so that the flow has high
velocity and is usually described as rapid, shooting, and torrential. Systems involving
gravity and inertia forces include the wave action by a ship, the flow in open channels, the
forces of a stream on a bridge pier, the flow over a spillway or a jet from an orifice and
other cases where gravity is the dominant force.
Activity1.3
1. What are the kinds of open channel flows and how they are grouped?
1.4 Kinds of Open Channels

An open channel is a conduit in which water flows with a free surface and classified
according to its origin as natural or artificial channels. Natural channels include all
watercourses that exist naturally on the earth, varying in size from tiny rivulets, through
brooks, streams, small and large rivers, to tidal estuaries. Underground streams carrying
water with a free surface are also considered as natural open channels. The hydraulic
properties of natural channels are generally very irregular. In some cases empirical
assumptions reasonably consistent with actual observations and experience may be made
such that the condition of flow in these channels becomes amenable to the analytical
treatment of theoretical hydraulics. A comprehensive study of the behavior of flow in
natural channels requires knowledge of other fields, such as hydrology, geomorphology,
sediment transportation, etc…
Artificial channels are those constructed or developed by human effort: navigation

channels, power channels, power canals, irrigation canals and flumes, drainage ditches,
trough spillway, floodways, long chutes, roadside gutters…, as well as model channels that
are built in the laboratory for testing purposes. The hydraulic properties of such channels
can be either controlled to desire or designed to meet given requirements. The applications
of hydraulic theories to artificial channels will therefore, produce results fairly close to
actual conditions and, hence, are reasonably accurate for practical design purposes.
10
A channel built with unvarying cross section and constant bottom slope is called prismatic
channel. Otherwise, the channel is non-prismatic; for example is a trough spillway having
variable width and curved alignment. Unless specifically indicated, the channels described
in this book are prismatic.
Activity 1.4
1. What is the reason behind for the velocity and pressure distribution in open
channel flow is not uniformly distributed?
2. Discuss how they affect the flow?
1.5 Velocity and Pressure Distributions in Open Channel Flow

1.5.1 Velocity Distribution in Open Channel Flow
Owing to the presence of free surface and to the friction along the channel wall, the
velocities in open channel are not uniformly distributed. The measured maximum velocity
in ordinary channels usually appear to occur below the free surface at a distance of 0.05 to
0.25 of the depth, the closer the banks the deeper the maximum.
As a result of non-uniform distribution of velocities over the channel section, the velocity
head of an open channel flow is generally greater than the value computed according to the
expression V2/2g, where V is the mean velocity. In practice usually average velocity across
the flow is taken and correction coefficients are applied. A correction coefficient called
Carioles coefficient (energy coefficient)  is used in computations when energy principle
is used, i.e. the velocity head will be expressed as V2/2g. Experimental data indicate that
the value of  varies from 1.03 to 1.36 for fairly straight prismatic channels.
Non-uniform distribution of velocity also affects computation of momentum (mv =

QgV), where  is momentum coefficient or Boussinesq coefficient generally 1.01
<<1.12 for straight prismatic channels. For channels of regular cross section and fairly
straight alignment the effect of non-uniform velocity on velocity head and momentum is
11
small especially in comparison with the uncertainty involved in the computation.

Therefore,  and  are assumed to be unity.
Generally the energy and momentum correction coefficients are determined as follows
Mean velocity (V) for the entire cross section of the channel is defined depending on the
longitudinal component velocity (u) as
1
V=
A  udA-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (1)
Discharge passing through a section can be expressed
Q=  udA = V ∗ A------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (2)
To compute kinetic energy flux average velocity is used. Average velocity (V) is less than
real Velocity (u), so that correction factor α is used. For an elemental area (dA), the kinetic
energy flux (KEflux) can be expressed as:-
KE flux
KEflux = --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Time
(3)
Multiplying the right side of equation (3) by mass/mass
KE flux mass
KEflux= * ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- (4)
Time mass
In other way mass (m) for an elemental area (dA) =ƍ*L*dA and KE =
½*mass*u2thereforeSubstituting these into equation (4)
 1 mass  LdA
KEflux=  * * u2  * ----------------------------------------------------------- (5)
 2 mass  time (t )
It is obvious that u=L/t in real flow and substituting this to equation (5)
 1 mass  1
KEflux=  * * u 2  * ( udA) = * u 3 dA ------------------------------------- (6)
 2 mass  2
For the total area KE___ can found by integrating equation (6)
1 1
KEflux=  *  * u 3 dA  V 3 A ----------------------------------------------------- (7)
A
2 2
Therefore,
12
 u dA
3
--------------------------------------------------------------------------- (8)
 A
 1.00 Where α=kinetic energy correction factor
V 3A
ρ=fluid density
V= mean velocity normal to flow direction
u= real velocity normal to flow direction
A= Total Channel cross sectional area normal to flow direction
dA= elemental cross sectional area of the channel normal to flow direction
Similarly momentum correction factor β at a section for an elemental area of dA can be
determined from momentum flux as follow:-
mass
Momentum flux in the longitudinal direction = * velocity ----------------------------- (9)
time
Momentum flux=ρu2dA---------------------------------------------------------------------------- (10)
For the total area Momentum flux can found by integrating equation (10)

a
ρu2dA =βV2ρA
Hence,
u
2
dA
------------------------------------------------------------- (11)
 A
2
V A
Example:
Determine the kinetic energy correction factor α and momentum correction factor β for
both the velocity profiles.
Figure 1.3: Velocity Distributions of the flow

Solution:
13
y U y
From linear relation  ,U  Um
D Um D
1
BD 
V= UdA
1 y 
D
V=   Um Bdy
BD 0  D 
1
V= Um
2
Determination of kinetic correction factor α
1
3 
α= U 3 dA
A*v
3
 y 
D
α= 1
3 
Um  Bdy
1  0D 
BD *  Um 
2 
α=2
Determination of momentum correction factor α
u
2
dA
 A
V 2A
2
y 
D
1
2 
 Um  Bdy
1  0D 
BD Um 
2 
β=1.333
1.5.2 Pressure Distributions in Open Channel

The intensity of pressure for a liquid at its free surface is equal to that of the surrounding
atmosphere. Since the atmospheric pressure is commonly taken as a reference and of equal
to zero, the free surface of the liquid is thus a surface of zero pressure. The pressure
distribution in an open channel flow is governed by the acceleration of gravity g and other
accelerations and is given by the Euler‟s equation as below:
14
In any arbitrary direction s,

 ( p  Z )
  as
S ----------------------------------------------------------------------- (11)
And in the direction normal to s direction i.e. in the n direction,
( p  Z )
  an
n --------------------------------------------------------------------------- (12)
In which p = pressure, as = acceleration component in the s direction, an = acceleration in
the n direction and z = geometric elevation measured above a datum.
Consider the s direction along the streamline in the n direction normal to it. The direction
of the normal towards the center of curvature is considered as positive. We are interested in
studying the pressure distribution in the n-direction. The normal acceleration of any
streamline at a cross-section is given by
V2
an 
r ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(13)
Where: v = velocity of flow along the streamline of radius of curvature r.
r= radius of stream line curvature
The normal acceleration an will be zero,
1. If v = 0 i.e. when there is no motion, or
2. If r →∞ i.e. when the streamlines are straight lines.
Consider the case of no motion, since an = 0 taking n in the z direction and integrating the
equation
p
+ z =constant = C

Figure1.4: Pressure distribution in still water
15
At the free surface point 1 in (Fig. 1.4); p1/ γ = 0 and z = z1, giving C = z1. At any point A
at a depth y below the free surface
PA
 Z1  Z A  y
 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------14
PA= y
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------15
This linear variation of pressure with depth with the constant of proportionality equal to
the specific weight of the liquid is known as hydrostatic pressure distribution.
Channels with small slope, Let us consider a channel with a very small value of the
longitudinal slope θ. Let θ ≈ sinθ≈1/1000. For such channels the vertical section is
practically the same as the normal section. If a flow takes place in this channel with the
water surface parallel to the bed, the streamlines will be straight lines and as such in a
vertical direction (section 0 – 1 in Figure below) the normal acceleration an = 0. The
pressure distribution at (section 0 – 1) will be Hydrostatic. At any point A at a depth y
below the water surface,
P P
=y and +Z= Z1= Elevation of water surface
 
Figure 1.5: Pressure distribution in a channel with small slope

Thus the piezometric head at any point in the channel will be equal to the water surface
elevation. The hydraulic grade line will therefore lie (coincide) on the water surface.
For channels with large slope, the figure below shows a uniform free surface flow in a
channel with a large value of inclination θ. The flow is uniform i.e. the water surface is
parallel to the bed. An element of length ΔL is considered at the cross-section 0 – 1.
16
Figure 1.6: Pressure distribution in a channel with large slope

At any point A at a depth y measured normal to the water surface, the weight of
columnA11‟A‟ = γ ΔL y and acts vertically downwards. The pressure at AA‟ supports the
normal component of the column A11‟A‟. Thus,
PA ΔL = γ y L cos θ
PA= γ y cos θ
PA/γ = y cos θ
The pressure pA varies linearly with the depth y but the constant of proportionality
becomes γ cosθ. If h = normal depth of flow and the pressure on the bed at point o is po= γ
h cosθ, If d = vertical depth to water surface measured at point O, then h = d cosθ and the
pressure head at point o, on the bed is given by, Po/γ = h cosθ d cos2 θ
The piezometric head at any point A, pA = z + y cosθ =zo + hcosθ .Thus for channels with
large values of the slope, the conventionally defined hydraulic gradient line does not lie on
the water surface. Channels of large slopes are encountered rather rarely in practice except,
typically, in spillways and chutes. On the other hand, most of the canals, streams and rivers
with which a hydraulic engineer is commonly associated will have slopes (sin θ) smaller
than1/100. For such cases cos θ ≈ 1.0 as such, the term cosθ in the expression for the
Pressure will be omitted assuming that the pressure distribution is hydrostatic.
17
The Pressure Distribution in Curvilinear flow in a vertical plane on an upward convex

surface is shown below. For simplicity consider a section 01A2 in which the r direction
and Z direction coincide. Replacing the n direction by (-r) direction,
( p  Z ) an

S g
0020
Figure 1.7: Convex curvilinear flow
Let us assume a simple case in which an = constant. Then the integration of equation
yields,
P an
+Z= r  C where C= constant
 g
Using boundary condition at point 2 which lies on the surface, r = r2 and p/γ = 0 and z = z2.
P an
C +Z - r
 g
an
C  0  Z2 - r2
g
P an a
+Z = r + Z2 - n r2
 g g
P an
 Z 2  Z1  (r2  r )
 g
Let z − z = y, depth of flow for the free surface of any point A in the section 01A2. Then
for point A,
18
(r2− r) = y = (z2− z)
P an
 y y
 g
This equation shows that the pressure is less than the pressure obtained by the hydrostatic
P
distribution. For any normal direction OBC in Figure above at point C, ( ) c =0, rc= r2and

for any point at a radial distance r from the origin O,
P an
 (Zc  Z )  (r2  r )
 g
( Z c  Z )  (r2  r ) cos 
P an
 (r2  r ) cos   (r2  r )
 g
If the curvature is convex downwards (i.e. r direction is opposite to z direction)following
the argument above, for constant an the pressure at any point A at a depth y below the free
surface in a vertical section O1A2 can be shown to be,
P an
 y y
 g
The pressure distribution in vertical section is as shown in Figure below
Figure 1.8: Concave curvilinear flow

Thus it is seen that for a curvilinear flow in a vertical plane, an additional pressure will be
imposed on the hydrostatic pressure distribution. The extra pressure will be additive if the
curvature is convex downwards and subtractive if it is convex upwards.
19
In the previous section on curvilinear flows, the normal acceleration an was assumed to be
constant. However, it is known that at any point in a curvilinear flow, an = v2 / r, where v =
velocity and r = radius of curvature of the streamline at that point. In general, one can write
v = f (r) and the pressure distribution can then be expressed by,
P  V2
  Z    dr  C
  gr
This expression can be evaluated if v = f (r) is known. For simple analysis, the following
functional forms are used in appropriate circumstances;
1. C = constant = V = mean velocity of flow
2. V = c / r, (free vortex)
3. V = cr, (forced vortex)
4. an = constant = V2/R, where R = radius of curvature at mid depth.
20
Unit Summary
Open channel is a conduit for flow, which has a free surface, i.e. a boundary, exposed to
the atmosphere. Open channel flow must have a free surface, whereas pipe flow has none,
since the water must fill the whole conduit. A free surface is subject to atmospheric
pressure. Flow in an open channel is said to be steady if the depth of flow does not change
or if it can be assumed to be constant during the time interval under consideration at a
fixed point. In steady flow the flow variables (velocity, pressure, density, flow path etc.) do
not vary with time at the spatial point in the flow. The flow is unsteady if the depth
changes with time. When space is used as a criteria open channel flow is said to be uniform
if the depth of flow is the same at every section of the channel otherwise it is varied flow.
The flow types are determined by relative magnitudes of the governing forces of the
motion which are inertia, viscosity, and gravity forces.
Owing to the presence of free surface and to the friction along the channel wall, the
velocities in open channel flow are not uniformly distributed. The measured maximum
velocity in ordinary channels usually appear to occur below the free surface at a distance of
0.05 to 0.25 of the depth, the closer the banks the deeper the maximum.
A correction coefficient called Carioles coefficient (energy coefficient)  is used in
computations when energy principle is used, i.e. the velocity head will be expressed as
V2/2g. Experimental data indicate that the value of  varies from 1.03 to 1.36 for fairly
straight prismatic channels. Non-uniform distribution of velocity also affects computation
of momentum (mv = QgV), where  is momentum coefficient or Boussinesq coefficient
generally 1.01 <<1.12 for straight prismatic channels.
The intensity of pressure for a liquid at its free surface is equal to that of the surrounding
atmosphere. Since the atmospheric pressure is commonly taken as a reference and of equal
to zero, the free surface of the liquid is thus a surface of zero pressure. The pressure
distribution in an open channel flow is governed by the acceleration of gravity g and other
accelerations and is given by the Euler‟s equation as below.
21
This linear variation of pressure with depth with the constant of proportionality equal to
the specific weight of the liquid is known as hydrostatic pressure distribution.
Review questions
1. Write the difference between open channel flow and pipe flow and develop your
understanding with neat sketch?
2. 2. What is the reason behind for the velocity distribution in open channel flow is not
uniformly distributed? And discuss how they affect?
3. 3. Discuss all the classification of flow in open channel flow?
4. 3. The velocity distribution in an open channel is approximated as shown below.
Determine the kinetic energy correction factor (α) and momentum correction factor (β) for
this velocity profile.
1 1
(Ans. α = and β = )
1  a 2
1  a 
5. The velocity distribution in a very wide rectangular channel of 3m deep is given by
1
 y 2
u=1+2*   , calculate α and β? (Ans. α =1.117784 and β =1.040816)
 yo 
6. A Spillway crests having a circular area of radius 6m as shown in fig. below. Calculate the
pressure at point (1) (on channel bottom inclined with 30L from vertical, when discharge
intensity is 5.00m2/sec, by assuming
a) The velocity is constant along 1-2

b) Velocity varies linearly with radius (u=kr)
c) Velocity varies inversely with radius (u=k/r)
d) Normal acceleration is constant at a value corresponding to average velocity
and radius at the center line V2/R
22
Pressure Distributions in convex curvilinear open channel flow of problem 5
23
CHAPTER TWO
Basic Hydraulics Principles

 Know the main/fundamental principles of open channel flow,
 Know the geometric elements of a channel section,
 understand the concept and application of specific energy,
 Estimate critical depth and critical specific energy for different channels and
 Know briefly about channel transition.
2.1 Geometric Elements of Channel Section

Geometric elements are properties of a channel section that can be defined entirely by the
geometry of the section and the depth of flow. The most used geometric properties include:
1. Depth of flow(y): it the vertical distance from the lowest point of the channel to the
free surface.
2. Top width (T): it is the width of channel section at free surface.
3. Stage (h): is the elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above a datum.
4. Wetted perimeter (p): it is the length of the channel boundary which is in contact
with water.
5. Wetted area (A): is the cross-sectional area of the flow normal to the direction of
flow.
6. Hydraulic radius (R): it is the ratio of wetted area to its wetted perimeter. it is also
called hydraulic mean depth
R= A
P
7. Hydraulic depth(D): the ratio of wetted area to the top width,
D= A
T
8. Section factor (Z): the section factor for critical flow computation Z is the product
of the water area the square root of the hydraulic depth, or
24
A
Z=A D =A
T
2
The section factor for uniform flow computation A R 3 is the product of the water area
and the two thirds of power of the hydraulic radius
Activity 2.1
Define each of the following terms;
1. Specific energy, critical specific energy. Critical depth?
2. Discuss about conservation of energy and mass?
3. What are the geometric elements of a channel section and determine each
geometric element?
Table 2.1: Geometric elements of the most common channel sections
25
2.2 Fundamental /Main Principles

To any situation in hydraulics we can apply two out of three principles:
A) Principle of conservation of matter (continuity)
B) Principle of conservation of energy (in case all energy “losses” are known)
C) Principle of conservation of matter (continuity)
D) Momentum principle (in case all external forces are known)
2.3 Continuity Principle (Conservation of Mass)

In open channel flow the continuity principle for a constant discharge Q is:
 
Q  V1 A1  V2 A2
A = the cross-sectional area in sections 1 and 2,

V = the mean velocity in sections 1 and 2
If the mean velocity remains constant (V1 = V2) then the cross-sectional area A (A = Q/V)
remains constant. The open channel has a prismatic cross -section. This means for uniform
flow a constant water depth in all section. Uniform flow is a result from an exact balance
between the force of gravity and the frictional resistance.
Application of the continuity principle to unsteady, open channel flow is more difficult. In
unsteady open channel flow the water surface will change over a certain distance
X  X 2  X 1 . and during a certain time t .
During t : Inflow-Outflow = Storage
Q t  y x BS
As the velocity and the discharge varies over a distance.
x : Q  Q2  Q1  Q / x  x.
The discharge Q will vary with time t and with the distance along the canal. If y is the
water depth and Bs the width at the water surface, then the increase of volume between the
sections 1 and 2 during time t : Q t  Vo1  y Bs x.
The two terms derived are equal in magnitude, but different in sign:
26
Q y
 BS 0
x t
This is the equation of continuity for unsteady open channel flow.
2.4 Energy Principle

The energy equation and the momentum equation are used in addition to the continuity
equation in analyzing fluid-flow situations. They are both derived from Newton‟s second
law of motion. In this section, the force components on a fluid particle in the direction of
its motion are equated to the product of mass of the particle and acceleration along the
streamline. The equation is obtained in differential form and requires the assumption of a
frictionless fluid and steady flow. The equation may then be integrated for particular
assumptions regarding the relation between density and pressure to obtain the energy
equation.
Figure 2.1: The Force components on a fluid particle.
In (fig. 2.1), let S be a streamline in steady flow, and consider the forces acting on a fluid
particle in the direction S of the streamline. The element has a prismatic cross-sectional
area A and length s – a frictionless fluid is assumed in order to eliminate all shears in the
fluid (i.e. ideal flow is assumed instead of real flow). On the upstream end the element the
force is PA, in which P is the pressure intensity at the center of the face. The force on the
downstream end of the element is:-
 dP 
P  s  A
 ds  , and acts in the negative direction. Any forces acting on the sides of the
element are normal too the streamline do not enter the equation. The only other force
27
acting is due to gravity and is AS, acting vertically down ward. The component in the S-
direction is: -AS Cos. By substituting it in to,  FS  mas .
 dP  
PA   P   S  A  A S cos   A S as
 ds  g
After dividing through by the weight of the element AS and simplifying.
1 dP a
 cos   S  0
 ds g
Z is increase in elevation for a displacement S along the stream line and from Figure 2.1.
Z dZ
 cos  
S dS
dv
The acceleration as is . to keep this expression simple, the assumption of steady flow is
dt
introduced, so that V is a function of S only along a streamline. Writing,
dV ds dV ds
aS  . V , the velocity along the streamline is . The equation becomes.
ds dt ds dt
1 dP dz V dV
  0
 ds ds g ds
By multiplying the above equation trough by g and with the additional assumption that the
fluid is incompressible (i.e. assuming a constant density in time and space) and integrating
with respect to S.
p V2
 gz   Constant
 2
This is Energy equation (Bernoulli‟s Equation) for steady flow of a frictionless,

incompressible fluid along a streamline. It states that energy per unit mass of a flowing
L2
fluid is constant, the dimensions for this equation are , i.e. energy per unit mass.
T2
Potential energy = mgZgZ is potential energy per unit mass.

2
Kinetic Energy ( 1 mV 2 )  V is kinetic energy per unit mass.
2 2
28
Work/Energy = F.S = ( P  A)  S
We can represent he unit mass as: unit mass =   A S
PA s P
Therefore, Pressure Energy per unit mass = 
As  
By dividing the above equation by g we get on expression for energy per unit weight, or
more simply, meters. This expression is particularly convenient form to apply to situations
with free liquid surface, i.e. open channel flows.
p V2
Z    C
 2g
For open channel section with steady flow and straight and parallel streamlines, there is no
centripetal acceleration, i.e. where the hydrostatic pressure distribution holds true, the
p
pressure head lies in the water surface.

p
 d cos  - For channel with large slope and

p - For channel with small slope
 y

Substituting for channel of large slope the total energy may be written as
V2
Z  d cos    C
2g
In general, every streamline passing through a channel section will have a different
velocity head, owing to the non-uniform velocity distribution in actual flow. Only in an
ideal parallel flow of uniform velocity distribution can the velocity head be truly identical
for all points on the cross-section.
In the case of gradually varied flow, however, it may be assumed, for practical purposes,
that the velocity heads for all points on the channel section are equal, and energy
coefficient (Carioles Coefficient) may be used to correct for the overall effect of the non-
uniform velocity distribution. Thus, the total energy, equation at a channel section takes
the form.
v2
Z y    C
2g
29
According to this equation (the principle of conservation of energy), the total energy head
at upstream section 1 should be equal to the total energy head at downstream section 2 plus
the loss of energy hf between the two section; or
2 2
v v
Z1  y1   1  Z 2  y2   2  h f
2g 2g
This equation applies to parallel or gradually varied flow. Consider now a prismatic
channel.
The line representing the elevation of the total head of flow is the energy line. The slope of
the line is known as the energy gradient, denoted by S f. The slope of the water surface is
denoted by Sw and the slope of the channel bottom by So = tan. In uniform flow, Sf = Sw =
So = tan.
2.4.1 Specific Energy and Critical Depth

The “Specific energy” is the average energy per unit weight of water with respect to the
channel bottom. The piezometric head related to the bottom is p (with Z = 0)
Z  y

which is the water depth. Therefore, the specific energy is the sum of the water-depth (y)
and the velocity head, if the streamlines are straight and parallel.
V2
ES  y 
2g
For a given section and constant discharge (Q), the specific energy is a function of water-
depth only, since V  Q .

A
Q2
Es  y 
2 g y 2 BS2
When the depth of flow is plotted against the specific energy for a given channel section
and discharge, a specific-energy curve is obtained (Figure 2.3).
30
Figure 2.2: Specific Energy Curve
This curve has to limbs AC and BC. The limb AC approaches the horizontal axis
asymptotically towards the right. The limb BC approaches the line OD as it extends
upward and to the right. Line OD is a line that passes through the origin and has an angle
of inclination equal to 45o. At any point P on this curve, the ordinate represents the depth,
and the abscissa represents the specific energy which is equal to the sum of the pressure
head y and the velocity head V 2 2 g.
The curve shows that for a certain discharge Q two flow regimes are possible, viz. slow
and deep flow or a fast and shallow flow, i.e. for a given specific energy, there are two
possible depths, for instance, the low stage y. and the high stage y2. The low stage is called
the alternate depth of the high stage, and vice versa. At pint C, the specific energy has
minimum value. It can be proved that this condition of minimum specific energy
corresponds to the critical state of flow. Thus, at the critical state the two alternate depths
apparently become one, which is known as the critical depth (yc). When the depth of flow
is greater than the critical depth, the velocity of flow is less than the critical velocity for the
given discharge, and, hence, the flow is sub critical. When the depth of flow is less than
critical depth the flow is supercritical. Hence y1, is the depth of a supercritical flow, and Y2
is the depth of a sub critical flow.
31
If the discharge in the channel changes the specific energy will be changed accordingly.
The two curves A‟B‟ and A”B” (Figure 2.3) represent positions of the specific energy
curve when the discharge is less and greater, respectively than the discharge used for the
construction of the curve AB.
Example:
A rectangular channel 3.00m wide carries a discharge of 10.00m3/sec. and has its specific
energy of 2.00m water. Calculate alternate depths and corresponding Froude numbers.
Solution:
V2 Q2
Es  y   y
2g 2g y 2 B 2
10 2
2  y
2 * 9.81*32 y 2
Solving by trial and error y1 =1.84m and y2 =0.64m
V 10
Fr1    0.4264  1
gy1 3 *1.84 * 9.81*1.84
Since Fr1< 1the flow is subcritical

V 10
Fr2    2.5056  1
gy 2 3 * 0.64 * 9.81* 0.64
Since Fr1> 1the flow is supercritical
2.4.2 The Critical State of Flow

The critical state of flow is defined as the state of flow at which the specific energy is a
minimum for a given discharge or it is the condition for which the Froude number (Fr2)
equal to unity.
V2
ES  y 
2g
V
For Q 
A
32
Q2
ES  y  (Differentiating with respect to y and noting that Q is a constant.)
2 g A2
d ES Q 2 dA
 1
dy g A3 dy
The differential water area dA near the free surface (figure 2-5) is equal to BS dy Now
dA and the hydraulic depth D A . So the above equation becomes.
 BS 
dy BS
dE S Q 2 Bs Q2
 1  1 
dy gA3 gA 2 D
Q
But V  Substituting
A
dE S V 2 A2 V2
 1  1   ES min imum
dy gA 2 D gD
At the critical state of flow the specific energy is a minimum, or dE  0 . The above
dy
Equation, therefore, gives.

v2 D

2g 2
This is the criterion for critical flow, which states that at critical state of flow, the velocity
head is equal to half the hydraulic depth. The above equation may also be written
V
 1, which means Fr = 1; this is the definition of critical flow given previously.
gD
From the critical flow equation we can obtain the relationship between the critical depth
and critical specific energy for rectangular and triangular channels are determined as
follow.
For rectangular channel:-
From critical flow equation,
33
2
Qc Tc
3 =1
gAc
2 2
Vc b 2 yc b V2
3
 1 ,  yc
gb3 yc g
Applying specific energy equation
V2 y
Ec  yc   yc  c
2g 2
3
Ec = yc
2
For triangular channel:-
2my
1
θ m y
2
Qc Tc
From critical flow equation, 3
=1
gAc
1
2
Qc * 2myc  2 * Qc 2  5
 1, yc   
g myc 
3 2
 gm 
By applying specific energy equation
V2 Q2
Ec  yc   yc 
2g 2 g myc
2
 
2
,
5
m 2 yc Q2
From  
2 g
5
m 2 yc
Ec  yc  4
2 * 2m 2 yc
5
Ec  yc
4
34
Example:
Supercritical flow occurs at Froude number (Fr=2) at a depth y=0.63m in a rectangular
channel. Find the critical depth yc.
Solution:
V
Fr 
V 2
gD 9.81* 0.63
,
V= 4.972m/se
q= v y =4.972*0.63 = 3.13238m3/se/m
Example:
Calculate critical depth yc and corresponding specific energy Ec for the following different
shapes of channel when Q=8.5m3/sec having a rectangular channel having width of 2.5m.
Solution:
1
  8.5  2  3
   3
1
 q2 3
yc      
2.5  
 1.05624m,
Ec  yc  3 (1.05624)  1.58436m
 g   9.81  2 2
 
 
Activity 2.2
1. What is the application of momentum principle?
2. Write the general equation of momentum function?
2.5 Momentum Principle

The momentum equation is developed from Newton‟s second low of motion by summing
up the resultant force on a free body of fluid on one side of the equation and by developing
the other side of the equation into an equivalent expression in terms of rates of in flow and
outflow of momentum. According to Newton's second law of motion the change of
momentum (dmv) per unit time, is equal to the resultant of all external forces acting on a
body (body of water flow in a channel in our case).
d (mv)
F  , The momentum passing a section A per unit time (t = 1sec):
dt
35
mv =* (A. V) V
Where, A*V represent the volume passing per unit time.
mv = QV
Or including the momentum coefficient (Boussinesq coefficient)
mv =  *  * Q * v
2
mv =  *  * Q
A
Within the control volume defined in the figure there is an unknown energy loss and/or
force acting on the flow between section 1 and 2; the result is a change in the linear
momentum of the flow. In many cases, this change in momentum is accompanied by a
change in depth of flow. The application of Newton's second law, in a one dimensional
flow to the control volume, i.e. equating the sum of all external forces (F) to the rate of
change of momentum ( Q V) for any two cross-sections 1 and 2 gives:
F  Q (V2  V )1
Or including the momentum coefficient F =  (2v2 – 1v2) implies
Consider a channel section of mild slope and analyzes the forces acting.
F
W sin
F
Ff
W 
Figure 2.3:- momentum passing through a section

Thus, F =  (2v2 – 1v2) implies
F = F1 –F2 + w sin  - Ff =  (2 v2 - 1v1)
F1 and F2 are the resultant pressure forces acting on the two sections and w is the weight of
the water between the two sections. Ff is the total friction force acting along the surface of
the body. The slope is mild assume sin So = 0 then W sin  = 0, and for a flow with
parallel flow lines the pressure is assumed to be hydrostatic. The force F1 is g A y , where
A is the cross sectional area and of y+ the depth of the center of gravity of the area A (the
36
depth of centroid of the cross sectional area measured below the surface of flow). For
rectangular section of small slope
F = g by (y/2) ( y = y/2)
(Remark for canals with large slope F = g bdcos  ½ dcos  = ½ g (bd 2 cos2)
Therefore, substituting
W sin  = o
F1 = g A1 y 1 , and F2 = gA2 y 2
F1 – F2 + w sin - Ff =  (2v2 - 1v1)

g A1 y 1 -g A2 y 2 - Ff = Q (2v2 - 1 v1)
- Ff = g A2 y 2 - g A1 y 1 Q2   2  1 
 
 A2 A1 
 Q 2    Q2 

- Ff= g  2 2
A y     A1 y1  1 
 A2 g   gA1 
Ff   Q2   Q2 
  A1 y1  1    A2 y 2   2 
g  gA1 
  gA2 
The term in brackets is called the momentum function (M) or in general:

Q2
M =A y + 
qA
Ff
Then = M 1 – M2
g
For a given discharge Q, channel shape and coefficient  the function, M depends only on
the water depth y. Plotting M against ay gives a similar figure as for the specific energy Es
against depth y. This curve is called specific force curve. In the figure two regions can be
determined, namely sub and supercritical flow. For every M > Mmin two water depths exist,
which are called the initial and sequent depth. Together they are conjugate depths.
b
1
B h
2
37
h  2b  B 
1   
3  bB 
h  2B  b 
2   
2  bB 
A 
1
b  B h
2
In applying the momentum principle to a short horizontal reach of a prismatic canal, the
external forces of friction and the weight effect of water can be ignored. Thus, with  = 0
and Ff = 0 the equation becomes:
Q2 Q2
M 1  M 2  A1 y1    A2 y 2  
gA1 gA2
The momentum function M = y A +  Q consists of two terms. The second term

2
gA
 Q 2 
  is the momentum of the flow passing through the channel section per unit time
 gA 
per unit weight of water, and the first term (A y ) is the force per unit weight of water.
Since both terms are essentially force per unit weight of water, their sum may be called the
specific force. Accordingly, it may be expressed as F1 = F2.Thus, in analogy with the
concept of specific energy for a given value M, the M - y curve predicts two possible
depths of flow – conjugate depths of a hydraulic jump.
1 Q2
For a rectangular cross section y = y. Assuming,  = 1 results in m = Ay +
2 gA
The function per unit width (b = 1) reads
q2
M = 1 y2 + the function have an extreme for:
2 gy
dM q2
 y
dy gy
Where q = is discharge per unit width
q2
y3 
g
38
1
 q2 3 q2
y= yc = 
 g 
 = 3
  g
d 2m q2
 1 2 3
dy 2 gy
2
For y =yc, d m 2q 2 2g
 1 1 3
dy 2  q2  g
g  
 g 
The minimum value of the specific momentum function can be found under the
assumptions of parallel flow and uniform velocity distribution by taking the first derivative
of M with respect to y and setting the resulting expression equal to zero or
dm
 
Q2 dA

 
d yA
0
dy gA 2 dy dy
Q 2 dA
 A 0
gA 2 dy
Bs (dy ) 2
Where d ( y A) = [A ( y +dy) + ]  y A  Ady and where it is assumed that
2
(dy)2 = 0 Then substituting dA/dy = Bs, v = Q
, and D 
A
A T
V2 D
We get  which is the same criterion developed for the minimum value of specific
2g 2
force (momentum) occurs at minimum specific energy or critical depth.

The given number 3 is positive, so for momentum value for y =yc. It has to be noted that
the given relation for yc is only applicable for open rectangular (prismatic) channels. For
other cross sections the following impulse momentum equation should be used
Ff  1 Q 2   2 Q2 
  A y
 1 1  
   A y
 2 2 

g  A2 g   A2 g 
Ff
 M1  M 2
g
With these equation it is possible to compute one unknown among the four variables (F, Q,
A1, A2) for a given channel shape and 1 =2 = 1; ( y is also a function of channel shape
and water level).
39
The impulse momentum principle also follows from Newton‟s second law. The flow may
be compressible or incompressible, real (with friction) or ideal (frictionless), steady or
unsteady moreover, the equation is not only valid along a streamline. The advantage of the
impulse momentum principle is that only the conditions at the end sections of the control
volume govern the analysis. It has a special advantage for application to problems
involving high internal energy changes, such as the problem of the hydraulic jump.
If the energy equation is applied to such problems, the unknown internal energy loss
represented by hf is indeterminate, and the omission of this term would result in a
considerable errors. If instead the momentum equation is applied to these problems, since
it deals only with external forces, the effects of the internal forces, the effects of the
internal forces will be entirely out of consideration and need not be evaluated. The term for
frictional losses due to external forces, on the other hand, is unimportant in such problems
and can safely be omitted, because the phenomenon takes place in a short reach of the
channel and the effect due to external forces is negligible compared with the internal
losses.
Activity 2.3
1. What is channel transition?
2. Discuss the effects of channel transition with a hump or width constriction on
the specific energy of open channel flow?
2.6 Channel Transition

The concepts of specific energy and critical energy are useful in the analysis of transition
Problem. Transitions in rectangular channels are presented here. The principles are equally
applicable to channels of any shape and other types of transitions.
2.6.1 Channel Transition with a Hump

A) Subcritical Flow: - Consider horizontal, frictionless rectangular channel of width B
carrying discharge Q at depth y1.Let the flow be subcritical. At a section 2 in (Fig.2.4.1) a
40
smooth hump of height ΔZ is built on the floor. Since there are no energy losses between
sections 1 and 2, construction of a hump causes the specific energy at section to decrease
by ΔZ. Thus the specific energies at sections 1 and 2 are,
2 2
V2 V
E2  y2  E1  y1  1 and
2g 2g
Figure 2.4: Channel transition with a hump

Since the flow is subcritical, the water surface will drop due to a decrease in the specific
energy. In (Fig. 2.4.2), the water surface which was at P at section 1 will come down to
point R at section 2. The depth y2 will be given by;
2
V2 Q
E2  y 2   y2  2 2
2g B y2 2 g
Figure 2.5: Specific energy diagram for channel with hump

It is easy to see from (Fig. 2.4.2) that as the value of ΔZ is increased; the depth at section 2,
y2will decrease. The minimum depth is reached when the point R coincides with C, the
critical depth. At this point the hump height will be maximum, ΔZmax, y2 = yc =critical
41
depth, and E2 = Ec = minimum energy for the flowing discharge Q. The condition at ΔZmax
is given by the relation
Q2
E1 - ΔZmax = E2 = Ec = yc + 2
2 gB 2 yc
The question may arise as to what happens when ΔZ > ΔZmax. From Fig2.4.2it is seen that
the flow is not possible with the given conditions (given discharge). The upstream depth
has to increase to cause and increase in the specific energy at section 1. If this modified
depth is represented by y1`,
Q2
= y1 
'
' 2 (with E1 >E1 and y1  y1 )
' ' '
E1 2
2 gB y1
At section 2 the flow will continue at the minimum specific energy level, i.e. at the critical
condition. At this condition, y2 = yc, and
Q2
E1 - ΔZ = E2 = Ec = yc + 2
2 gB 2 yc
Recollecting the various sequences, when 0 < ΔZ < ΔZmax the upstream water level
remains stationary at y1 while the depth of flow at section 2 decreases with ΔZ reaching a
minimum value of yc at ΔZ = ΔZmax. Fig 2.4.2with further increase in the value of ΔZ, i.e.
for ΔZ > ΔZmax, y1 will change to y1` while y2 will continue to remain yc. The variation of
y1 and y2 with ΔZ in the subcritical regime can be clearly seen in (Fig. 2.4.3).
Figure 2.6: Variation of y1 and y2 in subcritical flow over a hump

B) Supercritical Flow: - If y1 is in the supercritical flow regime (Figure 2.4.2) shows that
the depth of flow increases due to the reduction of specific energy. In (Fig .2.4.2) point P`
corresponds to y1 and point R` to depth y2 at the section 2. Up to the critical depth, y2
42
increases to reach yc at ΔZ =ΔZmax. For ΔZ > ΔZmax, the depth over the hump y2 = yc will
remain constant and the upstream depth y1 will change. It will decrease to have a higher
specific energy E1`byincreasing velocity V1. The variation of the depths y1 and y2 with ΔZ
in the supercritical flow is shown in (Fig. 2.4.4).
Figure 2.7: Variation of y1 and y2 in supercritical flow over a hump

Example:
A rectangular channel has a width of 2.0 m and carries a discharge 4.80 m3/sec with a
depth of 1.60 m. At a certain cross-section a small, smooth hump with a flat top and a
height 0.10 m is proposed to be built. Neglect the energy loss.
A). Calculate the likely change in the water surface.
B). In this example if the height of the hump is 0.50 m, estimate the water surface
elevation on the hump and at a section upstream of the hump.
Solution:
A), Let the suffixes 1 and 2 refer to the upstream and downstream sections respectively
q = 4.8/2=2.4m3/se/m
V 21 1.52
v1 =2.4/1.6 =1.5m/se,   0.115m
2g 2 * 9.81
V1 1.5
Fr1    0.38
gy1 9.81 *1.6
The upstream flow is subcritical and the hump will cause a drop in the water surface
elevation. The specific energy at section 1 is,
E1 = 1.6+0.115 =1.715m
E2 =E1 -  Z =1.715-0.1 =1.615m
43
1 1
 q 2  3  2.42  3
yc        0.837m
g  9.81
Ec =1.5yc = 1.5*0.837 = 1.26m
The minimum specific energy at section 2 is Ec2 = 1.26 m < E2 = 1.615 m. Hence y2> yc
and the upstream depth y1 will remain unchanged. The depth y2 is calculated by solving the
specific energy equation,
2
V 2.42
E2  y2  2 1.615  y2  2
2g , 2 * 9.81* y2
Solving by trial and error gives, y2= 1.48 m.

The drop at water surface elevation is,
Δy=1.60 −1.48 − 0.10 = 0.02m
B), Available energy at section 2 is,

E2 =E1-  Z = 1.715-0.5 = 1.215m
Ec2=1.5*yc2 = 1.5*0.837 =1.26m
The minimum specific energy required at section 2 is greater than E2, (Ec2 = 1.26 m > E2
=1.215 m), the available specific energy at that section. Hence, the depth at section 2 will
be at the critical depth. Thus E2 = Ec2 = 1.26 m. The upstream depth y1 will increase to a
depth y1‟ such that the new specific energy at the upstream section 1 is,
E1‟ = Ec2 +  Z
'
V1 q2
y   y1   Ec 2  Z  1.26  0.5  1.76m
; '
1 '
2g 2 gy1
2.42
y   1.76m
'
1 '
2 * 9.81 * y1
Solving by trial and error and selecting the positive root gives, y‟1 > y2, y‟1 = 1.648 m.
44
2.6.2 Channel Transition with Change in Width

A) Subcritical Flow in a Width Constriction: -Consider a frictionless horizontal channel
of width B1 carrying a discharge Q at a depth y1 as in (Fig. 2.43). At section 2 the channel
width has been constricted to B2 by a smooth transition. Since there are no losses involved
and since the bed elevations at sections 1and 2 are the same, the specific energy at section
is equal to the specific energy at section2.
2
V1 Q2
E1  y1   y1  2 2
2g B1 y1 g
2
V2 Q2
E2  y2   y2  2 2
2g B2 y 2 2 g
It is convenient to analyze the flow in terms of the discharge intensity q = Q/B. At section
1, q1 = Q/B1 and at section 2, q2 = Q/B2.
Figure 2.8: channel transition with change in width

Since B2< B1, q2> q1.In the specific energy diagram in (Fig. 2.4.4) drawn with the
discharge intensity, point P on the curve q1Corresponds to depth y1 and specific energy E1.
Since at section 2, E2 = E1 and q = q2, point P will move vertically downward to point R on
the curve q2 to reach the depth y2.
Thus, in subcritical flow the depth is y2< y1. If B2 is made smaller, then q2 will increase
and y2 will decrease. The limit of the contracted width B2 = B2min is reached when
45
Corresponding to E1, the discharge intensity q2 = q2max, i.e. the maximum discharge
intensity for a given specific energy (critical flow condition) will prevail.
Figure 2.9: Specific energy diagram for width constriction

If B2< B2min, the discharge intensity q2 will be larger than qmax, the maximum discharge
intensity consistent E1. The flow will not, therefore, be possible with the given upstream
conditions. The upstream depth will have to increase to y1`. The new specific energy will
Q2
= y 
' '
E 1 1 2 '2
be formed which will be sufficient to cause critical flow at section 2.
2 gB1 y1
It may be noted that the new critical depth at section 2 for a rectangular channel is,
1 1
 Q2 3  q2  3
=
yc2 =  
 B 2g   g 
 2   
 Vc 2 2 
Ec2 = yc2 + 
 2g
 =1.5yc2

 
Since B2< B2min, yc2 will be larger than ycm, yc2> ycm. Thus even though critical flow
prevails for all B2< B2min, the depth section 2 is not constant as in the hump case but
increases as y1` and hence E1` rises. The variation of y1, y2 and E with B2/B1 is shown
schematically in (Fig. 2.4.6).
46
Figure 2.10: Variation of y1 and y2 in subcritical flow in a width constriction
B) Supercritical Flow in a Width Constriction: -If the upstream depth y1 is in the

supercritical flow regime a reduction of the flow width and hence an increase in the
discharge intensity cause a rise in depth y2. In fig2.4.4) point P` corresponds to y1 and
point R` to y2. As the width B2 is decreased, R` moves up till it becomes critical at B2 =
B2min. Any further reduction in B2 causes the upstream depth to decrease to y1` so that E1
rises to E1`. At section 2 critical depth yc` corresponding to the new specific energy E1`
will prevail. The variation of y1, y2 and E with B2/B1 in supercritical flow regime is
indicated in (Fig. 2.4.6).
Figure 2.11: Variation of y1 and y2 in supercritical flow
Activity 2.4
1. What do you mean by choking?
47
2.7 Choking
In the case of a channel with a hump, and also in the case of a width constriction, it is
observed that the upstream water surface elevation is not affected by the conditions at
section 2 till a critical stage is first achieved. Thus in the case of a hump for all ΔZ ≤
ΔZmax, the upstream water depth is constant and for all ΔZ > ΔZmax the upstream depth is
different from y1.
Similarly, in the case of the width constriction, for B2 ≥ B2min, the upstream depth y1 is
constant; while for all B2 < B2min, the upstream depth undergoes a change. This onset of
critical condition at section 2 is a prerequisite to choking. Thus all cases with ΔZ > ΔZmax
or B2< B2min are known as choked conditions. Obviously, choked conditions are
undesirable and need to be watched in the design of culverts and other surface drainage
features involving channel transitions.
Example:
A rectangular channel with a discharge 25m3/sec. bottom width of 6.25m, depth y=2m is
contracted to 5.75m.
I. Find the depth at contraction and width at contraction.
II. When the depth at contraction is critical, what will be the width at contraction?
Solution:
2
V1 252
I ).E1  y1   2  2.20387m
2g 2 * 9.81* (6.25 * 2) 2
Assuming no loss in contraction, let y2 is the depth at contraction. Then

252
E1=E at contraction= 2.20387  y2  2
2 * 9.81 * (5.75 * y2 )
Solving by trial and error y2 =1.936m
II. Let width at contraction is Bc, assuming no loss,
Q2
E1  Ec  yc  2
Ac 2 g
48
In rectangular channel,
3 2 2
Ec  yc , yc  Ec  * 2.20387
2 3 3
yc =1.4692m
Q2
Ec  yc  2
, 2.20387  1.4692 
25
Ac 2 g 2 2
Bc yc * 2 * g
0.7346= 625
2
Bc * 1.4692 2 * 2 * 9.81
Bc =4.482m
49
Unit Summary
An open channel is a conduit in which water flows with a free surface and classified
according to its origin as natural or artificial channels. Artificial channels are those
constructed or developed by human effort but natural channels don‟t need human
interference. A channel built with unvarying cross section and constant bottom slope is
called prismatic channel; otherwise the channel is non-prismatic. Geometric elements of

the channel are properties of a channel section that can be defined entirely by the geometry
of the section and the depth of flow. The most used geometric properties includes, Depth
of flow, Top width, Stage, Wetted perimeter, Wetted area, Hydraulic radius (hydraulic
mean depth), Hydraulic depth, Section factor and others.
To any situation in hydraulics we can apply two out of three principles, Principle of
conservation of matter (continuity), Principle of conservation of energy (in case all energy
“losses” are known), Principle of conservation of matter (continuity), Momentum principle
(in case all external forces are known).
The “Specific energy” is the average energy per unit weight of water with respect to the
channel bottom. It is the sum of the water-depth (y) and the velocity head, if the
streamlines are straight and parallel. The concept of specific energy, introduced by
Bakmetef, is very useful in defining critical water depth and in the analysis of open
channel flow. It may be noted that while the total energy in a real fluid flow always
decreases in the downstream direction, the specific energy is constant for a uniform flow
and can either decrease or increase in a varied flow, since the elevation of the bed of the
channel relative to the elevation of the energy line, determines the specific energy.
The critical state of flow is defined as the state of flow at which the specific energy is a
minimum for a given discharge or it is the condition for which the Froude number (Fr2)
equal to unity.
The primary application of the concepts of specific energy is the prediction of changes in
the depth of flow in response to channel transition. Channel transitions are channels which
occurs due to constriction of the channel width or due to channels having a hump
50
Review Questions
1. Show that the critical depth yo is related to alternate depths y1 and y2 in rectangular
1
 2y 2
y
2
 3
channel by the equation, y c   
1 2
 y  y 
 1 2 
2. In a rectangular channel F1 and F2 are the Froude numbers corresponding to the
 Fr1  2  Fr2 2
alternate depths of a certain discharge. Show that 
 Fr   2  Fr 2
 1 1
3. A 5.00m wide rectangular channel carries 20m3/sec. of discharge at a depth of 2.00m. The
width beyond a certain section is to be changed to 3.50m. If it is desired to keep the water
surface elevation unaffected by this change, what modifications are needed to the bottom
elevation?(Ans. Z  0.36m ,the channel level is lowered by3.6m)
4. A rectangular channel is 2.50m wide and conveys a discharge of 2.75m3/sec. at a depth of
0.90m. A contraction of width is proposed at a section in this channel. Calculate the water
surface elevations in the contracted section as well as in an upstream 2.50m wide section
when the width of the proposed contraction is
A) 2.00m,
B) 1.50m. (Neglect energy losses in the transition).
5. A 3.00m wide horizontal rectangular channel is narrowed to a width of 1.50m to cause

critical flow in the contracted section. If the depth in contracted section is 0.80m, calculate
the discharge in the channel and the possible depths of flow and corresponding Froude
numbers in the 3.00m wide section. (Neglect energy losses in the transition).( Ans.
Q=3.36m3/se, y1=1.153m, Fr1 = 0.288418)
6. Water flows at a velocity of 1.00m/sec. and a depth of 2.00m in an open channel of
rectangular cross section and bed-width of 3.00m. At certain section the width is reduced
to 1.80m and the bed is raised by 0.65m. Will the upstream depth affected and if so, to
what extent? (Ans. Yes the depth is increased by17cm)
7. The width of a horizontal rectangular channel is reduced from 3.50m to 2.50m and the
floor is raised by 0.25m in elevation at a given section. At the upstream section, the depth
of flow is 2.00m and the kinetic energy correction factor α is 1.15 if the drop in the water
51
surface elevation is 0.20m and the kinetic energy correction factor at contracted section α
is unity, calculate the discharge if
a) Energy loss is neglected (Ans. Q = 9.54m3/se)

b) The energy loss is one-tenth of the upstream velocity head (Ans. Q =9.289m3/s e)
8. The 500 triangular channel has a flow rate Q = 16m3/sec. compute,

a. Critical depth
b. Critical velocity
c. Specific energy y
(Ans. a, yc = 2.37m, b, Vc = 3.4m/se, c, Sc = 0.00474)
52
CHAPTER THREE
Flow Computation Formulas
At the end of this chapter students should be able to:

 Understand critical flow and its computation
 Know application of critical flow and its basic characteristics
 Knows establishment, computation and characteristics of uniform flow
 Determine equivalent roughness and discharge of compound channel section
3.1 Critical Flow

As described in chapter 2, the critical state of flow through a channel is characterized by
several important conditions.
Recapitulating:
1. The specific energy is a minimum for a given discharge,
dEs dEs Q 2 .Bs
0 1 0
dy dy qA3
dEs v 2 Bs v 2
1 1  0
dy g. A g .D
Q 2 Bs v2
 1
g. A3 gD
This dim ensionless number is the froude number Fr 2
v2 Q 2 Bs
Fr 2   x
gD gA3
2. The discharge is a maximum for a given specific energy,
3. The specific force is a minimum for a given discharge,
1 Q2
d( Ay  )
dm 2 gA
  0
dy dy
4. The velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth in a channel of small slope,
53
v2 D

2g 2
5. The Froude number is equal to unity,

Q 2 Bs v2
3
 1
g. A gD
The velocity of flow in a channel of small slope with uniform velocity distribution is
equal to the celerity of small gravity waves in shallow water caused by local
disturbance.
Ac
Vc  gD  g
Bc
Discussions on critical stage of flow have referred mainly to a particular section of a
channel, known as the critical section. If the critical state of flow exists throughout the
entire length of the channel or over a reach of the channel, the flow in the channel is
critical flow. The slope of a channel that sustains a given discharge at a uniform and
critical depth is called the critical slope (Sc). A slope of the channel less than the critical
slope will cause a slower flow of sub critical state for the given discharge, as will be shown
later, and hence, is called a mild or sub critical slope. If the slope of the channel is greater
than the critical slope will result a faster flow of supercritical state. Such is called a steep or
supercritical slope.
A flow at or near the critical state is unstable. This is because a minor change in specific
energy at or close to critical state will cause a major change in depth. This fact can also be
recognized in the specific energy curve. It can be observed also that, which the flow is near
the critical state, the water surface appears unstable and wavy. Such phenomena are
generally caused by the minor changes in energy due to variations in channel roughness,
cross-section, slope or deposits of sediment or debris. In the design of channel, if the depth
is found at or near the critical depth for a greater length of the channel, the shape or slope
of the channel should be altered, if practicable, is order to secure greater stability. The
v2 D
criterion for a critical state of flow (i.e.  is the basis for the computation of
2g 2 ‟
critical flow). The two major applications of critical flow theory are for flow control and
flow measurement.
54
Taking the criterion for a critical state of flow;

v2 D

2g 2
Substituting v = Q/A gives

Q2 D

2 gA2 2
Q2 Q
 A2 D   A D
g g
A
But Z = D is used as the section factor for critical flow computation
Q
Z 
g
When  is not assumed to be unity Z = Q

g

The above equation stages that the section factor Z for a channel section at a critical state
of flow is equal to the discharge divided by the square root of g. Since the section factor Z
is a function of the depth, the equation indicates that there is only one possible critical
depth for maintaining the given discharge in a channel and similarly that, when the depth is
fixed, there can be only one discharge that maintains a critical flow and makes the depth
critical in the given channel section. The above equation is a very useful tool for the
computation and analysis of critical flow in an open channel. When the discharge is given,
the equation gives the critical section factor Zc and, hence the critical depth yc. On the
other hand when the depth and, hence the section factor are given, the critical discharge
can be computed by the following form.
Q= Z g
Q = g

Activity3.1
1. What are the characteristics of critical flow and discuss the application of critical flow?
2. How can you compute critical depth and critical velocity for the critical state of flow?
3. What is the reason
3.2 Computation behind that
of Critical makes flow near or at critical state is unstable?
Flow
55
Computation of critical flow involves the determination of critical depth and velocity (yc
and vc) when the discharge and the channel section are known. The methods illustrated by
examples are given below. On the other hand, if critical depth and channel section are
known, the critical discharge can be determined from the relation,
g
Q  Z g or Q  .

Algebraic method: For a simple geometric channel section, the critical flow can be
determined by an algebraic computation using the basic equations.
Example:
For a trapezoidal channel with base width b = 6.0 m and side slope m = 2, calculate the
critical depth of flow if Q = 17 m3/s.
Solution:
The criterion for critical state of flow is the basis for the computation of critical flow viz.
v2 D A
 , where D 
2g 2 Bs
The hydraulic depth (D) and water area of the trapezoidal section are expressed in terms of
the depth y as
A = (b+ my) y = (6 +2 y) y
B2 = B + 2my = 6 + 4y
A (3  y ) y
 D 
Bs 3  2y
Q 17 17
and V   
A (6  2 y ) y 2(3  y ) y
v2 D
Substituting the above relations in  gives
2g 2
17 / (6  2 y) y 2 
(3  y ) y
g 3  2y
Simplifying,
7.4 (3+ 2y) = [(3+y) y] 3
56
By trial and error, the critical depth is approximately, yc = 0.84 m and the corresponding
critical velocity becomes,
17
Vc =  2.6 m / s
[6  2(0.84)]0.84
Method of design chart: the design chart for determining the critical depth can be used
with great expediency. In developing a chart for this purpose, it is convenient to define the
Q
section factor for critical flow computation as discussed before. Substituting V = is the
A
v2 D
criterion for critical state of low  yields after simplification
2g 2
Q A3
 Z 
g / Bs
The left hand side of the above equation is by definition the section factor for critical flow
Z, and the right hand side of the equation is a function of only the channel shape and the
depth of flow.
Example:
A circular channel 0.91 m in diameter conveys a flow of 0.71m3/s; estimate the critical
depth of flow.
Solution:
For   1
Q 0.71
Z    0.227
g 9.81
Z 0.227
and 2.5
  0.287
d0 0.912.5
From the design chart
yc
 0.54
d0
y c  0.54 * 0.91  0.49 m
57
Figure 3.1: Curves for determining the critical depth
Graphical method: - For complex designed sections which cannot be treated by either the
analytical method or the design chart method, a graphical method may be used. This
method is also applicable to natural channels. The procedure to obtain yc is as follows:-
1. Z vs. yc curve is constructed
Q
2. Compute the values of
g
Q
3. The critical depth can be obtained from the graph, where Z 
g
58
3.3 Control Section (Flow Control)

A control section is defined as a section in which a fixed relationship exists between the
discharge and depth of flow. Weirs, spillways, sluice gates are some typical examples of
structures which give rise to control sections. The critical depth is also a control point.
However, it is effective in flow profile which changes from subcritical to supercritical
flow. In the reverse case of transition from supercritical flow to subcritical flow, a
hydraulic jump is usually formed bypassing the critical depth as a control point. Any GVF
profile will have at least one control section.
Control sections provide a key to the identification of proper profile shapes. It may be
noted that subcritical flows have controls in the downstream end, while supercritical flows
are governed by control sections existing at the upstream end of the channel section
The control of flow in an open channel or at a structure means the establishment of explicit
relationship (one to one relationship) between the stage (water level) and the discharge of
flow. When the control of flow is achieved at a certain section of a channel or structure,
this section is called the control section. Holding a fixed stage discharge relationship, the
control section is always suitable for gauging station since it is always suitable site for
developing the discharge rating curve, a curve representing the depth discharge
relationship.
At critical state of flow a definitive stage discharge relationship can be established and
Q
represented by the equation Z= . This equation is theoretically independent of the
g
channel roughness and other uncontrolled circumstances. Therefore, the critical flow
section is a control section.
Control section occurs at entrances and exists to channels and at changes in channels
slopes, under certain conditions. A gate in channel can be a control for both the upstream
and downstream reaches. When a flow changes from subcritical to super critical
conditions or vice versa, the water depth must pass through the critical depth. The change
59
from sub critical to supercritical occurs in a control section. The change from super critical
to sub critical is only possible by means of a hydraulic jump.
A small change in downstream conditions (depth or discharge) of a flow will and cannot
change the upstream conditions when the upstream depth is critical or less than critical
(yupstream<= yc). In this case downstream conditions do not control the flow.
All super critical (rapid) flows are controlled by upstream conditions and computations of
surface profiles start at the upstream end of a channel. However, sub critical (or tranquil)
flows will be affected by small changes in downstream conditions and therefore the latter
controls these flows. Sub critical or tranquil flow computations start at the downstream end
of a reach and are carried out in an upstream direction.
If a flow over a spillway passes through critical stage at the channel, the depth can be
computed therefore a given discharge or the discharge can be found from the given
(measured) water depth. In case of steep channel the computation proceed in the
downstream direction.
A change in a channel slope from mild to steep causes the flow to pass through critical
stage at the beak in slope. Computation advances both upstream and downstream from the
control section at the break. Example of a control section is for example a reservoir (pool)
created by a dam and the water flowing over the dam through an overflow spillway.
Different flow conditions might occur in the channel downstream of the spillway.
If the channel has a critical slope, then the flow is initially critical and remains critical
throughout the channel. In the proximity of the dam, however, the flow in the reservoir is
sub critical and the reservoir surface will approach the horizontal. At the downstream end
of the reservoir, near the spillway a so called drawdown curve will develop, extending in
an upstream direction, starting at a section near the spillway crest. The drawdown curve
will be asymptotic to the upstream reservoir level.
If the channel upstream of the spillway has a mild slope, the flow near the entrance is
initially subcritical. In the presence of the dam, the reservoir level will be raised for a long
distance (upstream from the spillway crest). The additional height in water level is required
60
to build up enough energy head, necessary to convey water over the spillway crest. This
effect of raising the water level upstream of s spillway is known as a backwater curve.
When in channel the bottom slope changes and the flow at that point alters from sub
critical to super critical, then the slope upstream of the break is mild, because the upstream
flow is sub critical and yo> yc. At the break the depth passes through critical depth. This
point called the control section since the depth at the break controls the upstream depth.
A similar situation occurs when water from a reservoir enters a canal in which the uniform
depth is smaller than the critical depth (yo< yc). In this case the depth passes through
critical depth in the vicinity of the entrance. Once again, this section is the control section.
By measuring the depth at the control section, a reasonably accurate value of Q can be
computed.
Change from sub critical to supercritical flow at a change in slope Upstream of the outfall.
Since friction produces a constant decrease in energy in the direction of flow, it is clear
that at the outfall the total energy is less than at any point upstream. As critical depth is the
value for which the specific energy is a minimum, one would expect critical depth to occur
at the outfall. However, the value for the critical depth is derived on the assumption that
the water is flowing in straight and parallel flow lines. However at the free outfall gravity
forces create curved streamlines. So the depth at the brink (outfall) yb is 0.72 *yc. Critical
depth occurs somewhere upstream of the brink (between 3 yc and 10 yc). For super critical
flow conditions; upstream of the outfall, on drop down curve develops.
3.4 Flow Measurement

It was mentioned in the preceding article that, at a critical control section, the relationship
between the depth and the discharge is explicit, independent of channel roughness and
other uncontrollable circumstances such an explicit relationship between stage –discharge
relationship offers a theoretical basis for the measurement of discharge in open channels
Based on the principle of critical flow, various devices for flow measurement have been
developed. In such devices the critical depth is usually created by the construction of a low
61
hump on the channel bottom, such as a weir, or by contraction in the cross- section, such as
critical flow flume. (Venturi-flume) (Example, par shall flume). The use of a weir i.e. a
simple method, but it causes relatively high head loss. If water contains suspended
particles, some will be deposited in the upstream pool formed by the weir, resulting in a
gradual change in discharge coefficient. These difficulties, however, can be overcome at
least partially by the use of critical flow flume.
Example:
Derive an equation showing critical discharge through a rectangular channel section in
terms of the channel width and the total heads.
Solution:
For the rectangular section
A
Z  A D  A  by y  by 1.5
B
At critical state of flow the depth
H 3
y  or H  yc
1.5 2
Q  by c  3/ 2
 g
But yc = H Replacing
3/ 2
2
Q  g *  * BH 3 / 2
3
3/ 2
2
Q  9.81 *   * BH 3/ 2
3
3
Q  1.7 BH 2
3.5 Uniform Flow

Uniform flow in open channels has the following main characteristics the depth, water
area, velocity, and discharge at every section of the channel are constant; the energy line,
water surface, and channel bottom are all parallel; i.e. their slopes are all equal Sf = Sw = So
62
Uniform flow is considered to be steady only, since unsteady uniform flow is practically
nonexistent. In natural streams, even steady uniform flow is rare, for rivers and streams in
natural states scarcely ever experience a strict uniform flow condition. Despite this
deviation from the truth, the uniform flow condition is frequently assumed in the
computation of flow in natural streams. The results obtained from this assumption are
understood to be approximate and general, but they offer a relatively simple and
satisfactory solution to many practical problems.
3.5.1 Establishment of Uniform Flow

When flow occurs in an open channel, the water encounters resistance as it flows
downstream. This resistance is generally counteracted by the components of gravity forces
acting on the body of the water in the direction of motion.
A uniform flow will be developed if the resistance is balanced by the gravity forces, i.e.,
the head loss due to turbulent flow is exactly balanced by the reduction in potential energy
due to the uniform decrease in the elevation of the channel. The magnitude of the
resistance, when other physical factors of the channel are kept unchanged, depends on the
velocity of flow.
If the water enters the channel slowly, the velocity and hence the resistance are small and
the resistance is outbalanced by the gravity forces, resulting in an accelerating flow in the
upstream reach. The velocity and the resistance will gradually increase until a balance
between resistance and gravity force is reached. At this moment and afterwards the flow
become uniform. The upstream reach that is required for the establishment of uniform flow
is known as the transitory zone. In this zone the flow is accelerating and varied.
If the channel is shorter than the transitory length required by the given conditions,
uniform flow couldn't be attained. Towards the end of the channel the resistance may
again be exceeded by the gravity forces and the flow may become varied. In general,
uniform flow can occur only in very long, straight, prismatic channels where a terminal
velocity of flow can be achieved.
63
3.5.2 Computation of Uniform flow

For computational purposes, the average velocity of a uniform flow can be computed
approximately by one of a number of semi empirical uniform flow equations. All of these
equations have the form
V = C Rx Sy,
Where:-S = channel longitudinal slope
V = average velocity, C = resistance coefficient
R = hydraulic radius, X and y coefficients
The popular two equations are the Chezy equation, developed in 1769, and the Manning
equation, developed in 1889.
The Chezy equation can be derived from the definition of uniform flow with an
assumption regarding the form of the flow resistance coefficient, with reference to the
figure below, the definition of uniform flow requires that the forces resisting flow exactly
equal the forces causing motion. The force causing motion is the following.
S hf
Sw
yo
Wsin 
o So
L W

Figure 3.2: Forces on a column of flowing water
F = W sin =  A L sin 
Where: W = weight of third within control volume
R = third specific weight (98)
L = control volume length
 = Longitudinal slope angle of a channel.
If  is small, then sin  S0. Thus
F = AL So = g AL S0
64
For a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter p, the force of resistance is

Ff = * P * L
Now equating F = Ff; * P * L = g AL So
A
  g S o  g R S 0
P
 is shear stress along the perimeter, if we let shear velocity V* = gRS 0 the above
equation implies.
=  V*2 V* is known as shear velocity.
From experiments it is shown that the force per unit area of the channel perimeter resisting
motion. Ff, is proportional to the square of the average velocity or (Ff V2)
Therefore, for a reach of length L with a wetted perimeter P, the force of resistance can
also be written as;
Ff = KLPV2
Where K = constant of proportionality. Setting the force casing motion equal to the force
resisting motion, i.e. F = Ff.
gALS o  KLPV 2
 ALS o  KLPV 2
   A

1/ 2
V   S0
K P
 
1/ 2
V    RS o
k
 
  
1/ 2
V RS
k
Where the subscript associated with s has been dropped. For convenience define.
 
1/ 2
C =  
k
 
1/ 2
The resistance coefficient, c, defined as   is commonly known as the Chezy C and

k
in practice is determined by either measurement or estimate. The coefficient of resistance
65
defined by the above equation is not dimensionless but has dimensions of acceleration; i.e.
length /time2 or LT-2.
Substituting this gives the famous Chezy Formula
V = C RS
Where V is the mean velocity is m/s, R is the hydraulic radius in m, S is the slope of
energy line (m/m), and C is a factor of flow resistance, called Chezy‟s C.
The Manning equation is the result of a curve fitting process and thus is completely
empirical in nature. In application of the Manning equation, it is essential that the system
of units being used be identified and that the appropriate coefficient is used. In the SI
system of units, the Manning equation is
1 2/3
V= R S
n
Where n = Manning resistance coefficient. As was the case with the Chezy resistance
coefficient, n is not dimensionless but has dimensions of TL-1/3 or in the specific case of
the equation above S/m1/3.
Activity 3.3
1. Discuss the characteristics of uniform flow?
2. How it is established?
3. Discuss for the computation of discharge for uniform flow
3.5.3 Factors Affecting Manning’s Roughness Coefficient

It is not uncommon for engineers to think of a channel as having a single value of n for all
occasions. Actually, the value of n is highly variable and depends on a number of factors.
The factors that exert the greatest influence upon the roughness coefficient in both artificial
and natural channels are described below.
A) Surface Roughness: The surface roughness is represented by the size and shape of the
grains of the material forming the wetted perimeter. This usually considered the only factor
in selecting the roughness coefficient, but it is usually just one of the several factors.
66
Generally, fine grains result in a relatively low value of n and coarse grains in a high value
of n.
B) Vegetation: Vegetation may be regarded as a kind of surface roughness, but it also
reduces the capacity of the channel. This effect depends mainly on height, density, and
type of vegetation.
C) Channel Irregularity: Channel irregularity comprises irregularities in wetted
perimeter and variations in cross-section, size, and shape along the channel length.
D) Channel Alignment: Smooth curvature with large radius will give a relatively low
value of n, whereas sharp curvature with severe meandering will increase n.
E) Silting and Scouring: Generally speaking, silting may change a very irregular channel
into a comparatively uniform one and decrease n, whereas scouring may do the reverse and
increase n.
F) Obstruction: The presence of logjams, bridge piers, and the like tends to increase n.
G) Size and Shape of the Channel: There is no definite evidence about the size and shape
of the channel as an important factor affecting the value of n.
H) Stage and Discharge: The n value in most streams decreases with increase instage and
discharge.
I) Seasonal Change: Owing to the seasonal growth of aquatic plants, the value of n may
change from one season to another season. Since the Chezy and Manning equations
describe the same phenomena, the coefficients C and n must be related setting equation (*)
is equal to equation (**), i.e. QChezy = QManning yields.
C = R1/6/n
3.6 Estimation of Normal Depth and Velocity

From the previous section: The Manning equation gives V = 1/n R2/3 S1/2
The Chezy equation gives V = C RS  CR 1 / 2 S 1 / 2

and by law of conservation of mass this equations, when multiplied by the flow area, yields
an equation for uniform flow rate or
1
Manning Q= AR2/3S1/2, or for Chezy Q = C AR1/2 S1/2
n
67
2/3
In Manning equation the parameter 1/n AR and in the Chezy equation the parameters
CAR1/2 are called the conveyance of a channel section. It is measure of the carrying
capacity of a channel section; since it is directly proportional to Q.
1 Q Q
Manning K = AR2/3 = and Chezy K = CAR1/2 =
n S1 / 2 S1 / 2
The above two equations are used to compute the conveyance when the geometry of the
water area and the resistance factor or roughness coefficient are given. Since
Manning formula is used extensively; most of the following discussions and computations
will be based on Manning‟s equation.
Conveyance of a channel section increases within increase in hydraulic Radius R or with
decrease in the wetted perimeter.
1
K  R  1/P Q= AR2/3 S1/2
n
1
Q= K S1/2
n
From a hydraulic viewpoint, therefore, the channel section having the least wetted
perimeter for a given area has a maximum conveyance; such a section is known as the best
hydraulic section.
In Manning‟s equation the parameter AR2/3 is termed as the section factor for uniform flow
computation; it is an important element in the computation of uniform flow. From
Manning‟s equation
nQ
AR2/3 =
S
The right side of the equation contains the values of n, Q, and S; but the left side depends
only on the geometry of the water area. Therefore, it shows that, for a given condition of n,
Q, and S, there is only one possible depth for maintaining uniform flow, provided that the
value of AR2/3 always increases with increase in depth, which is true in most cases. This
depth is the normal depth. When n and S are known at a channel section, from the equation
there can be only one discharge for maintaining a uniform flow through the section,
provided that AR2/3 always increases with increase of depth. This discharge is the normal
discharge. When the discharge, slope, and roughness are known, this equation gives the
68
section factor AR2/3 and hence, the normal depth yo. On the other land, when n, s and yo,
hence the section factor are given, the normal discharge Q can be computed from
1
Q= A R2/3 S
n
In general, the most difficult and tedious normal flow calculation occurs when Q, the shape
of the channel, bottom slope and n are known and yo must be estimated. In such cases, an
explicit solution is not possible and problem must be solved by
 Trial and error (Algebraic method)
 Numerical method (using computer)
 Design chart (using graph)
In order to simplify the computation, dimensionless curves showing the relation between
depth and section factor AR2/3 have been prepared for rectangular, trapezoidal, and circular
channel sections. This self-explanatory curves will help to determine the depth for a given
section factor AR2/3, and the vice versa.
In the case of a closed conduit having a gradually closing top, the value of AR 2/3 will first
increase with depth and then decrease with depth when the full depth is approached,
because a maximum value of AR2/3 usually occurs in such a condition at a depth slightly
less than the full depth. Consequently, it is possible to have two depths for the same AR2/3.
Example:
Given a trapezoidal channel with a bottom width of 3m, side slope 1.5, a longitudinal slope
of 0.0016 and estimated n of 0.13, find the normal depth of flow for a discharge of
7.1m3/5.
Solution:
nQ 0.013 * 7.1
AR 2 / 3    2.3075
S 0.0016
With
69
A  b  my y  3 1.5 y  y
P  b  2 y 1  m 2  3  2 y 3.25  3  3.6 y
R 
3  1.5 y y
3  3.6 y
Then a table in constructed by assuming values of y and compute the corresponding values
of AR2/3 until, the corrected value of yo has been determined
Table 3.1: Estimation of normal depth (yo)
Trial y(m) A(m2) P (m) R(m) AR2/3
1.0 4.5 6.605551 0.681245 3.484027
0.9 3.915 6.244996 0.626902 2.867685
0.8 3.36 5.884441 0.5709997 2.312572
0.7 2.835 5.523886 0.513226 1.817294
3.7 Equivalent Roughness

In some channels different parts of the channel perimeter may have different rough nesses.
Canals, in which only the sides are lined, laboratory flumes with glass walls and rough
beds, rivers with sand bed in deep water portion and flood plains covered with vegetation,
are some typical examples. For such channels it is necessary to determine an equivalent
roughness coefficient that can be applied to the entire cross sectional perimeter in using the
Manning‟s formula. This equivalent roughness, also called the composite roughness,
represents a weighted average value for the roughness coefficient n.
Figure 3.3:Multi-roughness type perimeter
70
Consider a channel having its perimeter composed of N types rough nesses. P1, P2, PN are
the lengths of these N parts and n1, n2… nN are the respective roughness coefficients (Fig.
3.2). Let each part Pi be associated with a partial area Ai such that,

N
i 1
Ai  A1  A2  .......  An  A = Total area
It is assumed that the mean velocity in each partial area is the mean velocity V for the
entire area of flow
V1= V2= V3=Vn=V
By the Manning‟s equation,
V1n1 V2 n2 Vi ni VN n N Vn
SO = 2
 2
 ………. 2
 .......... 2
 2
R 3
1
R2 3 Ri 3 RN 3
R 3
Where n = Equivalent roughness.

From the above equation
2 2
 Ai  3 n p 3
   i i2
 A 
np 3
3
ni 2 pi
Ai  A 3
2
n p
 3 
 ni 2 p i 
 Ai  A  A  3 
 n2 p 
 
2
 3
3
  n 2 p

n  
i i
2
This equation gives a means of estimating the equivalent
p3
roughness of a channel having multiple roughness types in its perimeters.
Example:
A trapezoidal channel of bed-width 4.00m and side slopes 1.5horizontal to 1vertical has a
sand bed (n1=0.025). At certain reach the sides are lined by smooth concrete (n2=0.012).
Calculate the equivalent roughness of this reach if the depth of flow is 1.50m.
Solution:
71
The channel bed is covered by sand (n1=0.025) and is 4.00m wide, which is wetted
perimeter at channel bed (P1=4.00m)
The channel sides (1.5H: 1V) are lined by smooth concrete (n2=0.012) and the
wetted perimeter can be found as
P2=2 *y* 1  m2
P2=2 *1.5* 1  1.52 =5.41m

Total wetted perimeter (P) = P1+P2= 4+5.41 =9.51m
2
2
  
3  3 3
3

3
 0.025 * 4  0.012 2 * 5.41
2
  n pi  
i2
Equivalent roughness (n) =      9.51 
 p   

 

n = 0.018
Example:
A rectangular channel 3.60m wide had badly-damaged surfaces and had a Manning‟s
roughness coefficient (n=0.03). As a first phase of repair, its bed was lined with concrete
(n=0.015). If depth of flow remains same at 1.20m before and after the repair, what is the
increase of discharge obtained as result of repair?
Solution:
Wetted perimeter of channel section (P) =B+2y = 3.6+2*1.2 = 6.00m
Wetted Area (A) = By =3.6*1.2 =4.32m2
A 4.32
Hydraulic Radius (R) =   0.72 m
p 6
2
3
Discharge (Q1) = AR S
n1
During repair only the channel bed is lined with concrete (nr=0.015) and wetted perimeter
(P1=3.60m)
The sides are remain unlined (n1=0.03) and wetted perimeter of the sides can be;
(P2= 2y = 2*1.2 =2.4m)
72
2 2
  3 3  3 3
3
 i i  
 =  
n 2 p 0.03 2
* 2.4 0.015 2
* 3.6
Equivalent roughness (n2) =    
 p  6
   
n2 = 0.02163
2
3
AR S
Discharge (Q2) =
n2
Increase in discharge can be determined by dividing the above equation
2
AR 3
Q2 n2 n1
 2

Q1 3
n2
AR
n1
Q2 n1

Q1 n2
Q2= n1Q1 
0.03
Q1
n2 0.02163
Q2= 1.387Q1
Therefore the discharge is increased by 38.7%.
3.8 Compound Channel Section

Some channel section may be formed of a combination of elementary sections.
Figure 3.4: Compound Section

As shown in (fig.3.3.) above the channel is divided by imaginary lines (CK and FJ).
Assuming the longitudinal slopes to be the same for all sub sections, it is easy to see that
73
the subsections will have different velocities depending on the depth and roughness of the
boundaries.
Generally over banks have larger size of roughness than the deeper main channel, If the
depth of flow is confined to the deep channel only (i.e. y<h), discharge calculation is too
easy. If depth of flow y>h, discharge calculation is complicated as the calculation may give
smaller hydraulic radius (R), hence discharge may underestimated. This underestimation
may happen for h<y<ym Where ym = maximum value of y beyond which the
underestimation of discharge as above doesn‟t occur.
For values of y>ym considering the whole area as unity is adequate.
N
If h<y<ym Qtotal= Q
i 1
i (Maximum depth up on the channel geometry.)
3.8.1 Method of Discharge Calculation in Compound Channel Section

i) The discharge is calculated as the sum of the partial discharges in the sub-areas
 Q  i 1Vi Ai
N N
(1, 2, 3,) Qp = i 1 i
ii) The discharge is also calculated by considering the whole section as unity
(Portion ABCDEFGHA) in (fig3.3) (Qw).
iii) The larger of the above two discharge is adopted as the discharge at depth y
For determining the discharge in partial areas (Qp) two methods are available:
1.Posey’s Method:- in this method, while calculating the wetted perimeter for sub-areas,
the imaginary divisions (FJ and CK) in figure above are considered as boundary for the
deeper portion and neglected completely in the shallower portion. In this shear stress that
accounted for interface of the deeper and shallower parts.
2. Zero Shear Method: - treat the interface as purely a hypothetically interface with zero
shear stress. The interfaces are not counted as perimeter either for the deep portion or
shallow portion.
Activity 3.4
1. What are equivalent roughness and compound channel section?
2. How can you compute the discharge in compound channel?
74
Example: For the compound section shown in figure below. Find the discharge when h =
1 m. Assume n = 0.02 and So =0.0005 for all parts of the perimeter. Use Posey‟s method
for computing partial discharges.
A K J H
A1 A2 1m A3 1V:1H
1V: 1H B C F G
10m 4m 10m
1V:1.5H 1V:1.5H
D 5m E
Solution:
Partial Area discharge by Posey‟s method:
Sub area A1 = 10*1+0.5*1*1-1.5*.5*1 =9.75m2
Sub area 1 and sub area 3 are equal because they have the same dimensions =9.75m2
P1=y 1  m +b
2
Perimeter = 1 1  12  10  11.414m which is equal with
P3=11.414m
Sub area A2 = (b+ m y) y = (5+1.5*5)5 =62.5m2
Perimeter P2 =2y 1  m 2 +b = 2 * 5 1  1.52  5  23.028m

2
 9.75  3
1
2 1 9.75 *   * 0.0005 2
Qp1 
A1 R1 S o 3 2
  11.414 
 9.813m 3 / se
n 0.02
2
 9.75  3
1
2 1 9.75 *   * 0.0005 2
Qp3 
A3 R3 S o
3 2
  11.414 
 9.813m 3 / se
n 0.02
2
 62.5  3
1
2 1 62.5 *   * 0.0005 2
Qp2 
A2 R2 S o
3 2
  23.028 
 135.962m 3 / se
n 0.02
Qp   Qp1  Qp2  Qp3 

Qp =135.962+9.813+9.813
=155.588m3/se
By the total-section Method (Using whole discharge method)
75
Atotal =A=A1+A2+A3 =9.75+9.75+62.5 = 82m2
Ptotal = p = 1 1  12  10  4 1  1.52  5  4 1  1.52  10  1 1  12  42.251m

2
 82  3
1
2 1 82 *   * 0.0005 2
Qw 
3
AR S o 2
  42.251   142.644m 3 / se
n 0.02
Since QW <Qp the discharge in the channel is taken as Q = Qp =155.588m3/sec.
76
Unit Summary
The critical state of flow is the flow at which the specific energy is minimum and the
Froude number is equals to one. The critical state of flow characteristics are; the specific
energy is a minimum for a given discharge, the discharge is a maximum for a given
specific energy, the specific force is a minimum for a given discharge, the velocity head is
equal to half the hydraulic depth in a channel of small slope, the Froude number is equal to
unity and a flow at or near the critical state is unstable (This is because of a minor change
in specific energy at or close to critical state will cause a major change in depth.)
Computation of critical flow involves the determination of critical depth and velocity (yc
and Vc) when the discharge and the channel section are known. The methods for
computation are:-
 Algebraic method
 Method of design chart
 Graphical method
A control section is defined as a section in which a fixed relationship exists between the
discharge and depth of flow (Weirs, spillways, sluice gates are some typical examples of
structures) which give rise to control sections. The critical depth is also used as a control
point.
Uniform flow in open channels has the following main characteristics the depth, water
area, velocity, and discharge at every section of the channel are constant; the energy line,
water surface, and channel bottom are all parallel; i.e. their slopes are all equal Sf = Sw = So
When flow occurs in an open channel, the water encounters resistance as it flows
downstream. This resistance is generally counteracted by the components of gravity forces
acting on the body of the water in the direction of motion
Uniform flow can be computed approximately by one of a number of semi empirical
uniform flow equations. The popular two equations are the Chezy equation, developed in
1769, and the Manning equation, developed in 1889.
Channel section may be formed of a combination of elementary sections are called
compound channel section. The discharge in compound channel is determined by the sum
77
of the partial discharges in the sub-areas and by considering the whole section as unity
(Qw).Hence the larger of these above two discharges is adopted as the discharge at depth y.
The Posey‟s and zero shear methods of discharge computation are used for determining the
discharge in partial areas (Qp).
Review Questions
1. What is the reason behind that makes flow near or at critical state unstable?
2. Discuss the characteristics of uniform flow? And how it is established?
3. A rectangular channel is to be laid on a slope of 0.0005. The side slope will be of smooth
concrete (n=0.013). What width of channel is necessary to carry a discharge of
9.00m3/sec. with a normal depth of 1.60m? (Ans. B =3.64m)
4. Compute the critical depth and velocity of the trapezoidal channel its section given in the
figure and carrying a discharge of 45m3/sec.
1.5
4.0m
5. A trapezoidal channel of bed width 3.00m and side slope 1.5horizontal to 1vertical carries
a full supply of 10.00m3/sec. at a depth of 1.50m.
a) What would be the discharge at half of full supply depth (i.e. at 0.75m)? (Ans. Q
= 2.72m3/se)
b) What would be the depth discharge at half of full supply discharge (i.e. at
5.00m3/sec)? (Ans yo = 1.043m)
6. A rectangular channel 3m wide had badly-damaged surfaces and had a Manning’s
roughness coefficient (n = 0.02). As a first phase of repair, only its bed was lined with
concrete (n = 0.01). If depth of flow before repair is 1.20m and after repair is 1.3m,
calculate the discharge obtained as a result of repair? Assume a longitudinal slope of
0.0005 and 0.0002 before and after repair respectively. Give comment (reason out) why
the discharge after repair is decreasing? (Ans.Q1 =3.07159m3/se, Q2 = 2.87m3/se, the
78
discharge after repair is decreased by 6.5695 due to reduction of the bed slope of the
channel.)
7. A trapezoidal channel have a bottom width twice depth of flow, side slope 1.5, a
longitudinal slope of 0.002 and estimated n of 0.015, find the normal depth of flow and
bottom width for a discharge of 10 m3/sec.(Ans. yo = 1.1071m, and B = 2.214m)
8. For the compound section shown in figure below. Find the discharge when h = 1 m.
Assume n = 0.02 and So =0.0005 for all parts of the perimeter. Use Posey’s and zero shear
method for computing partial discharges.
A1 1m A2 1H: 1V
1.5H: 1H 4m 10m
1.5H: 1V
5m
(Ans. Qp =145.7758m3/se and Qw =137.2m3/se therefore the governing discharge is Qp

=145.7758m3/se)
79
CHAPTER FOUR
Gradually Varied Flow (GVF)

 Know the definition, characteristics and basic assumption of gradually varied
flow
 Drive the differential equation of gradually varied flow
 Classify gradually varied profiles
 Describe the methods for computing gradually varied flow and estimate the
length of profiles
4.1 Introduction
In uniform flows the cross section through which water flow remains constant. Also the
velocity remains the same, in magnitude and direction. In varied flow the cross section
changes in the flow direction, the water depth changes along the length of the channel.
Varied flow may be either steady or unsteady. Since unsteady uniform flow is rare, the
term "unsteady flow” is used for unsteady varied flow exclusively. Varied flow may be
further classified as either rapidly or gradually varied. For this chapter we will like to
discuss gradually varied flow.
A steady non-uniform flow in a prismatic channel with gradual changes in its water surface
elevation is named as gradually-varied flow (GVF). The backwater produced by a dam or
weir across a river and drawdown produced at a sudden drop in a channel are few typical
examples of GVF. In a GVF, the velocity varies along the channel and consequently the
bed slope, water surface slope, and energy line slope will all differ from each other.
Regions of high curvature are excluded in the analysis of this flow.
The two basic assumptions involved in the analysis of GVF are:
1. The pressure distribution at any section is assumed to be hydrostatic. This follows
from the definition of the flow to have a gradually varied water surface. As gradual
80
changes in the surface curvature give rise to negligible normal accelerations, the
departure from the hydrostatic pressure distribution is negligible.
2. The resistance to flow at any depth is assumed to be given by the corresponding
uniform flow equation, such as the Manning equation, with the condition that the
slope term to be used in the equation is the energy line slope, Sf and not the bed
slope, S0. Thus, if in a GVF the depth of flow at any section is y, the energy line
slope Sf is given by,
V 2n2
Sf  4 Where: R is the hydraulic radius of the section at depth y.
3
R
Therefore, when the depth of flow in an open channel flow varies with longitudinal
distance, the flow is termed as gradually varied. Such situations are found both upstream
and downstream of control sections. In this chapter the theory and analysis of gradually
varied flow are considered.
Activity 4.1
1. What is gradually varied flow?
2. Describe the basic characteristics of GVF and drive the general equation of
GVF?
3. What is the advantage of dealing about gradually varied flow?
4.2 General Equation for Gradually varied flow

The main forces involved in open channel flow are inertia, gravity, hydrostatic force due to
change in depth and friction. The first three forces represent the kinetic and potential
energy, while the forth dissipates useful energy into the useless kinetic energy of
turbulence and eventually into heat due to action of viscosity.
The total energy of an elementary volume of water is given as:
V2
E = Z + Y + 
2g
81
V2
Where: Z + y is the potential energy head above a datum  is the kinetic energy
2g
head.
Each term of the equation represents energy.
Figure 4.1: Schématique représentation of gradually Varied flow

The gradually varied flow equation is derived by assuming that for gradually varied flow
the change in energy with distance is equal to the friction loss. For the general equation
other losses than friction, like eddy, bend and/or bridge losses are not included.
Therefore, at any section, the total energy is
2
E =Z+Y+ V
2g
Where y = depth of flow, Z = elevation of the channel bottom above a datum and assuming
= 1 and cos = 1 (slope of the channel is small i.e. sinSo). Differentiating this equation
with respect to the longitudinal distance x yields:
 V2   v2 
d  Z  Y   d  
     2 g   dy  dz
dE 2g
dx dx dx dx dx
The term dE is the change of energy with longitudinal distance or the friction slope.
dx
dE
  Sf
dx
It should be noted that the friction loss dE is always a negative quantity in the direction of
flow (unless outside energy is added)
82
dZ
The term is the change of elevation of the bottom of the channel with respect to
dx
distance or the bottom slope.
dZ
  So
dX
It should be noted that the slope is defined as the sine of the slope angle and that it is
assumed positive if it descends in the direction of flow and negative if it ascends. But the
change in the bottom elevation dZ is a negative quantity where the slope descends. Thus,
dZ
the slope of the channel bottom So = sin  = -
dx
 v2 
d
 2g 

For a given flow rate Q, the term   becomes
dx
 v2 
d
 2g 

   
Q2 dA dy
 
Q 2T dy
dx qA 3 dy dx qA 3 dx
2 dy
= Fr
dx
 v2 
d
 2g 

Substituting, in
dE
    dy  dz yields
dx dx dx dx
dy dy
Sf   Fr   So
2
dx dx
So  Sf 
dy
dx

1  Fr
2

dy So  Sf

1  Fr
2
dx
This equation is called the general equation of gradually varied flow (also known as
dynamic equation of GVF). It describes the variation of the depth of flow in a channel of
arbitrary shape as a function of So, Sf and Fr2. Sf represents the slope of the energy line
 dE 
  . For uniform flow the bed slope (So) and the friction slope (Sf) are parallel. The
 dx 
friction slope (Sf) for non-uniform, gradually varied flow is not parallel to the bottom
83
slope, but is evaluated using Manning‟s the Chezy‟s (Colebrook–white) equation. There is
no general explicit solution (although particular solutions are available for prismatic
channels). Numerical methods are normally used.
Note that:-
dE
  Sf
dx
dZ
  So
dx
dEs
 So  Sf
dx
The latter is derived as:
v2
E = Z+Y+
2g
 V 2 

d Z Y  
dE
  2g   S f
dx dx
 V 2 
d  y  
     dZ  S
dEs 2g
But f
dx dx dx
dEs  dZ 
 So  Sf    So 
dx  dx 
dy dy
The slope of the water surface is equal to the bottom slope So of  o , Sw< So if is
dx dx
dy
positive, and greater than So if is negative. In other words, the water surface is parallel
dx
dy dy dy
to the channel bottom when  o , rising when is positive, and lowering when is
dx dx dx
negative. The term, Sf in the general GVF equation represents the energy slope. According
to our initial assumption, this slope at a channel section of GVF is equal to the energy
slope of the uniform flow that has the velocity and hydraulic radius of the section. When
Manning‟s formula is used
84
n 2v 2 q 2n2
Sf = 
R4 / 3 y10 / 3

When the Chezy formula is used V  C RS 
V 2
Sf =
C 2R
For uniform flow (So = Sf)
V 2n2 q2n2
So  
R4/3 yo
10 / 3
10 / 3
Sf  yo 
yo – normal or equilibrium depth 
 y 
So  
This general equation for GVF can also be driven as:
 v2   Q2   Q2   Q2 
d
 2g 
 d
 2 gA 2 
 d 
 2 gA 2 
 d 
 A2 

          
dx dx dx dx 2 g
1 1
 2
dQ 2  Q 2 d 2
A A
1 2
 2 2Q dQ  Q 2 dA
A A3
2Q Q2
 dQ  2 dA
A2 A3
 Q2 
d
 A2 

    2Q dQ Q 2 dA
 2 3
dx A2 dx A dx
But dA  dA dy  Bs dy
dx dy dx dx
Substituting,
 Q2 
d
 A 
 2
   2Q dQ  2Q Bs
dy
dx A2 dx A3 dx
dQ
But  0 Assuming there is no inflow and outflow across the reach,
dx
85
 Q2 
d
 A2 

  
2Q 2 Bs dy
dx A3 dx
Putting back 2g (i.e. dividing by 2g)
 Q2 
d  2 
 A    2Q Bs
2
dy dy
  Fr 2
2 g dx 2 g A3 dx dx
 Sf   Fr
2dy
dx
 So 
dy
dx
 So  S f  1  Fr 2
dy
dx
 
dy So  Sf
Therefore 
1  Fr
2
dx
4.3 Classification of Flow Profiles

Surface profiles for gradually varied flow conditions in wide rectangular channels are
dy So  S f
analyzed by using the expression: 
dx 1  Fr 2
The term dy/dx represents the slope of the water surface relative to the channel bottom. If
dy/dx is positive, the depth is increasing in downstream direction (x).
When the channel bottom is going down in the direction of flow, So is positive. Similarly
Sf in downstream direction is always positive; the energy is decreasing in downstream
direction. For uniform flow Sf = So, which means dy/dx is zero and the water surface
parallel to the bottom.
For a given discharge Q, Sf and Fr2 are functions of depth (y) only, e.g.
n 2Q 2 P 4 / 3
Sr 
A10 / 3
Q 2 Bs
Fr 2 
gA 3
Both parameters decrease with increasing A and hence increasing y; Sf= So when y = yo
(uniform flow).
86
Hence:
Sf> So When y < yo Fr2> 1 when y < yc
Sf< So when y > yo Fr2< 1 when y > yc
These inequalities are used to find the sign of dy/dx for any condition. For gradually varied
flow the surface profile may occupy 3 regions and the sign of dy/dx is found for each
region.
Table 4.1: Classification profiles based on bed slope and depth range
a. Bed slope
Horizontal slope So = 0 Type H
Mild slope 0 < So< Sc Type M
Critical slope So = Sc Type C
Steep slope So> Sc Type S
Adverse slope (negative) So< 0 Type A or N
b. Depth range
Region 1 y > yn and y > yc
Region 2 yn< y < yc
Region3 y < yn and y < yc
symboles Type of bottom slope Characteristics

S Steep So> Sc
C Critical So = Sc
M Mild 0 < So<Sc
H Horizontal So = 0
A Adverse So< 0
87
The common classification of varied flow consists of 12 classes.

Classification of varied flow profiles
S1 C1 M1 - -
S2 - M2 H2 A2
S3 C3 M3 H3 A3
The classification is based on the relationship between the actual water depth and the
normal water depth (if existing) and the critical water depth.
Some frequent encountered curves are:
M1: The back water curve upstream of a dam or a gate. At the dam the water depth is
given and y > yo and y > yc. Also is given a mild slope (M), which means yo> yc. The flow
is sub–critical and dy/dx is positive, the water depth y increases in the downstream
direction; or the water depth decreases in an upstream direction.
M2: The drawdown curve, for example a transition from a mild slope to a less mild.
M3: Supercritical flow downstream of a gate of weir. The transition of M3 to M2 or to

M1 gives a hydraulic jump (from super to sub critical flow). The slope is mild (yo> yc) and
yo > yc > y. The flow is super–critical and dy/dx is positive, the water depth y increases in
the downstream direction; or the water depth decreases in an upstream direction.
C3: If a channel has a critical slope, then the flow is initially critical and remains critical
throughout the channel. In the proximity of a dam or a gate, however, the flow in upstream
of the dam or gate is sub–critical and the water surface will approach the horizontal.
Another example of flow profile is that of a free outfall, where critical depth occurs and
with subcritical flow upstream of the outfall. Since friction produces a constant decrease in
energy in the direction of flow, it is clear that at the outfall the total energy is less than at
any point upstream. As critical depth is the value for which the specific energy is a
minimum, one would expect critical depth to occur at the outfall. However, the value for
88
the critical depth is derived on the assumption that the water is flowing in straight and
parallel flow lines. However, at the free outfall gravity forces create curved streamlines, so
that the depth at the brink (outfall) yb is 0.72* yc. Critical depth occurs somewhere
upstream of the brink (between 3yc and 10yc).
For supercritical flow conditions, upstream of the outfall, no drop–down curve develops.
A similar situation occurs when water from a reservoir enters a canal in which the uniform
depth is smaller than the critical depth (yn< yc). In this case the depth passes through
critical depth in the vicinity of the entrance. Once again, this section is the control section.
There are limiting conditions to surface profiles. For example, as y approaches yc, the
denominator approaches zero. Thus dy/dx becomes infinite and the curves will cross the
critical depth line perpendicular to it. Hence, surface profiles in the vicinity of y = yc are
only approximate. Similarly, when y approaches to yn, the numerator approaches to zero.
Thus the curves approach the normal depth, yn asymptotically.
Finally, as y approaches to zero, the surface profile approaches the channel bed
perpendicularly, which is impossible under the assumptions for gradually varied flow.
Summary of Flow Profiles
dy dy dy
0 0 0
dx dx dx
Backwater curve Uniform flow curve Draw–down curve
y > yn Sf< So So – Sf > 0 Gradually varied

y = yn Sf = So So – Sf = 0 Uniform flow
y < yn Sf> So So – Sf < 0 Gradually varied
y > yc Fr < 1 1 – Fr2> 0 Sub critical
y = yc Fr = 1 1 – Fr2 = 0 Cri tical
y < yc Fr > 1 1 – Fr2 0 Supercritical
89
y > yn y < yn
Water surface profiles y > yc y < yc y > yc y < yc
So – Sf + n.a. + -
1 – Fr2 + n.a. - -
yn> yc So – Sf + n.a. + -
1 – Fr2 + n.a. - -
yn> yc dy/dx + n.a. - +
type M1 n.a. M2 M3
So – S f + n.a. n.a. -
yn = yc 1- Fr2 + n.a. n.a. -
dy/dx + n.a. n.a. +
type C1 n.a. n.a. C3
So – Sf + + n.a. -
yn< yc 1 – Fr2 + - n.a. -
dy/dx + - n.a. +
type S1 S2 n.a. S3
Remarks: + positive value; - negative; n.a. Doesn‟t exist
Table 4.2: General classification of flow profile

Bottom Flow type Depth range of y,yc and yn Type of Flow type
slope 1 2 3 Region 1 Region 2 Region 3 curve
Steep S S1 y>yc>yn Backwater Sub-critical
So>Sc S2 yc>y>yn Draw down Supercritical
Yn<yc S3 yc>yn> y Backwater Supercritical
Critical C C1 y > yc = yn Backwater Sub- critical
S o = Sc C2 yc =yn= yc Uniform Critical
yn = yc C3 y < yc = yn Backwater Supercritical
Mild M M1 y > yn> yc Backwater Sub- critical
0 < So< Sc M2 yn>y >yc Draw down Sub-critical
90
yn> yc M yn> yc>y Backwater Supercritical

3
Horizontal n.a.
H H2 y> yc Draw down Sub-critical
So = 0 H3 yc> y Backwater Supercritical
Yn = 
Adverse A n.a.
So < 0 A2 y >yc Draw down Sub-critical
Yn = none A3 yc> y Backwater Supercritical
Depth range
Region 1 y > yn and y > yc
Region 2 yn< y < yc
Region 3 y < yn and y < yc
Activity 4.2
1. Discuss briefly all the classification of gradually varied flow? How they are classified?
2. Illustrate examples for the 12 profiles of GVF?
3. What are the advantages of classifying gradually varied flow?
4.4 Water Surface Profiles

4.4.1 M – Curves
The general shapes of M curves are given below. Asymptotic behavior of each curve will
be examined mathematically.
Figure 4.2: The shape of M curves
91
A) M1 – Curve
Water surface will be in Region 1 for a mild slope channel and the flow is obviously
Subcritical.
Se< S0 → Mild slope channel
y0> yc → Subcritical flow
dy So  S e

dx 1  Fr 2
Fr < 1 → Subcritical flow → (1 – Fr2) > 0
y > y0 → Se < S0
dy 
 0
dx  (Water depth will increase in the flow direction)
Asymptotic behavior of the water surface is;
Water depth can be between (∞ > y > y0) for Region 1. The asymptotic behaviors of the
Water surface for the limit values (∞, y0) are;
a) y → ∞ , V → 0, Fr → 0, (1 – Fr2) = 1
y → ∞ , V → 0, Se →0
dy
The limit of as y approaches to  is equal to so
dx
The water surface meets a very large depth as a horizontal asymptote.
b) y → y0 , V → V0 , Se → S0
dy
The limit of as y approaches to yo be equal to 0. The water surface approaches the
dx
normal depth asymptotically. The most common of all GVF profiles is the M1 type, which
is a subcritical flow condition. Obstructions to flow such as, weirs, dams, control structures
and natural features, such as bends, produces M1backwater curves (Fig. 4.3). These extend
to several kilometers upstream before merging with the normal depth.
Figure 4.3: M1 Profile
92
B) M2 – Curve
Subcritical. (See Fig. 4.2)
y0> y > yc
y < y0 → V > V0 → Se > S0 → (S0 –Se) < 0
y > yc → Fr < 1 → (1 – Fr2) > 0
dy 
 
dx  (Water depth decrease in the flow direction)

y0> y > yc
y → y0, Se → S0 , (S0 –Se) = 0
dy
The limit of as y approaches to yo be equal to 0.
dx
The water surface approaches the normal depth asymptotically
y → yc , Fr = 1 , (1 – Fr2 ) = 0
dy
The limit of as y approaches to yc is equal to  .
dx
The water surface meets the critical depth line vertically.
The M2 profiles occur at a sudden drop of the channel, at constriction type of transitions
and at the canal outlet into pools (Fig.4.4).
Figure 4.4: Water flows from a canal into a pool (m2 profile)
93
C) M3 – Curve
subcritical (Fig.4.2).
y0> yc>0
y < y0 → V > V0 → Se > S0 → (S0 – Se) < 0
y < yc → Supercritical flow → Fr > 1 → (1 – Fr 2) < 0
dy 
   (Water depth will increase in the flow direction)
dx 
y → yc → Fr = 1 → (1 – Fr2) = 0
dy
dx
y → 0, Se → ∞, (S0 – Se) = ∞
V
y → 0, Fr = =∞
gy
dy 
The limit of as y approaches to 0is equal to (Unknown)
dx 
Figure 4.5: M3 Profile
Where a supercritical stream enters a mild slope channel, M3 type of profile occurs. The
flow leading from a spillway or a sluice gate to a mild slope forms a typical example (Fig.
94
above). The beginning of the M3 curve is usually followed by a small stretch of rapidly
varied flow and the downstream is generally terminated by a hydraulic jump. Compared to
M1 and M2 profiles, M3 curves are of relatively short in length.
Example:
A rectangular channel with a bottom width of 4.0 m and a bottom slope of 0.0008 has a
discharge 1.5m3/se. In a gradually varied flow in this channel, the depth at a certain
location is found to be 0.30 m. assuming n = 0.016, determine the type of GVF profile.
Solution:
To find the normal depth y0,
A = B yo= 4yo
P = B +2yo= 4 + 2yo
4 yo
R=
4  2 yo
2
1
1  A 3
Q = AV = A   So 2
nP
2
1  4 yo 3 1
1.5 = 4 yo    0.0008 2
0.016  4  2 yo 

By trial and error, y0 = 0.43 m.
Critical depth yc,
Q 1.5
q=   0.375 m3/sec
B 4
1 1
 q 2  3  0.3752  3
yc =   =   = 0.24m
 
g  9. 81 
c) Type of profile,
y0 = 0.43 m > yc = 0.24 m (Mild slope channel, M profile)
y = 0.30 m
y0> y > yc (Region 2)
The water surface profile is of the M2 type.
95
4.4.2 S – Curves
General shapes of S curves are given in Figure below. Asymptotic behaviors of each curve
will be examined mathematically.
Figure 4.6 General shapes of S curves

A) S1 – Curve
Water surface will be in Region 1 for a steep slope channel and the flow is obviously
supercritical.
y > yc> y0
y > y0 → V < V0 → Se < S0 → (S0 – Se) > 0
y > yc → Fr < 1 → (1 – Fr2) > 0
dy s s 
 o e 2   
dx 1  Fr  (Water depth will increase in the flow direction)

∞ > y > yc
y → ∞ , V → 0 , Fr = 0 , (1- Fr2) = 1
y → ∞ , V → 0 , Se = 0
dy
The limit of as y approaches to  be equal to S0.
dx
y → yc , Fr = 1 , (1 – Fr2) = 0
96
dy
dx
Figure 4.8: S1 Profile

The S1 profile is produced when the flow from a steep channel is terminated by a deep
pool created by an obstruction, such as a weir or dam (Fig. above). At the beginning of the
curve, the flow changes from the normal depth (supercritical flow) to subcritical flow
through a hydraulic jump. The profiles extend downstream with a positive water slope to
reach a horizontal asymptote at the pool elevation.
B) S2 – Curve
Water surface will be in Region 2 for a steep slope channel and the flow is supercritical.
y0 < y < yc
y > y0 → Se < S0 → (S0 – Se) > 0
dy s s 
 o e2   
dx 1  Fr  (Water depth will decrease in the flow direction)

y0< y < yc
y → yc , Fr → 1 , (1 –Fr2) = 0
dy
The limit of as y approaches to yo be equal to 0.
dx
The water surface approaches the normal depth asymptotically.
97

Profiles of the S2 type occur at the entrance region of a steep channel leading from a
reservoir and at a brake of grade from mild slopes to steep slope (Fig above). Generally
S2profiles are short of length.
C) S3 – Curve
Water surface will be in Region 3 for a steep slope channel and the flow is supercritical.
0 < y < y0
y < y0 → Se > S0 → (S0 – Se) < 0
dy s s 
 o  e 2    (Water depth will increase in the flow direction)
dx 1  Fr 

0 < y < y0
V
y → 0, Fr = =∞
gy
dy 
The limit of as y approaches to 0is equal to (Unknown)
dx 
y → y0 , Se → S0 , (S0 – Se) = 0
dy
The limit of as y approaches to yo is equal to 0 (The water surface approaches the
dx
normal depth y0 asymptotically.)
98

For instance, free flow from a sluice gate with a steep slope on its downstream is of the S3
type.
4.4.3 C – Curves
General shapes of C curves are given in Figure below. Asymptotic behaviors of each curve
will be examined mathematically. Since the flow is at critical stage, y0 = yc, there is no
Region 2.
Figure 4.11: General shapes of C curves
A) C1 – Curve
Water surface will be in Region 1 for a critical slope channel.
y0 = yc< y < ∞
y > yc → Se < S0 → (S0 –Se) > 0
y > yc → Subcritical flow → Fr < 1 → (1 –Fr2) > 0
dy s s 
 o  e2   
dx 1  Fr  (Water depth will increase in the flow direction)
99
y → ∞ , Se→ 0 , ( S0 – Se) = S0
y → ∞, V = 0 → Fr = 0 → (1 – Fr 2) = 1
dy
The limit of as y approaches to  is equal to So (Unknown)
dx
y → yc , Fr = 1 → (1 – Fr2) = 0
y → yc = y0 , Se = S0 = Sc → (S0 –Se ) =0
dy 0
The limit of as y approaches to (yc = yo) be equal to (Unknown)
dx 0
Activity4.3
1. C1 and C3 profiles are very rare and highly unstable. Why?
2. Give examples for each profile s?
4.4.4 H- Curves
General shapes of H curves are given in Figure below for horizontal slope channels;
uniform flow depth y0 does not exist. Critical water depth can be computed for a given
discharge Q and therefore critical water depth line can be drawn. Since there is no uniform
water depth y0, Region 1 does not exist.
Figure 4.12: General shapes of H curves
A) H2 – Curve
Water surface will be in Region 2 for a horizontal slope channel.
∞ > y > yc
y > yc → Se < S0 = 0 → (S0 –Se) < 0
y > yc → subcritical flow → Fr < 1 → (1 – Fr 2) > 0
100
dy s s 
 o  e 2    (Water depth will decrease in the flow direction)
dx 1  Fr 

y → ∞ , Se→ 0 , ( S0 – Se) = S0
y → ∞, V = 0 → Fr = 0 → (1 – Fr 2) = 1
dy
The limit of as y approaches to  is equal to So
dx
y → yc , Fr = 1 → (1 – Fr 2) = 0
y → yc , Se = Sc → S0 = 0, (S0 –Se ) = -Se
dy s s 0  So (The water surface meets the critical depth line
 o  e2  
dx 1  Fr 0 vertically.)
B) H3 – Curve
0 > y > yc
y < yc → Se > S0 = 0 → (S0 –Se) = -Se
y → yc , supercritical flow , Fr > 1 → (1 – Fr2 ) < 0
dy s s 
 o  e 2    (Water depth will increase in the flow direction)
dx 1  Fr 

y → 0, Se → ∞ , (S0 – Se) = -∞
V
y → 0, Fr = =∞
gy
dy 
The limit of as y approaches to 0be equal to (Unknown)
dx 
y → yc → Fr = 1 → (1 – Fr2) = 0
y → yc , Se = Sc → S0 = 0, (S0 –Se ) = -Se
101
dy s s 0  Se (The water surface meets the critical depth line

 o  e2  
dx 1  Fr 0 vertically.)
Figure 4.13: H3 curve

A horizontal channel can be considered as the lower limit reached by a mild slope as its
bed slope becomes flatter. The H2 and H3 profiles are similar to M2 and M3 profiles
respectively (Fig. above). However, the H2 curve has a horizontal asymptote.
4.4.5 A– Curves
General shapes of A curves are given in Figure below. For adverse slope channels, uniform
flow depth y0 does not exist. Critical water depth can be computed for a given discharge Q
and therefore critical water depth line can be drawn. Since there is no uniform water depth
y0, Region 1 does not exist as well as in A curves. A2 and A3 curves are similar to H2 and
H3 curves respectively.
Figure 4.14: General shapes of A curves
General shapes of A curves are given in Fig. above. For adverse slope channels, uniform
flow depth y0 does not exist. Critical water depth can be computed for a given discharge Q
and therefore critical water depth line can be drawn. Since there is no uniform water depth
y0, Region 1 does not exist as well as in A curves. A2 and A3 curves are similar to H2 and
H3 curves respectively. Adverse slopes are rare to occur .These profiles have very short
length.
102
4.5 Serial Combination of Channel Sections

To analyze a general problem of many channel sections and controls, the following steps
are to be applied.
1. Draw the longitudinal section of the system.
2. Calculate the critical depth and normal depths of various reaches and draw the
CDL and NDL in all reaches.
3. Mark all the controls, both the imposed as well as natural controls.
4. Identify the possible profiles.
Example:
Identify and sketch the GVF profiles in three mild slopes which could be described as
mild, steeper mild and milder. The three slopes are in series. The last slope has a sluice
gate in the middle of the reach and the downstream end of the channel has a free overfall.
Solution:
The longitudinal profile of the channel, critical depth line and normal depth lines for the
various reaches are shown in the Fig below. The free over fall at E is obviously a control.
The vena contracta downstream of the sluice gate at D is another control. Since for
subcritical flow the control is at the downstream end of the channel, the higher of the two
normal depths at C acts as a control for the reach CB, giving rise to anM1 profile over CB.
At B, the normal depth of the channel CB acts as a control giving rise to an M2 profile
over AB. The controls are marked distinctly in Fig. (6.23). With these controls the possible
flow profiles are: an M2 profile on channel AB, M1 profile on channel BC, M3 profile and
M2 profile through a jump on the stretch DE.
103
Example:
A trapezoidal channel has three reaches A, B, and C connected in series with the following
physical characteristics.
Reach Bed width Side slope Bed slope n
1 4.0 m 1.0 0.0004 0.015
2 4.0 m 1.0 0.009 0.012
3 4.0 m 1.0 0.004 0.015
For a discharge Q = 22.5 m3/sec through this channel, sketch the resulting water surface
profiles. The length of the reaches can be assumed to be sufficiently long for the GVF
profiles to develop fully.
Solution:
The normal depths and critical water depths are calculated as:
T
y 1
m
B=4m
A= (B+ my) y, A = (4+y) y
P = B+2y 1  m2 , p =4+2y 1  12
T = B+2my, T = 4+2y
2
A  A 3 1
Q = AV =   S o 2
n P
2
(4  y ) y  (4  y ) y 3 1
22.5 =   So 2
 4  2y 2 
n  
Uniform flow depths for the given data for every reach are calculated by trial and error
method;
Reach A: S0A = 0.0004, nA=0.015 → y0A = 2.26 m
Reach B: S0B = 0.009, nB =0.012 → y0B = 0.81 m
104
Reach C: S0C = 0.004, nC = 0.015 → y0C =1.17 m

Since the channel is primordial (the geometry does not change in the reaches), there will be
only one critical water depth.
Q 2Tc
3
1
gAc
22.5 2 * ( 4  2 y c )
1

9.81 * ( 4  y c ) y c ) 3
yc = 1.32m
Reach A is a mild slope channel as y0A = 2.26 m > y0c = 1.32 m and the flow is subcritical.
Reach B and C are steep slope channels as y0B, y0C< yc and the flow is supercritical on both
reaches. Reach B is steeper than reach C. The various reaches are schematically shown in
Fig below. The CDL is drawn at a height of 1.32 m above the bed level and NDLs are
drawn at the calculated y0 values.
The controls are marked in the figure. Reach A will have an M2 drawdown curve, reach B
an S2 drawdown curve and reach C a rising curve as shown in the figure.
Activity 4.4
1. What are the methods to compute gradually varied flow?
2. What are the governing factors for selection of the methods of solving length of the
profiles?
3. Which method is best to compute the length of flow for prismatic channels and
irregular shapes of the channel?Why?
105
4.6 Computations of Gradually Varied Flow

4.6.1 The Direct Step Method (Distance from Depth)
The direct step method is a simple method applicable to prismatic channels. Depths of flow
are specified and the distances between successive depths are calculated. The equation may
be used to determine directly (with means explicit) the distance between given differences
of depth y  . The equation may be rewritten in finite difference form as:
1  Fr 2
Δx  * Δy
So  Sf
The equation can also be written as:
Es 1  Es 2
Δx 
So  Sf
Es is the specific energy. In the computation Sf is calculated for the depths y1 and y2 and
the average is taken, which is denoted by Sfm.
For the computations the following data are needed:
 Discharge Q
 Depth of flow y
 Area A
 Hydraulic radius R
 Roughness coefficient n or C
 Coefficient of Carioles
For the given data, the computations are carried out in tables.
Figure 4.15: The Channel Reach for derivation of direct step method
106
Example:
A trapezoidal channel (bed width 4m, side slope 1H:1V)is laid at a bed slope of 0.00016
and carries a discharge of 2.5m3/se. the depth of flow decreases in the direction of flow and
found to be 0.5m at a certain section. Name the surface profile formed and determine its
length by direct step method.
Solution:
 2

 1  b  myo  yo 3
 * So 2 
Q  AV  b  myo  yo *  
1
n  
  b  2 yo 1  m
2
 
 
 2

 1   b  y o  y o
3
 * 0.00016 2 
1
2.5  4  y o  y o *  
0.02 
 b  2 yo 1  1
2 

 
 
By trial and error yo =0.952m
From general equation critical flow
Q2

Ac
3

b  myc  y c 3
g T b  2myc
2.5 2
 0.637 
4  yc yc 
3
9.81 4  2 yc
By trial and error yc =0.332m

Since yo>y>yc the gradually varied profile is M2 profile.
Therefore the length of M2 curve is 2020.62m and computed between yo and y by the
following table.
y A V V2 E E R Sf
Sf So- Sf X
-4
2g 10
10
-4 -4
10
0.943 4.661 0.536 0.0147 0.957 0.699 1.852
0.8 3.84 0.651 0.0216 0.822 0.135 0.613 3.249 2.55 0.95 1421.05
0.7 3.29 0.76 0.0294 0.729 0.093 0.55 5.114 4.182 2.582 360.2
107
0.6 2.76 0.906 0.0418 0.642 0.087 0.484 8.628 6.871 5.271 165.08
0.5 2.25 1.1 0.063 0.563 0.079 0.416 15.84 12.234 10.634 74.29
 X 2020.62m
4.6.2 Graphical Integration Method

Consider two channel sections at distance x1 and x2 and with corresponding depths of flow
y1 and y2. The distance along the channel is x. If a graph of y against f(y) is plotted, then
the area under the curve is equivalent to X. The value of the function f(y) may be found by
substitution of A, P, So and Sf for various values of y and for a given Q. Hence, the
distance X between the given depths (y1 and y2) may be calculated (numerical integration)
or measured (graphical integration).this numerical/graphical method gives the distance
from depth.
This method integrates the equation of gradually varied flow by a numerical procedure.
dy S  Sf
 o
dx 1  Fr 2
dx 1  Fr 2

dy So  Sf
1  Fr 2
x y2
 dx
o
 
y1 So  Sf
dy
1  Fr 2
y2 y2
dx
L  x 2  x1  
y1 So  Sf
dy y dy dy
1
By this method the largest errors are found in the area with the strongest curvature. This is
the region near the control point(s). The accuracy can be improved by varying the steps
x as a function of the curvature. This method has broad application. It applies to flow in
prismatic as well as non-prismatic channels of any shape and slope. The procedure is
straightforward and easy to follow. It may become very laborious when applied to actual
field problems.
108
4.6.3 Standard Step Method

The standard step method is carried out step by step from station to station. The distance
between the stations is given, and the procedure is to determine the depth of flow at he
stations. As mentioned in chapter 5.6 the computation procedure is usually carried out by
trial and error. For the computation the following data are needed:
 Discharge Q
 Length of the reach
 Area A as function of y
 Hydraulic radius R as function of y
 Roughness coefficient ( n or C)
 Carioles coefficient 
The total heads at the two end sections are:

Prismatic Cannels
α v12 α v 22
E1  Z1  E 2 1  Z2  E 2  2  E1  Sf * Δx
2g 2g
ΔEs  So  Sf  * Δx
2. Natural Channels
α v12 α v 22
E1  Z1  E 21  Z 2  E 22  E1  Δx
2g 2g
v2
ΔE s  h f  hc   S f * x  
2g
Z = stage, level of water surface above datum in m
Compare E2-2 and E2-1; if the difference is not within prescribed limits (e.g. 0.01m),
Re-estimate Z2 and repeat until agreement is reached.
The computation of the flow profile by the standard step method is arranged in tabular
form.
Each column of the table is explained as follows:

1. The location of the stations is fixed.
109
2. Water surface elevation Z at the station, a trial value is first entered in this column;
this will be verified or rejected on the basis of this computations made in the
remaining columns of the table. For the first step, these elevations must be given or
assumed. In most cases the first entry is known. After this value in the second step
has been verified, it becomes the basis for the verification the trial value in the next
step, and so on
3. The depth of flow y corresponding to the water surface elevation in column 2, For
instance, the depth of flow y at the second station is equal to water-surface
elevation minus bottom elevation (distance from the first site time‟s bed slope)
4. Water area A corresponding to y in column3
5. Mean velocity v equal to the given discharge divided by the water area in column 4
6. Velocity head in m, corresponding to the velocity column 5
7. Total head E computed equal to the sum of Z in column 2 and the velocity head in
col. 6
8. Hydraulic radius R corresponding to y in column 3
9. Friction slope Sf with n or C, V from column 5 and R from column 8
10. Average friction Sfm slope through the reach between the sections in each step,
approximately equal to the arithmetic mean of the friction slope just computed in
column 9 and that of the previous step.
11. Length of the reach x  between the sections.
12. Friction loss in the reach, equal to the product of the values in columns 10 and11.
13. Elevation of the total head E. this is computed by adding the values of hf (and hc if
calculated in a previous column) in column 12 to the elevation at the lower end of
the reach, which is found in column 13 of the previous reach.
14. If the value so obtained does not agree closely with that entered in column 7, a
new trial value of the water-surface elevation is assumed, and so on, until
agreement is obtained. The value that leads to agreement is the correct water-
surface elevation. The computation may then proceed to the next step.
110
Unit Summary
A steady non-uniform flow in a prismatic channel with gradual changes in its water surface
elevation is named as gradually-varied flow (GVF), the velocity varies along the channel
and consequently the bed slope, water surface slope, and energy line slope will all differ
from each other. The main forces involved in open channel flow are inertia, gravity,
hydrostatic force due to change in depth and friction.
Surface profiles for gradually varied flow conditions in any channels are analyzed by using
dy So  S f
the expression  . Generally gradually varied flow is classified based on
dx 1  Fr 2
slope and depth range(based on the relationship between the actual water depth and , the
normal water depth(if existing) and the critical water depth) in to 12 profiles .based on
slope there are five slopes namely mild ,steep, critical, horizontal, and adverse slope and
based on depth range are region 1, 2 and 3.by combining the two parameters the profile
name are M1,S1,C1, M2,S2,H2,A2, M3,S3,C3,H3,A3.The most common of all GVF
profiles is the M1 type, which is a subcritical flow condition, Obstructions to flow such as,
weirs, dams, control structures and natural features, such as bends, produces M1backwater
curves. C1 and C3 profiles are very rare and highly unstable.
Gradually varied flow is computed by:-
 Direct step method
 Graphical integration method
 Standard step methods
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Review Questions
1. Briefly explain the basis of water surface profile determination and describe the reason for
region 2 of critical slope (C2), region 1 of horizontal slope(H1) and adverse slope (A1) are
doesn’t exist?
2. Discuss the three methods used to compute gradually varied flow?
3. Using the basic differential equation of GVF, show that dy/dx is positive for S 1M3and S3
profiles?
4. Identify the slope of rectangular stream 15m and 3m deep. The slope of the stream bed is 1
in 5000. Total discharge is 29m3/sec. Is the depth increasing or decreasing in the flow
dy 1
direction? (Assume C=65) (Ans. Sf = 1/21762.08,  , Hence the depth of flow
dx 6400
increases in the flow direction.)
5. Water flows in a triangular channel of side slope 1:1 and longitudinal slope 0f
0.001.Determine whether the channel is mild, steep or critical when a discharge of
0.2m3/sec flows through it. Assume Manning’s coefficient is 0.015.For what range of
depths will the flow be on a type 1, 2 or 3 curve? (Ans. the channel is a mild slope channel
for this discharge. If “y” is the depth of flow: For M1 curve y > 0.536m, M2 curve
0.536>y > 0.382m, M3 curve y< 0.382m.)
6. In a very long trapezoidal channel with width B= 3.00m, side slope m = 1.5, Manning’s
n=0.016, longitudinal slope So = 0.0004, the nominal depth is measured as 1.20m.
Determine the type of GVF profile existing at section X in this channel when the depth of
flow at X is:-
i) 0.50m, ii) 0.8m and iii) 1.50m (Ans. i= m1, ii =M2, iii = M3)
7. 6. a trapezoidal channel with a width 6.10 m, n=0.025, m=2 and S0 = 0.001 carries a
discharge of 28m3/sec. if this channel terminates in a free overfall, determine the length of
gradually varied flow profile by direct step method. (Ans. the length of the profile is
442.61m)
8. A trapezoidal channel having bed width of 7m and side slope m=2, longitudinal slope So =
0.0016 and n=0.025 carries a discharge of 12.26m3/sec. compute the back water profile
created by a dam which backup water to depth of 2m. The upstream of a dam is assumed at
a depth equal to 1% greater than the normal depth.
9. Sketch the possible GVF profiles in the following serial arrangement of channels and
controls. The flow is from left to right;
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A. Steep-horizontal-mild slope
B. mild-sluice gate-steep- horizontal- sudden drop
C. steep- steeper-mild-milder slope
D. free intake-steep-sluice gate-mild slope
E. steep – mild – sluice gate – mild – sudden drop
F. sluice gate –adverse – horizontal – steep slope
10. uniform flow is taking place in a rectangular channel having a longitudinal slope of 0.004
and Manning’s n =0.013.the discharge per unit width in the channel is measured as
1.2m3/s/m. what is the slope of the channel in the GVF analysis?
11. A rectangular channel has two reaches A and B in series with characteristics as shown
below;
Reach Width (m) Discharge(m3/se) slope n

A 4.8 7.4 0.0005 0.015
B 4.8 5 0.0005 0.015
The decrease in discharge at B is due to the withdrawal of some flow at the junction and can be
considered to be a local phenomenon. Sketch the possible GVF profiles produced in the channels if
A). The channel is continuous and without any obstruction at the junction and
B). A sluice gate is provided at the junction
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CHAPTER FIVE
Rapidly Varied Flow (RVF)
At the end of this chapter students will be able to:

 Knows rapidly varied flow, its characteristics and grasp their examples
 Understand the function of weirs, spillways and gates
 Identify the types of hydraulic jump, practical application of hydraulic
jump and the characteristics of the jump.
5.1 Characteristics of RVF

distance; otherwise, it is called gradually varied flow. There is abrupt change of flow
profile (virtually broken).
Example: Hydraulic Jump, flow under gates
In view of contrast with GVF, the following characteristic features of RVF should be
noted.
 Pronounced curvature hydrostatic pressure distribution cannot be assumed
 Rapid variation in flow regime takes place in a very short distance.
 Effect of boundary friction, which would play a primary role in a GVF, is
comparatively small and in most cases insignificant.
 In RVF the velocity-distribution coefficients  and  are much greater than unity
and cannot be accurately determined.
 Flow is actually confined by separation zones as well as solid boundaries. (Because
profiles could be broken).
Activity 5.1
1. Explain what mean by rapidly varied flow and how it is formed? Develop your
understanding by illustrating examples that express RVF?
2. Discuss the characteristics of rapidly varied flow and the methods for computation of
depth for RVF?
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5.2 Approaches to the Problem

The theory that assumes Parallel flow, Hydrostatic distribution of pressure does not apply
in RVF computation. For RVF of continuous flow profile a mathematical equation of flow
can be established, based on viscid and potential flow condition.
Approach to the solution of such equation include:-
 Graphical method (e.g. flow-net analysis)
 Numerical method (e.g. method of relaxation)
Despite such developments, no satisfactory general solution has yet been obtained
Practical Hydraulicians want to treat Various RVF phenomena as isolate cases each with
its own semi-empirical/empirical treatment. In most cases the experimental results are used
empirically. The physical concepts of the aspects of the flow will be interpreted
qualitatively using energy principle, momentum principle, geometry plus sometimes
dimensional analysis.
Three isolated cases of RVF are discussed here are.
 Flow over spillway
 Hydraulic jump
 Flow under gate
Activity 5.2
1. Define weir and describe the advantage of weir and its disadvantages?
2. What are the basic differences between SCW, BCW and RCW and write their
equation for determining discharge that passes over these structures?
3. How Cavitation is formed in flow over the spillway?
5.3 Flows over Spillways

Spillway is a structure over or through a dam for discharging flood flows; overflow
channel; opening built into a dam or the side of a reservoir to release (to spill) excess
floodwater.
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5.3.1 Crest Shape of Overflow Spillways

Earliest shapes were based on a simple parabola designed to fit the trajectory of the falling
nappe (the equation for the lower surface of the nappe). Bazin‟s made comprehensive
laboratory investigation for nappe shapes. The used of Bazin‟s data in design will produce
a crest shape that coincides with lower surface of as aerated nappe over a sharp-crested
weir. Such a profile is known as Bazin profile Advantage should cause no negative
pressure on the crest (the presence of negative pressure will lead to danger of cavitation‟s
damage).
In selecting a suitable profile avoidance of negative pressure should be considered an
objective, along with such other factors as maximum hydraulic efficiency, practicability,
stability & economy. Extensive experiments on the shape of the nappe over-sharp crested
weir were conducted by U. S Bureau of Reclamation; including Bazin‟s, The Bureau has
developed coordinates of the nappe surface for various slope faced weirs. On the basis of
the Bureau data,
The U.S.Army Corps of Engineers has developed several standard shapes at its Waterways
Experimental Station. Such shapes designed as the WES standard spillway shapes, can be
expressed by the following equation:-
n 1
X n  K Hd Y
Where:-
X and Y are Coordinates of the crest profile with the origin at the highest point of
the crest.
Hd is the design head excluding the velocity head of the approach flow
K & n are parameters depending on the slope of the upstream face.
Table 5.1: Values of K and N for different upstream faces
Slope of upstream face k n
Vertical 2.000 1.850
3 pm 1 (V = H) 1.936 1.836
3 on 2 1.939 1.810
3 on 3 1.873 1.776
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For intermediate slopes: approximate value of k and n may be obtained by plotting the
above values against the corresponding slopes and interpolating from the plot the required
values for any given slope within the plotted range.
5.3.2 Discharge of WES Spillway

The discharge over a spillway can be computed by an equation in the form of SCW/BCW
Q = CLHe1.5
He the total energy head on the crest, including the velocity head in the approach canal.
The effect of the approach velocity is negligible when height h of the spillway is greater
than 1.33Hd (h > 1.33 Hd), where the design head exclude the approach velocity head.
Under this condition, i.e. h/Hd> 1.33, He = Hd can be taken (the approach velocity head is
negligible) and the coefficient of discharge C has been found to be C = 2.21 (if is in ft. C
He = 4.03)
5.4 Broad Crested Weir (BCW)

Overflow structure with horizontal crest above which the deviation from a hydrostatic
pressure distribution because of centripetal acceleration may be neglected.
Stream-lines are parallel and straight
Criteria 0.5  H1/L0.07
If 0.07 H1/L the energy loss above the crest cannot be neglected
0.5  H1/L so that he hydrostatic pressure distribution can be assumed
Where: - L = length of the weir crest in the direction of flow,
H1 total energy head over the weir crest.
5.5 Sharp Crested Weir (SCW)

The crest length in the direction of the flow is short enough not to influence the H-Q
relationship of a weir. Overflow structure (H1/L > 15). In practice, 0.002m L so that even
at a minimum head of 0.03m the nappe is completely free from the weir body after passing
the weir. No adhered nappe can occur. An air pocket beneath the nappe form from which a
quantity of air is removed continuously by the over falling jet. Therefore, Precaution is
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required not to ensure that the pressure in the air pocket is not reduced, otherwise resulting
undesirable effects:
Owing to the increase of the under pressure the curvature of the over falling jet will
increase, causing increase of the discharge coefficient
Irregular supply of air to the pocket will cause vibration of the jet results an unsteady flow.
SCW is the simplest form of overflow spillway
Motto:
Spillways must discharge the peak flow under smallest possible head.
Negative pressure on the crest must be limited to avoid danger of cavitation‟s on the crest
or vibration of the structure.
Theoretically, there should be atmospheric pressure on the crest
5.5.1 Discharge of Sharp Crested Weir

Discharge formula over sharp-crested weir can be expressed in the general form as:
Q C L H 1.5
Where C = discharge Coefficient.

L = effective length of the weir crest
H = is the measured head above the crest; excluding velocity head
Effective length may be computed as
L = L' - 0.1NH
Where L‟ = is the measured length of the crest
N = number of contractions (e.g. piers for gates)
N = 2 for two end contractions
N = 1 for one end contraction and 0 for no contraction
According to a well-known Rehbock formula
X
C = 3.27 + 0.4 , Where h – is the height of weir.
h
H H
N.B:-This equation holds up to = 5 but can be extended to = 10 with fair
h h
approximation.
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H
For > 15 the weir becomes a sill, and a critical section immediately upstream from the
h
sill controls the discharge. The critical depth of the section is approximately equal to H +
h. By the critical depth discharge relationship, it can be shown that the coefficient C is: -
1.5
 H
C = 5.68 1  
 h
The transition between weir and sill (between H = 10 & 15), however, has not yet been
h
clearly defined.
Experiments have shown that the coefficient C remains approximately constant for sharp-
crested weir under varying heads if the nappe is aerated.
Weir: Low river dam used to raise the upstream water level, built across a stream to
control raise or diver) the flow of water. Measuring weirs are across a stream for the
purpose of measuring the flow.
Sill: horizontal overflow section of an irrigation check or measuring structure also used for
under structure across a river or canal.
5.6 Aeration of the Nappe

In the preceding discussion the over falling nappe is considered aerated; i.e., the upper and
lower nappe surfaces are subject to full atmospheric pressure.
In practice, usually insufficient aeration below the nappe occurs due to removal of air by
over falling jet.
Effects of reduction of pressure
 Increase in pressure difference on the spillway itself
 Change in the shape of the nappe for which the spillway crest is designed
 Increase in discharge, sometimes accompanied by fluctuation or pulsation of the
nappe, which may be very objectionable if the weir or spillway is used for
measuring purposes.
 Unstable performance of the hydraulic model
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5.7 Round-Crested overflow spillway

Designed in conformity with the shape of the low surface of the flow nappe over a sharp-
crested weir shape of the flow-nappe is interpreted by the principle of the projectile.
Derivation of Nappe Profile over Sharp Crested Weir by the Principle of Projectile motion.
Figure 5.2: profile of sharp crested weir

Let Vo = the velocity at pt. x = 0,  is angle of inclination of the velocity Vo with the
horizontal
Horizontal velocity = Vo Cos - constant and the only force acting on the nappe is gravity.
Horizontal distance traveled is time t
s
X = Vo t Cos , V=  S  vt (1)
t
In same time t, the particle will travel a vertical distance y (taking y is positive downward)
1 2
y   Vo t Sin   gt (2)
2
Move the origin up so that it coincides with the peak.
1
y   Vo ts in  gt 2  C '
2
x 
Eliminating t from 1 & 2, from 1 t   
 o
V Cos  
2
 x  1  x 
y   Vo 
 V Cos  Sin   2 g 
  V Cos  
  C'
 0   o 
120
Dividing each term by the total head H above the crest

Y
  tan
X

gH
H
X
2 
C'
H H 2Vo2 Cos 2 H
C'
Let A = gH , B= - tan, & C 
2V02 Cos 2 H
2
Y X  X = General equation for the lower surface of the nappe in
 A   B C
H H H
dimension less term.

Since the horizontal velocity component is constant, the vertical thickness of the nappe T
T
may be assumed constant and adding a term D  to the above equation the general
H
equation for the upper surface of the nappe is
2
Y X  X
 A  B CD
H  H  H
These equations are quadratic hence, the nappe Surfaces are theoretically parabolic.
Several experimental studies on the nappe over a sharp-crested weir have been made.
Reputed works has been done by US Bureau of Reclamation; they developed the following
equations for the constants in the general nappe equations.
hv
A = - 0.425 + 0.25
H
2
B = 0.411 - 1.603 hv -  hv  hv
1.568    0.892  0.127
H H H
C = 0.150 – 0.45 hv
H
D = 0.57 – 0.02 (10m) 2exp (10m)
Where: hv = the velocity head of the approach flow
hv
m= - 0.208
H
For high weirs, the velocity of approach is relatively small and can be ignored (hv  0)
A = 0.425
B = 0.055
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C = 0.150
D = 0.559
Experimental data have indicated that these equations are not valid when,
X hv
< 0.5 and that > 0.2
H H
i.e., Additional data for verification are required
For X < 0.5, the pressure within the nappe in the Vicinity of the weir crest is >P atm
H
because of the convergence of the streamlines. Consequently, forces other than gravity are
acting on the nappe, which makes the principle of the projectile invalid.
N.B: The above theory and equations apply only if the approach flow is sub critical. For
Supercritical flow, or Fr< 1, the nappe profile becomes essentially a function of the Froude
number rather than a function of the boundary geometry as described above.
Activity 5.3
1. What is hydraulic jump in open channel and how it occurs?
2. Discuss the practical application of hydraulic jump?
3. Illustrate the types of hydraulic jump and how they are grouped?
5.8 Hydraulic Jump

The theory of jump developed is for horizontal or slightly inclined channels in which the
weight of water in the jump has little effect upon the jump behavior and hence is ignored in
the analyses. The results thus obtained however can be applied to most channels
encountered in engineering problems.
For channels of large slope, the weight effect of water in the jump may become so
pronounced that it must be included in the analysis.
5.8.1 Practical Applications
 Hydraulic jump is used to dissipate energy in water flowing over a dam, weir
and other hydraulic structure and thus, prevent scouring d/s from the structure.
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 To recover head or raise the water level on the d/s side of a measuring flume
and thus maintains high water level in the channel for water distribution
purposes.
 To increase weight on the apron and reduce uplift pressure by raising the water
depth on the apron.
 To increase the discharge of a sluice gate by holding sack tail water, thus
preventing drawn jump.
 To mix chemical used for water purification.
 To aerate water for city water supplies
5.8.2 Jump in Horizontal Rectangular channel
Y2
V2
V1
Y1
Lj
Figure 5.3: Hydraulic jump on horizontal bed following over a spillway

Where: V1 = velocity before jump
V2 = velocity after jump
y1 = water depth before jump
y2 = water depth after jump
Lj = length of jump
For supercritical flow in a horizontal rectangular channel, the energy of flow is dissipated
through frictional resistance along the channel, resulting in a decrease in velocity and an
increase in depth in the direction of flow.
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A hydraulic jump will form in the channel if the Frond Number Fr1 of the flow, the flow
depth y1, and a drown stream depth y2 satisfy the following equation:
y2
  1  8Fr 1  1
1 2
y1 2 
This has been verified with experiments
5.8.3 Types of Jump

Hydraulic Jumps on horizontal floor are of several distinct types. They can be conveniently
classified according to Froude Number Fr1 of the incoming flow as follows.
Critical jump (Fr1 =1):- critical flow no jump can form
Undular jump (1< Fr1< 1.7):-the water surface shows undulation
Weak jump (1.7 < Fr1< 2.5):- A series of small rollers develop on the surface of the jump,
but the d/s water surface remains smooth. The velocity throughout is fairly uniform, and
the energy loss low.
Oscillating Jump (2.5 < Fr1< 4.5):- there is an oscillating jet entering the jump bottom to
surface and back again with no periodicity. Each oscillation produces a large wave of
irregular period which, very common in canals, can travel for miles doing unlimited
damage to earth banks and ripraps.
Steady Jump (4.5 < Fr1< 9.0): - The downstream extremity of the surface roller and the
point at which the high-velocity jet tends to leave the flow occur at practically the same
vertical section. The action and position of this jump are least sensitive to variation in tail-
water depth. The jump is well balanced and the performance is at its best. The energy
dissipation ranges from 45 to 70%.
Strong jump (Fr> 9.0): - The high-velocity jet grabs intermittent slugs of water rolling
down the front face of the jump, generating wave‟s down-stream and a rough surface can
prevail. The jump action is rough but effective since the energy dissipation may reach
85%.
N.B: It should be noted that the ranges of the Froude Number given above for the various
types of jump are not clear-cut but overlap to a certain extent depending on local
conditions.
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5.8.4 Basic Characteristics of the Jump

Energy Loss: the loss of energy in the jump is equal to the difference in specific energy
before and after the jump.
 y 2  y1  3
E  E1  E 2 
4 y1 y 2
E
Re lative loss : the ratio
E1
Efficiency: the ratio of the specific energy after the jump to that before the jump is defined
as the efficiency of the jump.
E2

8F 2
1 3
2
 4 F1
2
1
2  
1
2 2
E1 8 F1 F1
This equation indicates that the efficiency of a jump is a dimension less function,
depending only o the Froude Number of the approach flow. The relative loss is equal to
E2
1 ; this also is a dimensionless function.
E1
Height of Jump: - the difference between the depths after and before the jump.
Hj = y2 – y1
Expressing the above term as a ratio with respect to initial specific energy.
h1 y y
 2  1
E1 E1 E1
hj y1
Where is the relative height, is the relative initial depth, and y2 is the relative
E1 E1 E1
sequence depth. All these ratios can be shown to be dimensionless function of F1. For
example
1  8 F1 3
2
hj

F1  2
2
E1
Length of Jump:-The length of a jump (also length of stilling basin) is empirically given
as

L  k y  y1
2

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Where, k – is a coefficient derived from laboratory and filed experiment. 4.5 < k < 5.5
where the lower k = 4.5 applies of Fr2> 10 and the highs for Fr2< 3.
5.9 Flows under Gates

Gates in canals are mainly used as water level regulators. Sometimes, gates are used as
discharge regulator (measuring device). They are under-shot or underflow structures.
Example slice gate, radial gate roller gate.
The design of underflow gate focuses on head-discharge relationship (Q-H). The objective
is to minimize head loss; this means that the gate has to be lifted out off the water for
design discharge. The other concern of the design is the pressure distribution over the gate
as a function of opening and gate form.
The H-Q relationship for gate depends on the shape and dimension of the control section
and the resulting curvature of the streamlines. For gated structures the control section is
defined by the vena contract, being the smallest cross section just down steam of the gate.
In the vena contract, streamlines are straight and parallel.
In gate flow 3 flow types can be distinguished.
 h1 
  2
Free flow: - the opening is relatively small  a  and the contraction of the steam-lines
in vertical direction is strong. The downstream water level (h2) won‟t affect the flow
underneath the gate and a hydraulics jump will occur downstream of the vena contra. The
discharge depends up on the gate opening the upstream water level and the contraction
coefficient.
Submerged flow: - the d/s water level influences the flow underneath the gate. The
hydraulic jump is drowned and the jet underneath the gate is submerged. The discharge
depends upon the upstream and downstream water level and the gate opening.
The boundary between free and submerged flow is a sharp one, which can be cleanly found
from the gate opening and the two water levels.
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Weir flow:-on off gate

The Discharge equation for a free flow underneath a sharp edged gate is:
Q  Cd Ba 2gh1
Where: Cd= discharge coefficient
B = Width of gate opening
a= height of gate opening
h1= upstream water depth
The discharge coefficient Cd is given by
Cc
Cd 
a
1  Cc
h1
Where, CC = Contraction coefficient of the jet depending on the shape of the gate and on
h1
a
d = diameter of the rounded bottom edge
2
 4.7 : CC = C c  0.51  0.1 * 23.04    4.69 

d d
For For
a a 
 4.7 ; Cc  0.99 Rounded edged gates 

d
For
a
Where d is diameter of the rounded bottom edge.
For sharp edged gates d is small and CC = 0.61.

The limit between tree flow and submerged flows follows from.
h2 C   H1  
 c  116 
  1
  1
Where:
a 2 
  aCc  

h2= downstream water level

H1= upstream energy level
CC is 0.611 for sharp edged gates (d=0) and CC is 0.99 for rounded of edged gates
d
 4.7
with a
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For submerged flow, some equations include the difference between the upstream and
downstream depths and others use the upstream water level only. The general equation is
given as.
Q  C2 Ba 2gh1
Where,
a = vertical opening of the gate (a< 0.67h1)
h1= Upstream water depth
B = Effective width of the opening
C2= discharge coefficient.
The equation is the same as for free flow but the discharge coefficient C2 is a function of
h1 h2
, andCc ,
a a
Where h2 is downstream water depth and C2 values range between 0 and 1.
Others roughly classify the flows as,
h1
 2  free flow
a
h
1.5  1  2  submerged
a
h1
 1.5  weir flow
a
h1 h
For values of a  0.67 * h1 or 1  0.67  1  1.5 the discharge follows the
a a
equation for a broad-crested weir.
3
Q  1.7 * B * H 2
Example:
1.An over flow spill way has its crest at elevation 136m and a horizontal apron at an
elevation102m on the downstream side .Estimate the tail water elevation required to form a
hydraulic jump when the elevation of the energy line just upstream of the spill way crust is
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138 meter. Assume cd=0.735 for the spill way. (Neglect energy loss due to flow over the
spill way)
Solution:
Figure 5.4: flow over the spillway

The discharge per unit width of the spillway, q, is:
3
2
q =2/3(Cd 2 g He )
He = 138-136 =2m
3
2
q = 2/3(0.0735 * 9.81 2 =6.154
E1 = 138-102 = 36m.
2
V1 6.154 2
E1 = y1+ , 36 =y1 + 2
2* g 2 * 9.81 * y1
Y1 =0.2317m
V1 = q  6.154  26.5m / se
y1 0.2317
V1 26.495
Fr1 =   17.574
gy1 9.81 * 0.2317
y2
y1 2
2
 2
1

   1  1  8Fr1    1  1  8 *17.574 2
1

y2 =5.645m
Tail water elevation =102+5.64 =137.645m
Example:
129
A stationary hydraulic jump occurs in a rectangular channel with the initial and sequent
depths being equal to 0.2 meter and 1.2 meter respectively. Estimate
I) Discharge per unit width.
II) Energy loss
Solution:
  1  8Fr1 
y2 1
 1 
2
y1 2 
  1  8Fr1 
1.2 1
 1 
2
0.2 2 
Fr1=4.596
V1 V1
Fr1    4.596
gy1 9.81 * 0.2
V1 =6.438m/se
q = v1y1 =6.438*0.2=1.288 m3/se/m
 y2 y1  1.2  .2

3 3
EL =   1.042m
4 y1 y 2 4 *1.2 * 0.2
130
Unit Summary
distance. There is abrupt change of flow profile (virtually broken). The common
characteristic features of RVF should are.
 Pronounced curvature
 Rapid variation in flow regime takes place in a very short distance.
 Effect of boundary friction is comparatively small and in most cases insignificant.
 In RVF the velocity-distribution coefficients  and  are much greater than unity
and cannot be accurately determined.
 Flow is actually confined by separation zones as well as solid boundaries.
Spillway is a structure over or through a dam for discharging flood flows; overflow
channel; opening built into a dam or the side of a reservoir to release (to spill) excess
floodwater. The crest shapes were determined based on a simple parabola designed to fit
the trajectory of the falling nappe and the Waterways Experimental Station (WES). The
discharge over a spillway can be computed by an equation in the form of SCW/BCW
Q = CLHe1.5
A flow phenomenon which occurs when supercritical flow has its velocity reduced to sub
critical. There is sudden rise in water level at the point where hydraulic jump occurs and it
is a rapidly varied flow. Hydraulic jump is mainly used to dissipate energy in water
flowing over a dam, weir and other hydraulic structure and thus, prevent scouring d/s from
the structure, to increase weight on the apron and reduce uplift pressure by raising the
water depth on the apron, to mix chemical used for water purification.
Gates in canals are mainly used as water level regulators. Sometimes, gates are used as
discharge regulator (measuring device). They are under-shot or underflow structures and
its design focuses on head-discharge relationship (Q-H). The H-Q relationship for gate
depends on the shape and dimension of the control section and the resulting curvature of
the streamlines.
131
Review Questions
1. Hydraulic jump occurs in a horizontal 90o triangular channel. If the sequent depths in
this channel are 0.6 meter and 1.2 meter respectively, estimate
I. The flow rate?
II. Froude number at beginning and end of the jump and
III. Energy loss in the jump.
2. A rectangular channel carrying a supercritical stream is to be provided with a hydraulic
jump type of energy dissipater. If it is desired to have energy loss of 5m in the jump when
the inlet Froude number is 8.5. Determine the sequent depths?
3. An overflow spillway is 40m high. At the design energy head of 2.5m over the spillway.
Find the sequent depth and energy loss in a hydraulic jump formed on a horizontal apron
at the toe of the spillway. Neglect the energy loss due to flow over the spillway face.
(Assume cd = 0.738).
4. A spillway discharges a flood flow at a rate of 7.75m3/se per meter width. At the
downstream horizontal apron the depth of flow was found to be 0.5m. What tail water
depth is needed to form a hydraulic jump? If a jump is formed, find its;
A. Type of jump
B. Length of jump
C. head loss of jump
d. Energy loss as a percentage of the initial energy and
E. profile formed.
5. A 2.5 m wide rectangular channel is known to be having subcritical flow, if the depth at a
free over fall is 0.5 m, calculate the discharge in this channel?
6. A trapezoidal channel having bottom width 10m and side slope 2:1(H:V) carries a
discharge of 100m3/s. Find the depth conjugate to the initial depth of 1m before the
jump. Also determine the loss of energy in the jump.
132
CHAPTER SIX
Unsteady Open Channel Flow

 Differentiate the difference between steady and unsteady flow
 Know terms like wave and the types of wave.
 Understand the analysis of unsteady flow and rapidly varied unsteady flow
 Develop St. Venant equation.
6.1 Introduction
Unsteady open channel flow is a flow at which the depth of flow changes with time under
consideration (i.e. dy/dt 0). The flow of water in rivers, canals, reservoirs, lakes, pools,
and free- surface flow in storm water drains, conduits, pipes , galleries, tunnels and
culverts, in which the velocities change with time, is defined as unsteady flow ( non -
permanent, non - stationary , or time -variable free- surface water flow). Flow in natural
channel is always unsteady. When the discharge changes slowly with time is unsteady flow
and is approximated by steady flow.
Unsteady flow in open channels differs from that in closed conduits in that the existence of
a free surface allows the flow cross section to freely change, a factor which has an
important influence on the rate of transient change propagation. Unsteady open channel
flow is encountered in flood flow in rivers, in headrace canals supplying hydropower
stations, in river estuaries, and so on.
Unsteady flow occurs where flow parameters vary with time at fixed point.
Example: - Oscillatory Sea Waves,
Predicting Waver Levels in Rivers in Flood,
Dam Break Flood Waves,
Surges due to gate operation, e.g. in irrigation canal.
133
“A wave is defined as a temporal variation in the water surface which is propagated

through a fluid medium.” The celerity of a wave is the speed of propagation of the
disturbance relative to the fluid.
Activity 6.1
1. What is unsteady flow? Clearly differentiate steady and unsteady flow of
water in open channel flow?
2. Define wave?
3. Discuss wave classification in detail?
6.2 Waves Classification

Capillary due to surface tension
Elastic due to fluid compression
Gravity waves due to gravity
A) Oscillatory Wave [e.g. sea waves):- Zero net mass transport
B) Translatory Waves [e.g. Flood Waves]:-
Net transport of fluid in direction of wave
Solitary Wave Wave Train
Rising limb, created by
Single peak Sequence of
Followed & preceded Several Waves
by steady flow
Downstream Wave - moves down channel slope
Upstream Wave - moves up channel slope
Increase in level from steady flow - positive wave
Decrease in level from steady flow - negative wave
Monoclonal - single faced
Symmetrical or asymmetrical - Two faced
Deep water waves ~ only surface layers disturbed
Depth y
  0.5
Wavelength L
134
Shallow waver waves ~ Entire depth disturbed (bottom effect)

y
 0.05
L
6.3 Basic Equations of Unsteady Flow

As in the case of closed conduits the basic equations are derived from continuity and
momentum considerations. In deriving these equations the following assumptions are
made:
1. Hydrostatic pressure prevails at every point in the channel.
2. Velocity is uniformly distributed over each cross-section.
3. The slope of the channel bed is small and uniform.
4. The frictional resistance is the same as for steady flow.
Fig 10.1 defines a control volume and the dimensional parameters used to develop the
continuity equation.
A.  A.V 
V A.V .  . x
x
x
Figure 6.1: Reference diagram for the continuity equation

The continuity equation balances mass inflow and mass outflow with the rate of change of
the contained mass within the control volume:
In time dt: Inflow - Outflow = Change in mass of fluid in CV
 v  A  A
vAdt  q1dtdx    v  dx  A  dx dt   dtdx
 x  x  t
Dividing across by  dt dx and neglecting higher order terms:
v A A
A v   q1
x x t
135
Equation this term can also be written in the form

 A
(vA)   q1
x t
Q A
  q1
x t
v A A
For a rectangular channel with zero lateral inflow,) A v   q1 simplifies to
x x t
v y y
y v  0
x x t

Hence vy  y  0
x t
q y
 0
x t
Where: q is the discharge per unit width of channel.
The momentum equation relates net force to momentum change:
 F  dv
F F  dx   w sin    o Pr dx  Adx
 x  dt
Where the pressure force F =  g A y ; the weight force W =  g Ad; the wall shear stress
 o =  gRhSf; Pr is the perimeter length. This equation may therefore be expressed in

terms of more basic flow parameters:
 g

x
 
A y dx  gAS o dx  gAS f dx  Adx
dv
dt
Dividing across by  g dx:
 A  v v 
 ( A y )  AS o  AS f   v  
x g  x t 
For a rectangular section this simplifies to
y v v 1 v
  So  S f  
x g x g t
v v
v   g S f  So   0
x t
136
The terms of the momentum equation have the dimension of acceleration or force per unit
mass. The first two terms on the left hand side are the fluid acceleration terms, g  y/  x
represents the pressure force component, gSf and gSo represent the friction and gravity
force components, respectively. The forms of the continuity and momentum equations,
represented in the above equations respectively, are known as the Saint Venant equations;
they relate the dependent variables y and v to the independent space and time variables x
and t, respectively.
6.4 Solution by the Characteristics Method

For the solution of the corresponding pair of equations for unsteady flow in pipes is
applied here. Multiplying the continuity equation by the factor l and adding to the above
momentum equation.
 v v   y y  g 
 x y  v   t     t  x  v     g S f  So   0
    
This partial differential equation can be converted to a total differential equation provided
that
dx g
 y  v  v 
dt 
g
Or y 
.
Hence
0.5
g
   
 y
 v  gy   v  c
dx 0.5
and
dt
Where c is the gravity wave speed; hence l = ±g/c. Thus equation can be written in the
equivalent total differential form:
 g S f  So   0
dv g dy

dt c dt
dv
Subjected to,  v  c;
dt
137
 g S f  So   0
dv g dy
and 
dt c dt
Subjected to
dx
 vc
dt
Thus, the two partial differential equations have been converted to their characteristic form
i.e. linked pairs of ordinary differential equations. On integration of the latter over the time
interval Δt we get a pair of C+ characteristic equations and a pair of C- characteristic
equations:
yP Tp
v p  vR  g  dy   g S f  So dt  0
1
yR c tR
C
tP
X p  XR   v  c dt
tR
yp
v p  vs  g  dy   g S f  So dt  0
1
ys c
C
tp
X p  Xs   v  c dt
ts
Where vR and vS are the interpolated values of v at xR and xS, respectively, as illustrated on
the x-t plane on Fig 6.2. The foregoing integrations may be approximated to a first order
accuracy by assigning their known values to v, c and Sf, giving the characteristic equations
the following format:
v p  vR 
g
y p  yR   g SR  So t  0
cR --------------------------------------------------1
C
Xp-XR= (vR + cR) t ---------------------------------------------------------------------------2
( y p  ys )  g Ss  So t  0
g
v p  vs 
cs ---------------------------------------------------3
138
C , XP-Xs= (vs-Cs) t ------------------------------------------------------------------4

Where: SR and SS are values of Sf at R and S, respectively.
Dx Dx
Dt
P
Dt
A R D S B
Figure 6.2: The x – t plane
The parameter values at R are found by linear interpolation in the interval AD and the
parameter values at S are found by linear interpolation in the interval DB. Referring to the
interval AD in Fig 6.3
XD - XR= t vR  CR 
vD  vr X  XR
 D
vD  v A X D  X A
CD  C R X D  X R

CD  C A X D  X A
Dx Dx
vA vR vD vB
A R D S B
XR XD XS
Figure 6.3: Linear interpolation
Replacing xD by xP and (xD – xA) by Δx, the following are the interpolated values at R:
vD    vDC A  CDvA 
vR 
1   (vD  vA  CD  C A ) ------------------------------------------------------5
139
c D  v R c D  c A 
cR 
1   c D  c A  -------------------------------------------------------------6
y R  y D   ( y D  y A )(vR  cR ) ----------------------------------------------------7
Where θ= Δt/Δx. Interpolated values are similarly established at S on the negative

characteristic side of D:
XD-XS=Δt (vs - cS)
v D v S X  XD
 S
vD  vB X B  X D
c D c S X  XD
 S
cD  cB X B  X D
Solution of these equations gives the following interpolated values at S:
v D   v D c B  c D v B 
vs 
1   v D  v B  c D  c B  ------------------------------------------------------8
c D  v S  c D  c B 
cS 
1   c D  c B  -------------------------------------------------------------9
y s  y D    y D  y n vs  cs 
----------------------------------------------------10
6.5 Numerical Computation Procedure

The foregoing finite difference formulation of the characteristic form of the unsteady flow
equations can be used where there are no abrupt changes in the water surface profile and
where conditions are subcritical. The channel length is divided into N reaches, each of
length Δx. The corresponding value of the time step Δt is set by the so-called Courant
condition:
x
t 
v c
This ensures that the characteristic curves plotted on the x-t plane (Fig 6.2) remain within a
single x-t grid. At time zero the values of y and v are known at each channel node point.
Their values at internal nodes, at one time interval Δt later, are found by solution of
equations (1) and (3) and are as follows:
140
  vR  vS 
 t S R  S s  
1
yp   y S cR  y R cS  cR cS 
cR 4  cS   g 
g y p  y R 
vP  vR   gt S R  S o 
cR
The updated values of y (yP) and v (vP) at the upstream end of the channel are governed by
the negative characteristic equations (3) and (4) and the prevailing upstream boundary
condition equation, which is typically in the form of a defined variation of either y or Q
with time. Solution of equation (4) and the boundary condition equation yields the required
values for vP and yP.
The new values for vP and yP at the downstream end of the channel are found in the same
manner as their corresponding values at the upstream end, the defining equations being the
positive characteristic equation (5) and the prevailing downstream boundary condition
equation.
The foregoing analysis relates to conditions of tranquil flow only, that is, where the Froude
number Fr is less than unity. As the flow depth approaches the critical value (Fr = 1), the
numerical computation becomes unstable. At critical depth, v = c and hence the negative
characteristic on the x-t plane becomes vertical, that is, points S and D are coincident.
Simplification of the St Venant equations: - The Saint Venant equations can be made
more amenable to solution by omitting selected terms from the momentum equation. The
latter may be written in the form
y g v 1 v
So  S f   
x v x g t
Henderson has pointed out that the acceleration terms (3rd. and 4th. on the right-hand side
of)) are usually two orders of magnitude less than the gravity (So) and friction (Sf) terms
and one or two orders of magnitude less than the remaining term  y/  x. This suggests
that the solution of the simplified equation obtained by dropping the acceleration terms
may provide a good approximation to the solution based on the full equations. The
resulting simplified momentum equation becomes
141
dy
 So  S f
dx
On combination with the continuity equation the resulting unsteady open channel flow
equation for a rectangular channel has the form
y v 1 y
  S f  So
v t v t
A further simplification of the momentum equation is obtained by omission of the dy/dx
term (this term represents the unbalanced pressure force component), reducing the
momentum equation to its steady uniform flow form:
Sf = So
Using the Manning expression of friction slope equation So becomes
2
 nQ 
So  
 AR 0.67


 h 
and hence we can write
Q  f  Aand  F  A
dQ dQ dA dA

dx dA dx dx
Combining this form of simplified momentum equation with the continuity equation,
where q1= 0, the resulting open channel unsteady flow equation becomes:
A A
F  A  0
x t
This equation is known as the kinematic wave equation because the dynamic terms of the
momentum equation have been omitted in its development. The solution of equation is
clearly of the form:
 x 
A    t  
 F  A 
Where the form of the function 
6.6 Rapidly Varied Unsteady Flow

Rapidly varied unsteady flow gives rise to a surge or wave front, which moves as a step-
change in water depth along the channel. A positive surge is defined as one which leaves
142
an increased water depth in its wake as the wave front passes, while a negative surge is one
which leaves a shallower depth in its wake as the wave front passes. In the following
simplified analysis of surge front movement the effect of frictional resistance is neglected.
6.6.1 Upstream Positive Surge

An upstream positive surge may be created in channel flow, for example, by the rapid
closure of a gate, resulting in a step reduction in flow rate. The effect of this on the
upstream side of the gate is the development of a wave front, which travels upstream, as
illustrated on Fig 6.4.
1 2
gate
c
V2
V1 y2
y1
Figure 6.4: upstream positive surge

Referring to Fig 6.4, the surge front is seen to leave in its wake an increased depth y2,
hence the description „positive‟. By superimposing a downstream velocity c on the flow
system, the flow regime is converted to an equivalent steady state, in which the wave front
is now stationary. Applying the continuity and momentum principles to the control volume
between sections 1 and 2, under the transformed steady state conditions:
Continuity
A1 (v1+c) = A2 (v2+c)
Hence
A1v1  c A2  A1 
v2 
A2
and
143
Q1  Q2
c
A2  A1
Neglecting the flow friction force:
Momentum ρ g y1 A1- ρ g y 2 A2 =ρA1 1 2- v1)
Solving equations (10.34) and (10.35) for c and v2:

0.5
 A y  A1 y1 
c   gA2 2 2   v1
 A1  A2  A1  
0.5
 g ( A2  A1 )( A2 y 2  A1 y1 ) 
v2  v1   
 A1 A2 
For a rectangular channel:
 gy  y  y1 
0.5
c 2 2   v1
 2 y1 
If c is assumed equal to zero the resulting relation between y1 and y2 is that for a hydraulic
jump. Thus, the hydraulic jump can be considered to be a stationary surge. It should be
noted that the continuity and momentum equations are not sufficient on their own to define
the flow regime since there are three unknowns, c, y2 and v2 (or Q2). One of these must
therefore be known to enable computation of the remaining two parameters.
6.6.2 Downstream Positive Surge

A downstream positive surge is caused, for example, by the sudden opening of a gate,
which results in an instantaneous increase in discharge and flow depth downstream of the
gate, as illustrated on Fig 6.5.
Applying the same analytical approach as used for the analysis of the upstream positive
surge, the flow regime is transformed to an equivalent steady state by superimposing a
backward velocity of magnitude c on the system.
144
gate 1 c 2
V1
y1 v2
y2
Figure 6.5: downstream positive surge

Thus, referring to Fig 6.7, the continuity and momentum principles can be applied to the
control volume defined by sections 1 and 2:
Continuity
A1 (v1 - c) = A2 (v2 - c)
Hence
Q1  Q2
c
A1  A2
Neglecting the flow friction force:
Momentum g y1 A1  g y 2 A2  A2 (v2  c)(v2  v1 )
Solving equations (10.39) and (10.41) for c and v1:
0.5
 A y  A2 y 2 
c   gA1 1 1   v2
 A2  A1  A2  
0.5
 g ( A1  A2 )( A1 y1  A2 y 2 ) 
v1  v2     v2
 A1 A2 
 gy  y  y1 
0.5
c 1 2   v2
 2 y2 
 g  y1 y 2 2 ( y1  y 2 ) 
0.5
v1     v2
 2 y1 y 2 
6.6.3 Upstream Negative Surge

A negative surge is seen by the observer as a wave front movement which leaves a lowered
water surface level in its wake. An upstream negative surge may be caused, for example,
145
upstream of a rapidly opened gate, as illustrated on Fig 6.6. The wave front flattens as it
travels along the channel, due to the top of the wave having a greater velocity than the
bottom. It is necessary, therefore, to calculate two wave speeds, one for the wave crest and
the second for the wave trough.
1 2
c
c1 gate
c2 v1 v2
y1 y2
Figure 6.6: upstream negative surge

Consider a small rapid disturbance, giving rise to a small negative surge, moving upstream
as illustrated on Fig 6.7. Applying the continuity and momentum principles as before:
Continuity
(v + c) y=(y- y ) (v- v +c)
My
c
y v y-my v-v m
Figure 6.7: negative surge pressure

Momentum
 y 2  y  y 2 
g     y (v  c)(v)

 2 2 
From (10.46)  y = - y  v / (v + c); from equation (10.47)  y = -  v (v + c)/g.
Hence
c  gy  v
And also
146
v
y   gy
g
Where, as  y approaches zero, can be written
dy dv

y g
Integrating for a wave of finite height
v  2 gy  cons tan t
For the upstream negative surge, illustrated on Fig 6.7, we have the known boundary
condition, v = v1 when y = y1; using these values in the above equation, the integration
constant is found to be 2 gy1  v1 :
v2  2 gy1  2 gy 2  v1
And from c  gy  v
c2  gy 2  v2
Hence
c2  3 gy 2  2 gy1  v1
6.6.4 Downstream Negative Surge

A downstream negative surge is propagated downstream of a rapidly closed gate, for
example, as illustrated on Fig 6.8.
C2
c
gate c1 v2
y2
y1 v1
Figure 6.8: downstream negative surge

Using the same analytical procedure as applied in the case of the upstream negative surge,
the wave front velocity c can be shown, in the case of a downstream negative surge, to
147
c  gy  v
And the velocity is

v  2 gy  2 gy 2 v 2
Hence the values of v1 and c1 are found to be

v1  2 gy1  2 gy 2  v2
c1  3 gy1  2 gy 2  v2
148
Unit Summary
Unsteady open channel flow is a flow at which the depth of flow changes with time under
consideration (i.e. dy/dt 0). Unsteady flow occurs where flow parameters vary with time
at fixed point.
Example: - Oscillatory Sea Waves,
Predicting Waver Levels in Rivers in Flood,
Dam Break Flood Waves,
Surges due to gate operation, e.g. in irrigation canal.
“A wave is defined as a temporal variation in the water surface which is propagated
through a fluid medium.”
The celerity of a wave is the speed of propagation of the disturbance relative to the fluid.
The basic Assumptions of unsteady flow are; constant velocity and horizontal water
surface across an channel section, All flows are gradually varied with hydrostatic pressure
prevailing, no lateral circulation occurs, Channel boundaries are fixed, water is of uniform
density, resistance to flow can be described by empirical formulas such as Chezy or
Manning‟s equations
v v
v   g S f  So   0 It is known as the St Venant equations (sometimes written
x t
de Saint Venant), which is used to solve unsteady flow equation.
Rapidly varied unsteady flow gives rise to a surge or wave front, which moves as a step-
change in water depth along the channel. A positive surge is defined as one which leaves
an increased water depth in its wake as the wave front passes, while a negative surge is one
which leaves a shallower depth in its wake as the wave front passes.
149
Review Questions
1. What is unsteady flow?
2. What are the methods used to compute of unsteady flow?
3. Discuss the classification of unsteady flow?
4. Develop St. Venant equation for solving unsteady flow problems?
5. Determine the wave velocity and prome of a uniformly progressive flow in a. wide open
channel if y = 25 Ft., Y. = 10 ft., Chezy's C = 100, and So =0.0004
150
References
1. Crowe, Roberson and Elgar. Engineering Fluid Mechanics, 8th Edition, John Wiley
& Sons, 2005.
2. Chow. T., 1959, Open-Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill
3. Open Channel Hydraulics, by French
4. Flow in Open Channels, by Subramanian
5. Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering, by Alan L. Prasuhn
6. Evett, J.B.andLiu, C., 1989, 2500solvedproblems in Fluid Mechanics and
Hydraulics, McGraw Hill
7. Kay, M., 1989, practical Hydraulics, E and FN Spon
8. Chadwick, A., Morfet, J.and Borthwick, 2004, Hydraulics in Civil and
Environmental Engineering, 4th Edition, Spon Press.
9. Chanson, H., 1999, the Hydraulics of Open Channel Flow, Butterworth-
Heinemann. Oxford
10. Concise Hydraulics,@2008 Dawei Han and Ventus Publisher
11. Prof. Dr. Atıl Bulu, Open Channel Hydraulics lecture material
151

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HYDRAULICS MODULE

MODULE CODE: HEng-M2134

MODULE TYPE: CORE

27/09/ 2006 E.C

Course Code: HEng – 2133

Open channel hydraulics course is given for:

ECTS Credits 5cp

Requirement of the course

The students should have to follow the following strategies:

At the end of this chapter the students should be able to:

1.1 Description of Open Channel Flow

Figure1:1: - Comparison between pipe flow and open channel

1.2 Classification of Open Channel Flow

Q = V1 A1 = v2A2. This is the continuity equation for a continuous steady flow.

Where: - The subscripts indicate cross-section of different channel sections.

Unsteady Flow (i.e.

Figure 1.2:-General classification of open channel flows

1.2.1 Real and Ideal Flow

1.2.2 Incompressible and Compressible Flow

1.3 Dimensionless Numbers and State of Flow

Table 1.1: Dimensional expression of forces

1.3.1 Effect of Viscosity

Laminar R  500 R 2000

1.3.2 Effect of Gravity

This ratio is given by the Froude Number, defined as:

Where: - V is the mean velocity of flow in m/s,

1.4 Kinds of Open Channels

Artificial channels are those constructed or developed by human effort: navigation

1.5 Velocity and Pressure Distributions in Open Channel Flow

Non-uniform distribution of velocity also affects computation of momentum (mv =

small especially in comparison with the uncertainty involved in the computation.

Discharge passing through a section can be expressed

Q=  udA = V ∗ A------------------------------------------------------------------------------- (2)

Figure 1.3: Velocity Distributions of the flow

1.5.2 Pressure Distributions in Open Channel

In any arbitrary direction s,

Figure1.4: Pressure distribution in still water

Figure 1.5: Pressure distribution in a channel with small slope

Figure 1.6: Pressure distribution in a channel with large slope

The Pressure Distribution in Curvilinear flow in a vertical plane on an upward convex

Figure 1.8: Concave curvilinear flow

a) The velocity is constant along 1-2

Pressure Distributions in convex curvilinear open channel flow of problem 5

At the end of this chapter the students should be able to:

2.1 Geometric Elements of Channel Section

Table 2.1: Geometric elements of the most common channel sections

2.2 Fundamental /Main Principles

2.3 Continuity Principle (Conservation of Mass)

2.4 Energy Principle

Figure 2.1: The Force components on a fluid particle.

This is Energy equation (Bernoulli‟s Equation) for steady flow of a frictionless,

Potential energy = mgZgZ is potential energy per unit mass.

2.4.1 Specific Energy and Critical Depth

depth only, since V  Q .

Figure 2.2: Specific Energy Curve

Since Fr1< 1the flow is subcritical

Since Fr1> 1the flow is supercritical

2.4.2 The Critical State of Flow

Equation, therefore, gives.

From critical flow equation,

2.5 Momentum Principle

Figure 2.3:- momentum passing through a section

F1 – F2 + w sin - Ff =  (2v2 - 1v1)

P2=2 1.5 1  1.52 =5.41m