©2016 Society of Economic Geologists, Inc.

Economic Geology, v. 111, pp. 57–87

The Giant Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE Deposit, British Columbia:

Mineralized Conduits in a Convergent Margin Tectonic Setting*
Matthew J. Manor,1,† James S. Scoates,1 Graham T. Nixon,2 and Doreen E. Ames3
1 Pacific Centre for Isotopic and Geochemical Research, Department of Earth, Ocean and Atmospheric Sciences,
University of British Columbia, 6339 Stores Road, Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1Z4, Canada
2 B.C. Geological Survey, Ministry of Energy and Mines, P.O. Box 9333 Stn Prov Govt, Victoria, B.C. V8W 9N3, Canada
3 Geological Survey of Canada, Central Canada Division, 750-601 Booth St, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0E8, Canada

Abstract
The Giant Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE deposit is the only past-producing nickel mine (1958–1974) in the Canadian
Cordillera of British Columbia, Canada, with ~4.2 Mt of ore grading 0.77% Ni and 0.34% Cu (Ni/Cu = 2.3). The
deposit is part of an emerging class of convergent margin Ni-Cu-PGE sulfide deposits where the host rocks are
characterized by abundant orthopyroxene and magmatic hornblende. The Giant Mascot intrusion is a crudely
elliptical, 3- × 2-km plug composed of ultramafic arc cumulates (olivine-orthopyroxene, hornblende-clinopy-
roxene) that intruded the Late Cretaceous Spuzzum dioritic pluton. The ores are contained within subvertical
pipe-like, lensoid, and tabular bodies (n = 28), interpreted to represent mineralized conduits and consist of
pyrrhotite, pentlandite (+argentopentlandite), chalcopyrite, minor pyrite, troilite, and Pt-Pd-Ni bismuthotel-
lurides. The sulfides have moderate tenors (3–14 wt % Ni, 0.1–17.1 wt % Cu, 84 ppb to 5 ppm total PGE), and
variations in PGE concentrations distinguish two geographic mineralized zones (western and eastern). Sulfur
isotopes for sulfides span a restricted range of δ34S values (–3.4 to –1.3‰) and overlap with analyses from locally
pyritiferous Settler schist (–5.4 to –1.2‰). Olivine chemistry reveals a wide range of both Fo (80–89 mol %)
and Ni contents (336–3,859 ppm) and provides evidence that Ni contents of olivine were locally upgraded dur-
ing equilibration with sulfide liquid. Sulfide saturation in the Giant Mascot parental magma(s) was triggered in
response to (1) reduction of an oxidized, mantle-derived arc magma, producing ores that formed at an oxida-
tion state of ~DQFM +1; (2) addition of external sulfur and silica by assimilation of Settler schist and Spuzzum
diorites; and (3) fractional crystallization of olivine ± orthopyroxene. The presence of high-tenor sulfides in the
Giant Mascot deposit indicates that orthomagmatic Ni-Cu-PGE deposits in convergent margin tectonic settings
may be of significance to future global exploration.

Introduction
Magmatic nickel-copper-platinum group element (Ni-Cu-
PGE) deposits are typically associated with ultramafic-mafic
rocks in a variety of tectonic settings (summary in Naldrett,
2011). Suprasubduction zone or convergent margin environ-
ments host a variety of increasingly important resources and
exploration targets (e.g., Aguablanca, Spain: Piña et al., 2008,
2012, 2013; Portneuf-Mauricie domain, Québec: Sappin et
al., 2009, 2011, 2012; Huangshandong, China: Gao et al.,
2013; Sun et al., 2013; Mao et al., 2014; cf. Manor, 2014). Sub-
duction zone environments are generally considered poor tar-
gets for Ni-Cu-PGE sulfide mineralization due to the paucity
of ultramafic bodies containing economic Ni sulfides (Ripley,
2010). Arc-related PGE mineralization may be associated
with Ural-Alaskan-type intrusions (ultramafic rock suites typi-
cally devoid of orthopyroxene; e.g., Irvine, 1974); however,
significant Ni sulfide mineralization is observed only within
a few intrusions globally (e.g., Turnagain, British Columbia:
865 Mt @ 0.21% Ni and 0.013% Co; Clark, 1980; Scheel et al.,
2009; Riles et al., 2011; and Duke Island, Alaska: Ripley, 2009;
Thakurta et al., 2014).
The Giant Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE deposit in the Canadian
Cordillera remains British Columbia’s only past-producing
nickel mine (1958–1974), having produced ~4.2 Mt of ore
† Corresponding author: e-mail, mmanor@eos.ubc.ca
*Supplementary Appendix figures and Tables are available at http://econom-
icgeology.org/ and at http://econgeol.geoscienceworld.org/.
with an average grade of 0.77% Ni, 0.34% Cu, minor Co,
Ag, and Au, and unreported amounts of PGE (Christopher
and Robinson, 1975). The convergent margin intrusion that
hosts the sulfide ores is a crudely elliptical plug, 3- × 2-km
in size, composed of ultramafic cumulates. In this paper, we
provide the first systematic documentation of the geochem-
istry, mineralogy, and textural features of the Ni-Cu-PGE
sulfide mineralization and associated platinum-group miner-
als (PGM) in the Giant Mascot intrusion since the defining
work of Aho (1954, 1956, 1957). New geologic mapping and
geochronologic results resolve a ca. 93 Ma intrusive age for
the ultramafic suite (Manor, 2014) and provide an updated
characterization of conduit-style mineralization in the Giant
Mascot orebodies (Manor et al., 2015). Although the nar-
row mineralized conduits observed at Giant Mascot pose a
significant challenge to current exploration, the presence of
PGE-rich, high-tenor Ni-Cu sulfides indicates the economic
potential for future Ni-Cu-PGE discoveries in convergent
margin tectonic settings. To evaluate ore-forming processes
in this arc-related intrusion, we examined over 100 new sam-
ples, in addition to >100 samples from archival collections,
utilizing petrography, scanning electron microscopy, electron
microprobe analyses of sulfides, PGM, and olivine, S isotopes,
and whole-rock chalcophile element geochemistry.
Geologic Setting and Host Rocks
The Giant Mascot ultramafic suite and Ni-Cu-PGE deposit
are located east of Harrison Lake, approximately 12 km

Submitted: February 23, 2015

0361-0128/16/4369/57-31 57 Accepted: July 14, 2015
58 MANOR ET AL.

north of Hope in southwestern British Columbia (Fig. 1).
The Harrison Lake region lies at the southeastern margin of
the Coast Plutonic Complex or Coast Mountains batholith,
an agglomeration of intrusive suites related to continental
arc magmatism that were emplaced in the Middle Juras-
sic (~170 Ma) to Eocene (~45 Ma; Gehrels et al., 2009).
The Coast Plutonic Complex extends over 1,800 km from
southeastern Alaska to southwestern British Columbia and
the Northern Cascades in Washington State (Brown and
McClelland, 2000; Reiners et al., 2002). Plutons and batho-
liths in the southern Coast Plutonic Complex are tonalitic
to gabbroic intrusions that were emplaced in a continental
magmatic arc setting during the Cretaceous (Richards, 1971;
Brown and McClelland, 2000; Mitrovic, 2013; Fig. 1). Ter-
tiary intrusions are also present in this region (e.g., Mt. Barr
and Chilliwack batholiths).

122°W 121°45’W 121°30’W

MM BS
Intrusive rocks
AC U
5 km N
age unknown Scuzzy
FC

49°45’N
Tertiary
CH - Chilliwack batholith LL
SE
MB - Mt. Barr batholith
DP - Doctor’s Point pluton SL

SS
BC - Bear Creek pluton
Br
ec
DP
84-88 Ma
ke
CC
nr
Scuzzy pluton
id
89-96 Ma ge Urquhart
BS - Big Silver pluton
LL - Lillooet pluton CG
HN
Ha

Urquhart pluton G SL
MM - Mt. Mason pluton 122°W
rri

fault
so

Giant Mascot ultramafic-

nL

mafic intrusion 100-107 Ma SE

HC
ak

HC - Hut Creek pluton CP - Cogburn pluton CP SC

e

AC - Ascent Creek pluton CC - Clear Creek pluton

Spuzzum pluton Breckenridge pluton
49°30’N

49°30’N
SS - Snowshoe pluton UM Giant Mascot
154-156 Ma CG

Fraser
SC - Settler Creek pluton
HN - Hornet Creek pluton FC - Fir Creek pluton 121°45’W
H
Yukon
NWT SE

BC Alberta BC
Alaska SL Spuzzum
Turnagain
SE
CC
NAc River
HOPE
CH
Salt Chuck
er CH
as
Duke Island Fr SE
NAp CH
ST MB

121°45’W 121°30’W
CC
Terranes
Pacific CPC geologic contact
SE Settler schist
Ocean SL Slollicum schist thrust fault
QN H Harrison Lake Group
INS Giant fault
G Gambier Group
Vancouver Mascot Giant Mascot
0 100 200 Ophiolitic rocks Ni-Cu-PGE deposit
km USA CG Cogburn Assemblage Alaskan-type
UM Ultramafic rocks intrusions

Fig. 1. Geology of the Harrison Lake region, showing the location of the Giant Mascot ultramafic intrusion and associated
Ni-Cu-PGE deposit. The patterns for intrusive rocks indicate Late Cretaceous plutons that are colored according to crystalli-
zation age (geology modified from Gabites, 1985; Monger, 1989; Brown et al., 2000; and Mitrovic, 2013). The inset (modified
after Colpron and Nelson, 2011) shows the location of the Giant Mascot intrusion in southwestern British Columbia relative
to Alaskan-type ultramafic intrusions that host Ni-Cu-PGE mineralization, and tectonic elements of the northern Cordillera:
CC = Cache-Creek Bridge River oceanic terranes, CPC = Coast Plutonic Complex, INS = insular terranes (Alexander-
Wrangellia), NAc = North America craton and cover; Nap = North America platform, QN and ST = arc terranes of Quesnellia
and Stikinia, respectively.
 GIANT MASCOT Ni-Cu-PGE DEPOSIT, BC, CANADA 59

Rocks hosting the mineralization and associated ultramafic
rocks at Giant Mascot include the Upper Triassic Settler
schist and Late Cretaceous Spuzzum pluton (Fig. 2). The Set-
tler schist is an upper amphibolites-grade metamorphic com-
plex consisting of pelitic and quartzofeldspathic schist and
micaceous quartzite, locally containing garnet, staurolite, kya-
nite, minor graphite, and trace pyrite (Pigage, 1973; Mitrovic,
2013). This schist occurs on the east and southeast margins of
the intrusion (Manor et al., 2014b, 2015). In the western part
of Zofka Ridge, a large raft (120 × 200 × 350 m depth) of
Settler schist is in contact with hornblende pyroxenite to the
west and gabbronorite on all other sides (Aho, 1954; Manor
et al., 2014b; Fig. 2). Adjacent to the northern contact of this
raft, a 70- ×100-m zone of garnetiferous gabbronorite/diorite
is cut by siliceous veins that may represent anatectic melts of
the Settler schist protolith (Manor et al., 2014a).
The ca. 95 Ma Spuzzum pluton (U-Pb zircon: Manor, 2014)
is a 60- × 20-km granitoid intrusion that is compositionally
zoned from pyroxene diorite in the core to hornblende dio-
rite toward the margins with an outermost rim of tonalite
(Richards and McTaggart, 1976; Vining, 1977; Gabites, 1985).
Variably melanocratic, medium-grained, hornblende-biotite
quartz diorite and diorite-gabbronorite contains orthopyrox-
ene, clinopyroxene, hornblende, and biotite that together
form 15 to 55% of the mode. Locally, lobate and elongate
hornblendite enclaves (±biotite) are present. The diorites
are moderately to strongly foliated, interpreted to represent
primary magmatic foliation (cf. Vining, 1977) with a variable
metamorphic overprint. The strongest metamorphic foliation
is observed in a large raft of quartz diorite in the Giant Mascot
ultramafic suite along the upper mine road (Fig. 2). Deforma-
tion features of the Spuzzum pluton include relatively minor
recrystallization of quartz and plagioclase, bent plagioclase
crystals, and weak to moderate mafic mineral alignment along
bands of recrystallized quartz.
Geology of the Giant Mascot Ultramafic Suite
The ca. 93 Ma Giant Mascot ultramafic intrusive suite (Manor,
2014) consists predominantly of dunite, peridotite, pyroxenite,
hornblende pyroxenite, and hornblendite (Fig. 2). The rocks

³
606500 mE 607500 mE 608500 mE 609500 mE
ge
id
R
5481000 mN

5481000 mN
Chinaman

ad
Pride of mine ro
Emory Upper
4600
1900

512
Climax
1600
5480000 mN

5480000 mN
Brunswick 1-10
fka
Zo

0 250 500 1000

meters
Giant Mascot ultramafic suite Spuzzum pluton (ca. 95 Ma) Map symbols
(ca. 93 Ma) road (dirt)
gabbronorite-diorite
hornblende gabbro stream or river
garnetiferous gabbronorite-diorite contour (100m)
hornblendite
hornblende gabbronorite-diorite contour (20m)
hornblende pyroxenite geological contact, defined
quartz diorite
pyroxenite geological contact, approximate
peridotite Settler schist (Upper Triassic) geological contact, inferred
dunite Settler schist fault, defined
fault, approximate
Orebodies (projected to surface) Mine tunnels fault, inferred
observed outcrop

Fig. 2. Geologic map of the Giant Mascot ultramafic intrusion and surrounding rocks of the Spuzzum pluton (modified from
Aho, 1954; Vining, 1977; Manor et al., 2014b, 2015). Orebodies and mine tunnels projected to surface; select orebodies are
labeled for reference to Figures 4, 5, and 6. UTM coordinates are reported as NAD83 Zone 10U.
60 MANOR ET AL.

are remarkably fresh and display igneous textures involving
olivine, orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, and hornblende, with
minor biotite, and plagioclase, and accessory zircon, titanite,
rutile, and apatite (Figs. 3, A1). The cumulates are weakly
deformed, observed as bent or broken olivine, orthopyroxene,
clinopyroxene, and hornblende, and strain-banded olivine.
Minor secondary, metamorphic minerals vary in abundance
and occur mostly at grain boundaries as tremolite-actinolite,
chromian Mg-chlorite, talc, anthophyllite, serpentine, car-
bonate, and rare zeolite.
Dunite occurs in the core of the intrusion and, although
minor in volume, is a major host of nickel mineralization. The
rock is fine grained and contains 90 to 95 vol % equigranular,
cumulus olivine with sparse euhedral chromite inclusions and
secondary Cr-magnetite and serpentine (Figs. 3A, A1). Inter-
stitial minerals include orthopyroxene, sulfide (pyrrhotite,
pentlandite, chalcopyrite, and pyrite), and minor hornblende
and clinopyroxene (Fig. 3A). Peridotite, the other major host
of mineralization, is represented by fine- to medium-grained
lherzolite and harzburgite orthocumulates with variable

A B C

1 mm 0.5 mm 1 mm

D E F

1 mm 1 mm 0.5 mm

G H I

1 mm 1 mm 1 mm

Fig. 3. Photomicrographs of representative silicate textures present in the Giant Mascot ultramafic intrusive suite. (A).
Cumulus olivine with minor interstitial orthopyroxene. Spinel is present as either inclusions in olivine and orthopyroxene or
at grain boundaries (13MMA-3-10-1, peridotite). (B). Cumulus olivine with interstitial orthopyroxene and minor clinopyrox-
ene. Spinel and sulfide (composite blebs of pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite-magnetite) are present (13MMA-3-8-1, peridotite). (C).
Interstitial hornblende containing abundant subhedral to euhedral olivine crystals. Anthophyllite and talc are relatively minor
alteration products on the margins of hornblende and olivine, respectively (13MMA-3-8-1, peridotite). (D). Intergrowths of
olivine, orthopyroxene, and hornblende with interstitial sulfide. Phlogopite is replaced by chlorite at sulfide grain boundaries
(179-E-410, peridotite). (E). Cumulus orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene with interstitial light brown hornblende contain-
ing euhedral orthopyroxene crystals with clinopyroxene exsolution lamellae. Clinopyroxene cores are altered to hornblende
(12MMA-5-4-1, pyroxenite). (F). Composite grain of orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene with sulfide (pyrrhotite-pentlandite-
chalcopyrite) inclusions, replaced by hornblende; replacement of clinopyroxene is more pronounced than orthopyroxene
(12MMA-2-4-1, hornblende pyroxenite). (G). Euhedral oikocrystic hornblende with subhedral orthopyroxene inclusions sur-
rounded by marginal plagioclase. Hornblende oikocrysts occur within a medium-grained groundmass of cumulus orthopy-
roxene and clinopyroxene (12MMA-2-4-1, hornblende pyroxenite). (H). Cumulus hornblende with clusters of interstitial
disseminated pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite. Coarse-grained hornblende contains inclusions of biotite (13MMA-1-4-1, horn-
blende pyroxenite). (I) Moderately foliated plagioclase (var. labradorite) and clinopyroxene, with minor orthopyroxene. The
margins of clinopyroxene are replaced by green hornblende (12MMA-5-2-1, gabbronorite-diorite). Mineral abbreviations:
ath = anthophyllite, bt = biotite, chl = chlorite, cpx = clinopyroxene, hbl = hornblende, ol = olivine, opx = orthopyroxene, phl
= phlogopite, pl = plagioclase, sp = spinel, sul = sulfide, tlc = talc.
 GIANT MASCOT Ni-Cu-PGE DEPOSIT, BC, CANADA 61

amounts of hornblende. Olivine (40–80%, ~Fo84; Muir, 1971)
occurs as cumulus crystals enclosed in subpoikilitic pyrox-
ene (Fig. 3B). Intergranular orthopyroxene (30–60%) is the
dominant pyroxene (En84; Muir, 1971) accompanied by vari-
able proportions of clinopyroxene and interstitial hornblende
(0–10%; Fig. 3B-D) and rare cumulus hornblende. Local
alteration of olivine is restricted to fractures as serpentine with
rare magnetite and hematite (Fig. 3D); orthopyroxene and
clinopyroxene are locally altered to talc along grain boundar-
ies, and rarely, clinopyroxene is observed as fine exsolution
lamellae in orthopyroxene. Pyroxenite is typically barren of
mineralization and forms medium-grained orthocumulates of
websterite, olivine websterite, and orthopyroxenite (Fig. A1).
Brown orthopyroxene (En82; Muir, 1971) is subhedral and
prismatic, forming rare oikocrysts, and is more abundant than
black-green clinopyroxene (55–90% total pyroxene). Clinopy-
roxene is commonly replaced by hornblende along cleavage
planes in the cores of grains and is interpreted to represent
late-magmatic replacement; similar replacement in orthopy-
roxene is less prominent (Fig. 3E, F). Olivine (5–35%) is pres-
ent as intergranular grains or inclusions, whereas hornblende
(0–10%) is interstitial. Locally, plagioclase (5–10%) occurs in
clots.
Hornblende-bearing units in the Giant Mascot ultramafic
intrusive suite include hornblende pyroxenite and horn-
blendite. Hornblende pyroxenites are medium-grained horn-
blende websterite and orthopyroxenite, commonly oikocrystic
and locally feldspathic (Figs. 3G, A1). Orthopyroxene (En77-81;
Muir, 1971) and clinopyroxene abundances are highly vari-
able (20–60% total pyroxene) and textures are predominantly
cumulus. Pyroxene grains are commonly enclosed by oiko-
crystic hornblende (20–80%), which ranges in diameter from
4 to 50 mm. These rocks rarely contain sulfide; exceptions
are reported in the Chinaman, Climax, and 4300 orebodies,
which hosted disseminated and minor massive sulfide miner-
alization (Fig. 4; Christopher and Robinson, 1975; Manor et
al., 2015). Hornblendite commonly occurs at marginal con-
tacts with Spuzzum gabbronorite/diorite and quartz diorite,
where it forms locally feldspathic pegmatite zones up to 40 m
wide at the contact (Figs. 3H, A1; Manor et al., 2014b). These
pegmatitic zones contain prismatic hornblende (90–98%)
ranging in length from 4 to 25 cm and are locally altered in
part to cummingtonite-tremolite intergrowths and anthophyl-
lite. Hornblendite in the remainder of the intrusion, including
dikes, is typically medium grained (2–10 mm) and exhibits rel-
atively little alteration. Clinopyroxene (0–5%) is interstitial or
forms euhedral inclusions in pegmatitic hornblende. Locally,
plagioclase clots (An80–90; McLeod, 1975) may attain 30% of
the mode. Minor, generally unmineralized, hornblende gab-
bro and felsic pegmatite and aplite dikes comprise the young-
est units in the Giant Mascot intrusion.
Geometry and Structure of Giant Mascot Orebodies
Ni-Cu-PGE sulfide mineralization in the Giant Mascot intru-
sion is mostly hosted in olivine-rich rocks, including dunite,
peridotite, and olivine-bearing pyroxenite. There are, how-
ever, a few occurrences of sulfides in hornblende pyroxenite
(e.g., Chinaman orebody) and rare 0.5-m-wide sulfide dikes
have been observed at two localities in the main haulage
tunnels (e.g., Aho, 1954, 1957). Sulfide orebodies occur in
28 steeply dipping, NNW-plunging, pipe-like (e.g., Pride of
Emory, Brunswick 1, 1900, 4600) and lensoid (e.g., Brunswick
2, 1,600) structures and similarly dipping atypical tabular bod-
ies (e.g., 512, 600, and 6800) that have widths of 6 to 75 m and
lengths of 15 to 350 m (Table 1; Fig. 4; Christopher, 1974;
Christopher and Robinson, 1975; Manor et al., 2015). The

WMZ EMZ
3000 E

5000 E

7000 E

9000 E
WEST EAST

1372m
Molly
Pride of
Emory Nickel Star
Subsidence BR #2A 1219m
Plug
BR 512
#10
BR #5A
3550 LEVEL
1067m
BR #1 600 1400 Trail
BR #8 3250 LEVEL
1900 3275 LEVEL
BR #7
4300 Chinaman
6800 4400 1600 Dolly 914m
2950 LEVEL
2200
2663 4600
BR #2 1500 Climax PORTAL
SHAFT
ZONE
2600 LEVEL MAIN HAULAGE
MILL
2000
Brunswick (BR)
orebodies
0 100 200 300
Orebodies prior to mining
meters

Fig. 4. North-looking longitudinal (west-east) section of the Giant Mascot deposit, showing orebodies of the western mineral-
ized zone (WMZ) and the eastern mineralized zone (EMZ). Section extends from the Brunswick orebodies in the northwest
to the Portal zone and mill in the southeast; see trace of Main Haulage in Figure 2 (modified after Clarke, 1969; Christopher
and Robinson, 1975). Surface showings and adits labeled as Molly and Dolly. BR = Brunswick.
 Table 1. Orebody Statistics for the Giant Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE Deposit
62
Dimensions (m) Grade

Location within Vertical Orientation Tons Ni Cu Mineralization Orebody

Orebody mineralized trend Length Width height Orebody shape of orebody1 (×1,000) (wt %) (wt %) Ni/Cu type2 type Host rocks

Pride of Emory West 45.7 18.3 266.8 Pipe-like lenses 53/320    704   1.46   0.38   3.84 M Unzoned Dunite to orthopyroxenite
Brunswick 1 West 33.5 18.3 160.1 Pipe-like lens 75/340    123 1.1   0.35   3.14 M Zoned Dunite core to harzburgite
  to barren orthopyroxenite
Brunswick 2 West 54.9 21.3 251.5 Lenticular 56/330    570 1.4 0.6   2.33 M-NT Unzoned Harburgite
Brunswick 2A West 33.5 21.3 106.7 Lenticular 72/320   290  0.98  0.35 2.8 M-NT Unzoned Harburgite
Brunswick 2G West 21.3 19.8  91.5 Lenticular 77/315   131  0.56  0.27  2.07 M-NT Unzoned Harburgite
Brunswick 5 West 36.6 21.3 182.9 Elliptical pipe 77/030    409   1.49 0.5   2.98 M Zoned Dunite core to harzburgite
  to orthopyroxenite to
  barren orthopyroxenite
Brunswick 6 West   4.6 18.3   76.2 Lenticular Unknown Zoned Dunite to peridotite
Brunswick 7 West 27.4 15.2  61.0 68/330    23  2.37  0.75  3.16 M Zoned Orthopyroxenite
Brunswick 8 West  6.1 15.2  53.4 Pipe-like lens 79/020    12  1.75  0.61  2.86 M Unzoned Orthopyroxenite
Brunswick 9 West   6.1 12.2 Pipe-like lens Unknown M Unzoned Orthopyroxenite
Brunswick 10 West 21.3 16.8  61.0 75/330    38  0.74  0.35  2.11 M Unzoned Orthopyroxenite
2663 West 15.2 18.3  99.1 Pipe 68/320   102  0.86  0.32  2.69 Zoned Peridotite core to barren
  pyroxenite
6800 West 15.2 15.2  91.5 Tabular 56/290    47  0.66  0.24  2.75 D Unknown Pyroxenite
 600 West 30.5 13.7  91.5 66/210    83  1.42  0.42  3.04 Unknown Peridotite
4600 East 76.2 30.5 196.0 Elliptical pipe 82/315    805   1.35   0.73 1.8 M at contact Zoned Pyroxenite to peridotite:
  olivine-barren core to
  olivine-rich rim
4400 East 12.2 15.2  45.7 76/310    27  0.51  0.22  2.31 D Unknown Peridotite to pyroxenite
4300 East 27.4 12.2  68.6 61/310    62  0.91  0.51  1.78 D Zoned Hornblende pyroxenite
2200 East 15.2 15.2 228.7 75/300   135  0.68  0.38  1.79 D Unknown Peridotite to barren
  pyroxenite
MANOR ET AL.

1900 East 15.2 24.4  91.5 Pipe 63/300    45  0.86  0.45  1.91 Zoned Hornblende peridotite
  core to pyroxenite to
  discontinuous hornblende
  pyroxenite
1800 East 15.2 24.4  45.7 Pipe 60/120    40  0.53  0.23 2.3 Zoned Peridotite to pyroxenite
1700 East  3.7  3.7  15.2     1 2 Unknown Dunite
1600 East 51.8 27.4 129.6 Lenticular 69/230    216   0.97   0.34   2.85 M Zoned Dunite core to barren
  hornblende peridotite
1400 East 15.2 18.3 142.7 65/310    53  0.71  0.32  2.21 Unknown Peridotite to pyroxenite
 512 East  9.1 15.2  68.6 Pipe and 75/225    28  1.08  0.41  2.63 Zoned Barren core to olivine
lenticular dikes   pyroxenite shell to
  hornblende pyroxenite
  and hornblendite
Portal zone East 189.0 2,375   0.25   0.11   2.27 Unknown Peridotite to hornblende
  pyroxenite
2000 East  9.1  9.1  15.2 80/315     3  1.33  0.33  4.03 D-NT Unknown
1500 East 61.0 21.3 344.5 55/030   668  1.37  0.45  3.04 M-NT Unzoned Hornblende peridotite and
  Hornblende pyroxenite
Chinaman East 27.4 30.5 194.5 Elliptical pipe 68/300    376   0.73 0.3   2.43 D Zoned Hornblende pyroxenite to
  barren peridotite core
Climax East 15.2 27.4 182.3 Cylindrical pipe 63/330    211   0.78   0.36   2.16 D Zoned Peridotite to pyroxenite

Notes: Modified after Christopher and Robinson (1975)

1 Orientations of pipe and tabular orebodies are reported as plunge/trend and dip/strike, respectively (right-hand rule notation); pipe-like orebodies are assumed where orebody shapes are not designated
2 D = disseminated, M = massive/semimassive, NT = net-textured
 GIANT MASCOT Ni-Cu-PGE DEPOSIT, BC, CANADA 63
orebodies and tunnel systems are no longer accessible follow-
ing the mine closure in 1974. During production, orebodies
were classified as either “zoned” or “unzoned” based primar-
ily on textural characteristics of the ores (Table 1; Aho, 1954,
1956; Christopher and Robinson, 1975). Zoned orebodies are
concentrically zoned and typically consist of disseminated to
net-textured mineralization surrounding massive ore confined
to olivine-rich peridotite and dunite (e.g., Brunswick 1, 5, 6,
and 512, 1600, 1900, 4600, Climax, and Chinaman; Figs. 5A,
B, 6A-D). Unzoned orebodies are predominantly lensoid or
tabular structures containing semimassive to massive miner-
alization (e.g., Pride of Emory, Brunswick 2, 8, and 9; Fig. 5C,
D). Zoned and unzoned orebodies are both associated with
olivine-bearing ultramafic rocks (Aho, 1954, 1956).
Aho (1957) identified three primary fracture sets present
on the 3550 level of the Giant Mascot deposit (reported as
right-hand rule notation): (X) 350/40; (Y) 035/80; (Z) 138/55,
although he proposed that the faults did not provide con-
trol for mineralization, except for late-stage local mobiliza-
tion into small-scale fractures (also observed in this study).
Clarke (1969) documented four primary fault orientations in
the Giant Mascot ultramafic suite and associated orebodies,
similar to those reported by Aho (1957): (1) 310–315/50–75;
(2) 015–030/70–90 or 195–210/70–90; (3) 350–010/55–90 or
170–190/55-90; (4) 330–030/20–30. The steeper fault trends
(i.e., 1, 2, and 3) were closely associated with mineralization
and Clarke (1969) suggested that they may have aided in the
movement and concentration of sulfides. These different
fault orientations appear to reflect brittle faults that formed
following emplacement of the sulfide orebodies, thus it is not
clear how such structures could have exerted control on the
deposition of magmatic sulfides. Aho (1957) also proposed
that magmatic injections could have been localized along par-
tially crystallized cumulates or weak lithologic contacts. In this
study, we follow the primary observations by Aho (1956, 1957)
and interpret the Giant Mascot orebodies to represent sub-
vertical crustal conduits through which subsequent magma
pulses ascended, evidenced by sharp lithologic contacts (Figs.
5, 6), reversely zoned ore shoots cored by barren peridotite
(e.g., 1900 orebody; Fig. 6B), and arcuate ore lenses possi-
bly formed from the collapse of partially solidified wall-rock
cumulates (Fig. 6D; Manor et al., 2015).
Analytical Methods
Scanning electron microscopy
Polished petrographic thin sections were carbon coated and
prepared in the Electron Microbeam/X-Ray Diffraction Facil-
ity at the University of British Columbia, Vancouver (UBC)
and the SEM Facility at the Geological Survey of Canada,
Ottawa (GSC). At UBC, backscattered electron (BSE) imag-
ing and qualitative energy-dispersive spectrometry (EDS)
were carried out on a Philips XL-30 scanning electron micro-
scope (SEM) equipped with a Bruker Quanta 200 energy-dis-
persion X-ray microanalysis system. An operating voltage of
15 kV was used, with a spot diameter of 6 µm, and peak count
time of 30 s. At the GSC, BSE imaging and EDS analyses
were acquired on a Zeiss EVO 50 series SEM with extended
pressure capability (up to 3,000 Pascals), and equipped with
a backscattered electron detector (BSD), Everhart-Thornley
secondary electron detector (SE), and variable pressure
secondary electron detector (VPSE). The Oxford EDS sys-
tem includes the X-MAX 150 Silicon Drift Detector, INCA
Energy 450 software and Aztec microanalysis software. An
operating voltage (EHT) of 20 kV was used, with a probe cur-
rent of 400 pA to 1 nA, and peak count time of 30 s. The EDS
analyses of platinum group minerals and semimetal minerals
are reported in Table A1.
Electron microbeam analyses
Nickel concentrations in olivine were determined on polished
petrographic thin sections, carbon coated and prepared in the
Electron Microbeam/X-Ray Diffraction Facility at UBC, Van-
couver. For each of the 15 samples, five olivine grains were
selected for analysis and core–mid-rim transects were probed
with a fully automated Cameca SX-50 scanning electron
microprobe with four vertical wavelength-dispersion X-ray
(WDX) spectrometers and a fully integrated SAMx energy-
dispersion X-ray (EDX) spectrometer. Major elements in
olivine were analyzed using a 15-keV accelerating voltage,
20-nA beam current, 10-µm diameter beam, 30-s peak count
time, and 10-s background count time. A second analysis on
identical spots was used to determine more precise Ni and Ca
concentrations at a 15-keV accelerating voltage, 100-nA beam
current, 10-µm diameter beam, 100-s peak count time, and
10-s background count time. Natural and synthetic standards
were used for calibration and procedural set-up of the instru-
ment prior to each day of analysis. Data were reduced by the
“PAP” Φ(ρZ) procedure of (Pouchou and Pichoir, 1991). All
analyses (n = 220) are reported in Table A2.
Quantitative mineral analyses of sulfides and platinum
group minerals (different from those analyzed by SEM) were
determined on carbon-coated, polished petrographic thin sec-
tions, using an automated four-spectrometer Cameca Cam-
ebax MBX electron microprobe by wavelength-dispersive
X-ray analysis at the Department of Earth Sciences, Carleton
University, Ottawa. Raw X-ray data were converted to ele-
mental weight percent by the Cameca PAP matrix correction
program (Tables A3, A4). Sulfides, tellurides, and semimetal
minerals were analyzed using a 20-keV accelerating voltage,
35-nA beam current, 2-µm diameter beam, and counting time
of 10 s or 40,000 accumulated counts.
Sulfur isotopes
Individual sulfide minerals (e.g., pyrrhotite, pentlandite,
chalcopyrite, pyrite) were extracted from sulfide-rich sam-
ples (n = 39) using a Dremel 400 Series XPR hand-held drill
with a 1/32" drill bit. Careful attention was paid to the sulfide
minerals being extracted to estimate the percentage of S in
the sample for approximately 3 mg of sulfide powder. Whole
rocks of the Settler schist rocks (n = 5) were analyzed due
to unsuccessful separation of sulfide mineral separates (i.e.,
pyrite) and low S contents determined by whole-rock infra-
red absorption methods (Manor, 2014). The amount of sam-
ple powder was dependent on the initial S concentration in
the whole rock and adjusted as needed (0.05 mg for 1 wt %
S). All powders (n = 49), including five blind duplicates,
were analyzed at the G.G. Hatch Stable Isotope Laboratory
at the University of Ottawa, Canada. Organic solids from
vials were weighed into tin capsules with at least double
64 MANOR ET AL.

A Brunswick No. 1 B Brunswick No. 5, 6 and 7

Orebody Orebodies
70

Su
hi

lp
de Hornblende

ut
s

oss0c0
30 N N orthopyroxenite
m

4
be

Cr3
l ow ore
l

f
it o
ev

Ra 0
ise
340
el

Lim
80
Crosscut
3800

No. 5

45 65
Hornblende
orthopyroxenite
Zoned dunite core to
orthopyroxenite margin No. 6
t of ore
re

Limi
Limit of o

No. 7
(45 m below level)

60 80
38 20 m
Cros 00 3400
s
Wes cut Crosscut Zoned
t
3800
Raise
60 D Pride of Emory
10 m Orebody

Zoned Quartz
diorite Sur
Brunswick No.8 and 9 face
C
Orebodies 1280m

N
1219m
65 60

60
1176m
No. 9 No. 8

1130m
3900 Crosscut

10 m 3200
Raise
1082m
Unzoned 3550 Level 3200 Crosscut
Hornblendite Sulfide orebody
Hornblende pyroxenite Diorite-norite 1036m
Pyroxenite Settler schist
Orthopyroxenite 83 60
Fault Foliation, inclined
Peridotite 55
Thrust/reverse fault
Dunite 60
Geological contact 975m Cross section Unzoned

Fig. 5. Detailed cross sections and plans of orebodies in the western mineralized zone (WMZ), Giant Mascot deposit
(redrawn and modified from Aho, 1954). (A). Brunswick 1 orebody. Note the concentric nature of ultramafic lithologies and
concentration of sulfide mineralization in zoned dunite-peridotite. (B). Brunswick 5, 6, and 7 orebodies. (C). Brunswick 8 and
9 massive ore lenses. (D). Pride of Emory massive ore lens.
 GIANT MASCOT Ni-Cu-PGE DEPOSIT, BC, CANADA 65

A B

4500 E
4600 Orebody 1900 Orebody

3550 Level
4000 E

Li m
o

it
3250 Level

fo
re
60

1900
Raise
70

80
2950 Level

Hornblendite dikes

cut
30 m

ross
15 m

0C
190 60

Cross section (Clarke, 1969) Zoned Zoned

C 1600 Orebody D 512 Orebody
Geology at top of 512 Raise
N (elevation 1171 m) N

1600E
Ore below lev e l

Ore intersection 512

Raise
e
Rais
ut 1600
sc
Cros

512 Crosscut
orthopyroxene
diorite
1600

50 m
20 m
Zoned Zoned
Fig. 6. Detailed cross sections and plans of orebodies in the eastern mineralized zones (EMZ; redrawn and modified from
Aho, 1954; Clarke, 1969; McLeod, 1975). (A). 4600 orebody; thick black lines indicate faults. (B). 1900 orebody. Note the
concentric zoning of ultramafic units associated with sulfide mineralization. (C). 1600 orebody, which contains the highest
grade PGE mineralization in the intrusion. (D). 512 orebody. Lithology colors and geologic symbols as in Figure 5.

the amount of tungstic oxide (WO3). Calibrated internal
standards were prepared with every batch of samples for
normalization of the data. Each analysis required 100 µg
of S. Samples were loaded into an Elementar Vario Micro
Cube elemental analyzer and flash combusted at 1,800°C.
Released gases (N2, CO2, H2O, and SO2) were carried by
ultra-pure helium through the elemental analyzer to be
cleaned, then gas chromatograph separation removed SO2
by moving gases through a series of adsorption traps (i.e.,
“trap and purge”). Isotopic compositions of organic sulfur
(SO2) were measured by a ThermoFinnigan Delta XP iso-
tope ratio mass spectrometer coupled with a ConFlo IV. The
measured isotope for sulfur was 34S assuming mass-depen-
dent fractionation. Values are reported relative to the Vienna
Canyon Diablo Troilite (VCDT) and analytical precision for
δ34S is 0.2‰ (Tables 2, A5).
66 MANOR ET AL.

Table 2. Sulfur Isotope Analyses of Sulfides and Whole Rocks from the Giant Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE Deposit

Sample Locality1 Rock type2 Texture3 Mineral separate4 S (wt.%) δ34S (‰)5

179-E-847 1600 Peridotite SM po  9.0 -1.6

179-E-410 1600 Peridotite D po 16.1 -2.3

179-E-364 1900 Ol pyroxenite D po-py 22.2 -3.3

179-E-367 1900 Hbl opxite NT cp 16.8 -3.3

M29-21 4600 Peridotite SM po 33.5 -2.8

M29-30 4600 Hbl opxite D cp 12.5 -2.9

71-EI-622 Chinaman Peridotite D po-py 38.7 -3.3

71-EI-624 Chinaman Hornblendite D cp 33.8 -2.7

71-EI-659 3050 Crosscut Hbl pyroxenite M pn-cp 41.9 -3.5

179-E-2 Brunswick 1 Dunite NT cp 20.4 -3.4

179-E-2 Brunswick 1 Dunite NT po 16.8 -3.2
179-E-625 Brunswick 1 Ol opxite NT py-po   9.3 -1.9
179-E-839 Brunswick 2 Opxite SM po 14.4 -2.5
179-E-765 Brunswick 8 Pyroxenite Unknown po 22.7 -3.7
179-E-838 Brunswick 8 Dunite NT po   9.6 -2.4

13MMA-9-6-1A Pride of Emory Peridotite SM-M po-pn 34.0 -2.2

179-E-763 Pride of Emory Opxite NT po 24.8 -2.6
11AV-200 Pride of Emory Ol opxite NT po-cp 32.4 -1.6
11AV-201 Pride of Emory Dunite NT po-pn-cp-py 32.1 -1.5
11AV-202 Pride of Emory Hbl peridotite NT po-py 36.6 -1.6
11AV-204 Pride of Emory Hbl peridotite NT po-py 35.6 -2.4
179-E-345 Pride of Emory Opxite NT po 20.5 -3.4
13MMA-9-6-2 Pride of Emory Hbl pyroxenite D po 38.9 -2.1

RHP01-075 3550 East Portal dump Peridotite M po 14.5 -2.0

RHP01-152 3550 East Portal dump Peridotite NT cp 30.3 -1.5
RHP01-151 3550 East Portal dump Pyroxenite D po 35.0 -2.5
12MMA-5-8-1 3550 East Portal dump Pyroxenite NT po-cp 21.0 -2.2
12MMA-5-8-6 3550 East Portal dump Pyroxenite NT po-cp 34.5 -1.3
RHP01-077 3550 East Portal dump Pyroxenite D po 34.3 -2.2
12MMA-5-8-3 3550 East Portal dump Pyroxenite NT po-cp-py 30.9 -2.0
12MMA-5-2-1 3550 East Portal dump Gabbronorite n.m. py 49.5 -1.9

12MMA-7-10-6 Dolly Adit dump Peridotite D po-cp 28.0 -2.0

12MMA-7-10-2 Dolly Adit dump Pyroxenite NT po-cp-pn 32.4 -1.8
12MMA-7-10-3 Dolly Adit dump Pyroxenite NT po-py-cp 32.6 -1.8
RHP01-088 Dolly Adit dump Pyroxenite SM po 13.3 -2.0

12MMA-2-1-5 610135 mE/5481062 mN Quartz diorite n.m. py 54.3 1.9

12MMA-4-1-1 610342 mE/5481216 mN Schist n.m. WR   0.1 -5.4
13MMA-5-1-1 608222 mE/5478687 mN Schist n.m. WR   0.6 -1.2
13MMA-5-13-1 608687 mE/5479118 mN Schist n.m. WR   0.1 -2.1
13MMA-7-1-1 610808 mE/5484413 mN Schist n.m. WR   0.3 -2.9

1 610135mE/5481062 mN = UTME (easting) / UTMN (northing); UTM coordinates based on NAD83, Zone 10U
2 hbl = hornblende, ol = olivine, opxite = orthopyroxenite
3 Mineralization texture of sulfide minerals; D = disseminated, M = massive, n.m. = no sulfide mineralization, NT = net-textured, SM = semimassive
4 cp = chalcopyrite, po = pyrrhotite, pn = pentlandite, py = pyrite; combination of minerals indicates intergrown sulfides; WR = whole-rock analysis
5 Analytical precision = ± 0.2‰

Chalcophile, platinum group element, and sulfur analyses
Platinum group element (Ir, Ru, Rh, Pt, Pd), Au, and chalco-
phile element (Ni, Cu, Co) concentrations of 39 whole-rock
samples and three duplicates were measured by the nickel-
sulfide fire-assay (NiS-FA) ICP-MS and atomic absorption
spectroscopy techniques, respectively, at Geoscience Labora-
tories in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada (Tables 3, A6, A7). Sam-
ples were crushed to 74 µm (200 mesh) using a high chrome
steel mill to avoid contamination of precious metals.
Nickel sulfide fire-assay techniques at Geolabs are detailed
by Richardson and Burnham (2002), following procedures
from Shazali et al. (1987) and Jackson et al. (1990). Nickel, sul-
fur, sodium carbonate, and sodium tetraborate were added to a
15-g aliquot of sample powder, and fused for 1.5 h in a fire-clay
crucible at 1,050°C. Following cooling, the crucible was broken
to recover a nickel sulfide button. This button was dissolved
with HCl in a closed Teflon™ vessel to remove any NiS matrix.
The coprecipitation of the NiS button with tellurium produced
a concentrate containing all Au and PGE lost during button
 GIANT MASCOT Ni-Cu-PGE DEPOSIT, BC, CANADA 67

Table 3. Whole-Rock Chalcophile and Platinum Group Element Analyses for Sulfide-Rich Rocks from the Giant Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE Deposit

wt % ppm          ppb

Sample Rock type1 Texture2 S Ni Cu Co Ir Ru Rh Pt Pd Au

1600 orebody
179-E-847 Peridotite SM 15.7 30,973 13,609 346 272 378 182 170 768 8.63
179-E-410 Peridotite D 11.6 44,145 1,303 715 136 196 142 323 824 7.42
1900 orebody
179-E-364 Ol pyroxenite D 5.39 12,541 4,020 358 12.3 13.9 14.5 14 136 42.2
179-E-367 Hbl opxite NT 2.31 4,061 4,104 167 4.13 5.44 4.44 19.6 59.8 49.5
4600 orebody
M29-30 Hbl opxite D 0.97 2,560 2,962 102 1.42 1.91 1.26 101 49 37.4
3050 Crosscut
71-EI-6213 Pyroxenite D 4.56 11,000 3,600 280 7.5 bdl 15 150 150 61
71-EI-6223 Peridotite M 3.42 6,000 4,600 230 3.6 25 4 46 51 11
71-EI-659A Hbl pyroxenite M 28.87 39,748 1,891 2,717 50.3 66.4 44.2 81.2 178 4.2
71-EI-6593 Hbl pyroxenite M 21.9 23,000 6,700 1,300 21 28 24 bdl 150 5
71-EI-659B Hbl pyroxenite M 30.2 32,000 16,000 2,000 19 50 16 31 93 6
71-EI-624 Hornblendite vein 10.1 32,000 2,200 570 51 59 100 89 630 33
Pride of Emory
13MMA-9-6-1A Peridotite SM 12.82 393 1,773 804 6.59 7.37 6.82 5.49 150 2.6
13MMA-9-6-1B Peridotite SM 12.55 13,036 4,013 599 6.97 7.59 6.52 71.1 146 12.2
13MMA-9-6-4 Peridotite NT 7.48 9,007 3,420 367 4.42 3.42 6.32 16.3 55.7 13.9
11AV-200 Ol opxite NT 12.03 23,097 5,191 711 2.56 1.35 8.69 8.34 137 7.6
11AV-201 Dunite D 8.94 19,591 5,965 530 2.06 0.97 5.54 115 198 26.4
11AV-202a Hbl peridotite NT 9.61 12,942 3,837 754 1.08 1.2 2.14 3.63 20 2.66
11AV-204 Hbl peridotite NT 11.79 27,587 3,695 870 12 13.7 10.4 12.2 289 3.74
179-E-763 Opxite NT 11 11,989 6,757 489 4.34 6.26 1.18 2.53 13.6 4.29
179-E-345 Opxite NT 10.1 13,104 1,009 590 0.32 0.42 0.81 0.87 18.2 3.04
Brunswick orebodies
179-E-2 Dunite D 5.83 15,926 12,747 440 3.76 4.6 3.36 16.2 66.8 15.2
179-E-839 Opxite NT 16.6 16,583 13,759 812 3.33 5.66 2.53 25.5 37.9 6.33
179-E-765 Pyroxenite 14.7 16,835 2,104 709 6.55 9.95 3.01 0.71 49.5 2.91
179-E-838 Dunite NT 17.7 19,263 24,937 793 7.35 11.4 4.39 58.5 77.4 7.56
Chinaman
71-EI-623 Pyroxenite D 10.5 31,000 4,500 530 70 46 100 500 820 73
Climax
71-EI-615 Pyroxenite D 3.55 9,100 5,600 190 5.3 23 8 470 730 81
3550 East Portal dump
RHP01-075 Peridotite SM 19.1 20,514 7,288 978 7.81 13.6 5.32 6.99 49.3 9.98
RHP01-152 Peridotite NT 32.6 84,034 47,696 2,027 508 644 369 1,511 2,018 25.6
12MMA-5-8-1 Pyroxenite NT 14.31 13,577 7,239 614 5.47 8.17 4.26 0.66 40.8 20.1
12MMA-5-8-2 Pyroxenite NT 10.5 8,890 10,053 587 0.66 1.01 0.56 16.3 25.5 6.93
12MMA-5-8-3 Pyroxenite NT 7.43 6,752 1,362 497 0.51 0.81 0.5 0.33 16.9 13.9
12MMA-5-8-4 Pyroxenite NT 19.97 20,249 5,971 1,027 7.61 12.8 5.45 65.7 59.7 13.2
12MMA-5-8-6 Pyroxenite NT 14.9 26,425 4,680 729 0.65 0.48 2.34 53 170 28
RHP01-077 Pyroxenite D 7.05 14,124 2,439 422 7.53 9.29 6.59 3.84 94.2 6.46
RHP01-151 Pyroxenite D 6.29 8,676 1,056 311 2.33 3.59 1.7 4.02 25.4 5.23
12MMA-5-8-5 Hbl peridotite D 2.37 7,446 2,515 201 14.1 20 11.8 253 186 49
Dolly Adit dump
12MMA-7-10-2 Pyroxenite NT 12.76 19,990 5,895 741 23 25.6 27.6 245 226 25.9
12MMA-7-10-3 Pyroxenite NT 14.09 27,872 14,944 979 8.31 7.3 14.9 123 420 19
12MMA-7-10-4 Pyroxenite D 6.87 11,124 4,409 420 17.3 20.4 16.4 14.1 107 3.78
12MMA-7-10-5 Pyroxenite D 12.78 21,584 2,411 930 8.47 8.66 11.9 2.19 323 1.36
12MMA-7-10-6 Peridotite D 3.71 9,126 2,393 301 3.35 3.75 4.33 61.5 88.5 20.2
12MMA-7-10-7 Pyroxenite D 1.22 1,548 5,934 88 0.34 0.32 0.6 104 318 111
Pride of Emory dump
RHP01-088 Pyroxenite SM 8.45 14,128 16,133 518 8.51 4.21 26.2 12.7 193 4.5

1Hbl = hornblende, ol = olivine, opxite = orthopyroxenite

2Mineralization texture of sulfide minerals in whole rock; D = disseminated, M = massive , NT = net-textured, SM = semimassive
3Analyses from Hulbert (2001); bdl = below lower limit of detection
68 MANOR ET AL.

dissolution. Concentrates were then vacuum filtered, redis-
solved in aqua regia, and brought to volume with deionized
water prior to analysis by a Perkin-Elmer ELAN 5000 induc-
tively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (ICP-MS). Osmium
was not reported due to the potential loss as a volatile oxide
during the aqua regia redissolution stage. Reference materials
used were CANMET-certified TDB-1, WPR-1, WGB-1, and
WMG-1, and an in-house komatiite sample OKUM.
The remaining <74-µm pulps from the same crush as the
NiS-FA method were mixed with a three-acid (hydrofluoric,
nitric, and perchloric) mix in an open Teflon™ digestion
vessel and heated until dry. A solution was produced by
adding a second acid mixture, transferred to a 50-mL volu-
metric container and diluted with 10% HNO3 respective to
the volume of sample. Chalcophile element (Ni, Cu, Co, Cd,
Zn, Li, Pb) concentrations were measured by atomic absorp-
tion methods with a Varian Atomic Absorption Spectrometer
AA280FS Series.
Sulfur and carbon measurement techniques are outlined
in Amirault and Burnham (2013). Sample material was taken
from a 0.2-g premeasured aliquot and combusted from radio-
frequency inductive heating with a constant stream of purified
oxygen. Gases (CO2 and SO2) were produced and detected
by nondispersive infrared (NDIR) cells. Concentrations were
then measured by a LECO CS844 carbon and sulfur analyzer.
Results for all analyses are reported in Tables A6, A7.
Results
Ni-Cu-PGE sulfide mineralization
At both outcrop and hand-sample scale in the Giant Mascot
deposit, the ores are characterized by a wide range of dissem-
inated, net-textured, semimassive and massive textures, and
Cu-rich veins locally fill fractures in silicate minerals (Figs.
7, A2). Rare discontinuous folds in sulfide are interpreted to
record magmatic ductile deformation during emplacement of

A D G
po+pn
po+pn+cp
pyx cp

hbl po+pn
ol+pyx
1 cm
1 cm

E cp
B
po+pn
silicate po

po+pn+cp
ol
1 cm

2 cm H po+pn
1 cm
F cp
ol+pyx
cp
C
po

hbl pyx hbl

pn 1 cm
1 cm
1 cm

Fig. 7. Principal types of mineralization in the Giant Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE deposit. (A). Moderately net textured pyrrhotite,
pentlandite, and chalcopyrite in pyroxenite (11AV-201). (B). Weakly net textured pyrrhotite, pentlandite, and chalcopyrite in
pyroxenite (11AV-200). (C). Massive pyrrhotite, pentlandite, and minor chalcopyrite in hornblende pyroxenite (71-EI-659).
(D). Disseminated pyrrhotite and pentlandite within hornblendite (71-EI-622). (E). Massive pyrrhotite containing chalcopy-
rite veins and a rounded silicate inclusion (photo by R.H. Pinsent) (RHP01-076). (F). Hornblendite with chalcopyrite veins
(71-EI-624). (G). Folded layers of disseminated pyrrhotite, pentlandite, and olivine-rich peridotite at the contact with dunite
(179-E-709; Aho, 1954). (H). Strongly net-textured pyrrhotite and pentlandite in peridotite (11AV-204). Mineral abbrevia-
tions: cp = chalcopyrite, hbl = hornblende, ol = olivine, pn = pentlandite, po = pyrrhotite, pyx = pyroxene.
 GIANT MASCOT Ni-Cu-PGE DEPOSIT, BC, CANADA 69
the orebodies (Fig. 7G). Brecciated textures, in which olivine
and pyroxene cumulates form inclusions in sulfide, are rela-
tively rare (Fig. 7H).
The predominant base metal sulfide minerals, present in all
ores of the Giant Mascot deposit, are pyrrhotite, pentlandite,
chalcopyrite, and minor pyrite (Table 4). Of the Fe-Ni sulfides,
pyrrhotite is the most abundant (Figs. 7, 8, A3), present as
both magnetic, monoclinic (Fe7S8), and nonmagnetic, hexag-
onal (e.g., Fe11S12) varieties (e.g., Becker et al., 2010). Pyrrho-
tite compositions (n = 61) range from Fe52.7S38.0 to Fe62.3S38.6
(avg = Fe60.2Ni0.71S39.0) and contain up to 1.10 wt % Ni (Tables
4, A3; Fig. A4). Coexisting troilite (n = 11) compositions are
nearly stoichiometric (Fe1.02S) with a restricted range of Fe
contents characteristically higher than in pyrrhotite (62.9–
64.5 wt %; Fig. A4). Pentlandite has an average composition
of (Ni4.7Fe4.4Co0.1)Σ9.2S8 (n = 64) with up to 3.52 wt % Co and
0.08 wt % Ag, whereas argentopentlandite is invariably found
in chalcopyrite and contains 11.8 to 12.3 wt  % Ag with an
average composition of Ag12.1(Ni18.9Fe37.4Co0.01)S31.6 (n = 3;
Figs. 8G, A4). Violarite (Fig. 8K), polydymite, and symplectic
intergrowths of pyrrhotite-orthopyroxene, chalcopyrite-chlo-
rite + actinolite, and pyrite-chalcopyrite (Fig. A3) are inter-
preted as low-temperature or late metamorphic products of
pentlandite.
Compositions of pyrrhotite and pentlandite reflect the
metal characteristics of their respective orebodies (Fig. A4).
The Pride of Emory orebody contains the most Ni-rich pyr-
rhotite and pentlandite. Massive pyrrhotite contains between
0.55 to 1.2 wt % Ni and 52.7 to 60.3 wt % Fe, with rare
examples of Ni-rich pyrrhotite as an inclusion in chromite
(2.4 wt % Ni) or exhibiting blocky texture (8.1 wt % Ni; Table
A3; Fig. A4). Coexisting pentlandite has the highest Ni and
lowest Fe contents (35–37 wt % Ni and 28.7–31.6 wt % Fe).
The 1600 and 4600 orebodies host pyrrhotite that contains
lower Ni (0.4–0.8 wt %) and higher Fe (60.2–61.5 wt %) con-
tents with relatively lower Ni and higher Fe abundances in
pentlandite (34.9–36.1 wt % Ni and 31.3–32.6 wt % Fe; Fig.
A4) compared to Pride of Emory. Pyrrhotite from the Cli-
max and Chinaman orebodies and associated 3050 Crosscut
records the largest range in Fe contents (58.5–61.1 wt %)
and lowest Ni (0.1–0.9 wt %), and coexisting pentlandite has
the most variable Ni contents (33.8–38.6 wt %). The Climax
orebody also hosts the most Ni-rich pentlandite in a pent-
landite-pyrite symplectite (40.1 wt % Ni) and in an inclusion
in chromite (36.5 wt % Ni, 17.5 wt % Fe; Fig. A4). Troilite
is dominant (troilite:pyrrhotite = >1:1) in samples 12MMA-
5-8-5A and RHP01-109 and coexists with the most Ni-poor,
Fe-rich pentlandite in Giant Mascot ores (30.1–31.6 wt % Ni
and 34.8–37.7 wt % Fe; Fig. A4).
Chalcopyrite compositions do not vary with texture (i.e., mas-
sive vs. veins), are stoichiometric, and average Cu1.02Fe1.03S2
(n = 31; Figs. 8, A3). Pyrite shows minimal variation in Fe
content (avg = [Fe0.97Co0.03]S2; n = 36; Fig. A4); however, mas-
sive pyrite (Figs. 8A, L, 9B) has distinctly lower Ni contents
(0–0.1  wt %) compared to secondary vein pyrite (0.12–0.54
wt %; Figs. 8D, F, L, 9H), with an anomalous pyrite-pentland-
ite symplectite yielding the highest Ni contents (3.92 wt %).
Secondary pyrite veins also contain 0.7 to 3.08 wt % Co, which
chemically distinguish them from secondary marcasite flames
and veins (0.02–0.65 wt %; Table A3).
Sulfarsenide minerals, such as gersdorffite (NiAsS), cobalt-
ite (CoAsS), and nickeline (NiAs) are typically associated with
platinum group minerals (PGM) or semimetal minerals (Fig.
9F, J). Most of the PGM identified are tellurides or bismuth-
otellurides, predominantly merenskyite (PdTe2), moncheite
(PtTe2), and melonite (NiTe2) (Table 4; Fig. 10A, B), although
by total surface area, one grain of sperrylite (PtAs2) makes
up 44% of the PGM identified (Tables A1, A6). The PGM
are mostly associated with pentlandite (Figs. 9B, C, F, 10C)
and other base metal sulfides. Generally, PGM may be fully
enclosed in sulfide, at sulfide-sulfide or sulfide-silicate inter-
faces, in sulfide veins in other sulfides, or less commonly in
silicates and as satellite grains in fractured silicates. Meren-
skyite and moncheite are the most common PGM in the Giant
Mascot deposit. Merenskyite occurs as three compositional
varieties: Pt-rich, Ni-rich, and near-stoichiometric meren-
skyite (Figs. 9A, B, 10A). Moncheite is present as either stoi-
chiometric or Pd-rich compositions (Figs. 9D, E, 10A); the
Pd-rich variety has an average composition of [(Pt0.35Pd0.31)
(Te1.87Bi0.14)] (n = 3). Palladian melonite is less abundant, but
common, and has an average composition of [(Ni0.84Pd0.23)
(Te1.87Bi0.13)] (n = 11; Fig. 9C, F). As-bearing PGM (i.e.,
sperrylite and hollingworthite) are rare and associated with
chalcopyrite (Fig. 9H, L). Semimetal minerals are typically
tellurides that consist of different metals than PGM, such as
Ag (e.g., hessite) and Pb (e.g., altaite) (Table 4; Fig. 9E, G, J).
Sulfide and platinum group element geochemistry
A total of 44 mineralized whole-rock samples from 11 Giant
Mascot orebodies were analyzed for S and Ni-Cu-Co con-
tents, platinum group element (PGE: Ir, Ru, Rh, Pd, Pt) and
Au concentrations (Table 3). Whole-rock S contents range
from 0.97 to 33 wt % and are directly proportional to the
modal abundance of sulfide with relatively little association
with rock type (Fig. 11). Analyses of mineralized olivine-rich
rocks (e.g., dunite, peridotite) show elevated Ni, Cu, Pd, and
Pt concentrations (avg: 1.8 wt % Ni, 0.7 wt % Cu, 239 ppm
Pd, 124 ppm Pt). They are also characterized by Ni contents
above that of stoichiometric pentlandite (Fig. 11A), reflecting
another mineralogical host for nickel (e.g., olivine).
Variations in chalcophile element contents are a function
of mineralization type as the net-textured ores are lowest in
Ni, Cu, and PGE, and the semimassive, massive, and dissemi-
nated ores are richest in these elements (Fig. 12). Dissemi-
nated sulfides have relatively low S (0.97–12.8 wt %), high
Ni and PGE, and low Cu (avg Ni/Cu = 3.6, Cu/Pd = 2.3 ×
104, Ni/Pd = 9.6 × 104; Figs. 12, A5). In net-textured sulfides,
there is a wider range of S contents (2.3–32 wt %), relatively
higher Ni, elevated Cu (Ni/Cu = 2.9), and lower PGE (Cu/
Pd = 1.5 × 105, Ni/Pd = 2.8 × 105). The semimassive sul-
fides have a more restricted range of S contents (13–19 wt %),
Ni/Cu = 1.9, and moderate PGE values (Cu/Pd = 3.5 × 104,
Ni/Pd = 1.2 × 105). The massive sulfides have the highest S,
but only average Ni contents (22–30 wt % and <2.5 wt %,
respectively). Average Ni/Cu, Cu/Pd, and Ni/Pd are similar
to those from semimassive sulfides (2.3, 4.8 × 104, and 2.1 ×
105, respectively; Figs. 12, A5).
Platinum group elements in the ores are characterized by
variable concentrations of iridium-group PGE (IPGE: Ir,
Ru) and palladium-group PGE (PPGE: Rh, Pd, Pt) and Au
70 MANOR ET AL.

Table 4. Mineralogy of Base Metal Sulfides, Platinum Group Minerals, and Semimetal-Rich Minerals,
Giant Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE Deposit, Hope, B.C.1

Mineral2 Formula Description3 Photographic evidence

Major ore minerals

Pyrrhotite Fe1-xS Most abundant sulfide, po/pn = 2:1; massive or veins in fractures Figs. 7, 8A-F, J-L, 9A, B, D, E,
  in silicates   H, K, and A3 (A, D, E, G, H)
Pentlandite (Fe,Ni)9S8 Dominant Ni ore mineral; massive and blocky or exsolution Figs. 7, 8A-D, G, H, 9A-C, E-H,
  lamellae in po, tro, Ag-pn   K, L, and A3 (A, B, D, F, G)
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 Massive; may fill late fractures in silicates and pyrrhotite Figs. 7, 8A, B, D-G, I-L, 9A, B,
  E, G-J, L, and A3 (C-H)

Minor and trace ore minerals

Fe-, Ni-bearing
Pyrite FeS2 Intergrown with po, pn, and cp; symplectic intergrowths with Figs. 8A, L, 9B, H, and A3F
  pn and cp
Ni pyrite (Fe,Ni)S2 Veins in po and pn Fig. 8D, F, L
Bravoite (Fe,Co,Ni)S2 Rare; in fracture in po
Marcasite FeS2 Flames in po or late veins in cp and po Fig. 8E
Troilite FeS Exsolution lamellae in po and locally massive Figs. 9C, F, and A3C
Magnetite Fe3O4 Euhedral inclusions in po or veins cutting po and cp; commonly Fig. 8F and A3 (C, E, F, H)
  associated with symplectic textures at grain boundaries
Argentopentlandite Ag(Fe,Ni)8S8 Exsolution lamellae and euhedral inclusions in cp Figs. 8G and 9I
Mackinawite (Fe,Ni)1+xS Exsolution lamellae in pn and rare cp Figs. 8H and 9I
Violarite FeNi2S4 Alteration of pn at rim or crystallographic interfaces Fig. 8K
Polydymite Ni2+Ni3+2S4 Rare; alteration of pn associated with cp

Cu sulfides
Cubanite Cu3FeS4 Exsolution lamellae in cp and associated with troilite-rich assemblages Figs. 8I, 9I, and A3C
Geffroyite (Ag,Cu,Fe)9(Se,S)8 Rare; inclusion in cp

Ni arsenides
Gersdorffite-cobaltite (Ni,Co)AsS Rare; euhedral intergrown with Pd-melonite, in pn Fig. 9F
Nickeline NiAs Rare; inclusion in intergrown po-tro or at tip of cp grain Fig. 9J

Pb, Zn sulfides
Galena PbS In fractures in silicates or rare inclusions in po, tro, and cp
Sphalerite (Zn,Cd)S Rare; in cp Figs. 8J and A3C

Bi-, Te-bearing
Hedleyite Bi2+xTe1-x Rare; in silicate
Tellurobismuthite Bi2Te3 Rare; inclusion in po-pn, or at contact
Native tellurium Te Rare; inclusions in po or pn and at sulfide-silicate interfaces
Native bismuth Bi Rare; inclusions in po or pn and at sulfide-silicate interfaces Fig. 9K

Ni-Bi sulfides
Parkerite Ni3Bi2S2 Rare; at cp silicate interfaces Fig. 9I

Platinum group minerals

Merenskyite (Pd,Ni,Pt)(Te,Bi)2 Most common PGM (3–23 μm); associated with po, pn, cp, py, Fig. 9A, B, L
  and tro; inclusions in sulfides or occur at sulfide-sulfide or
  sulfide-silicate interfaces
Moncheite (Pt,Pd)(Te,Bi)2 Very common PGM (2–56 μm); inclusions in po, pn, cp, or silicate, Fig. 9D, E, G
  or occur at sulfide-sulfide, sulfide-silicate interfaces, or in stringers
  (<160 μm) with cp and Ag-pn
Palladian melonite (Pd,Ni)(Te,Bi)2 Common; inclusions in po, pn, and tro (<30 μm) Fig. 9C, F
Froodite PdBi2 Rare; satellite grain in silicate contacting cp
Sperrylite PtAs2 Rare; inclusions (<50 μm) in cp or at cp-po silicate interface Fig. 9H
Hollingworthite RhAsS Rare; composite grain with Ni merenskyite in cp-pn vein Fig. 9L

Other tellurides
Hessite Ag2Te Common (3–8 μm); satellite grains in fractures in silicates, inclusions Fig. 9C, E, G
  in cub, cp, pn, and silicate, at sulfide-sulfide or sulfide-silicate
  interfaces, or intergrown with moncheite
Altaite PbTe Rare; associated with cp Fig. 9J

1 Mineral chemistry can be found in Table A3

2 Boldminerals indicate most abundant mineral in respective group
3 Mineral abbreviations: Ag-pn = argentopentlandite, cp = chalcopyrite, cub = cubanite, pn = pentlandite, po = pyrrhotite, py = pyrite, tro = troilite
 GIANT MASCOT Ni-Cu-PGE DEPOSIT, BC, CANADA 71

A B C
pn
po po po

py-cp pn
py

cp tro pn
pn
0.1 mm 25 μm 0.1 mm
cp
D po E F
po
sil
pn
py cp mag py

pn cp
mrc
po
cp

0.1 mm 0.1 mm sil 0.1 mm sil

G H I
cp Ag-pn
cub
pn
pn

mk cp

10 μm 25 μm 0.1 mm

J K L pn
po
cp
pn amph cp
cp opx
opx cpx opx
sp
po
vl pn pn
po py
cpx
po
0.25 mm opx 0.5 mm 0.1 mm

Fig. 8. Photomicrographs and backscatter electron (BSE) images of sulfide textures in the Giant Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE deposit.
(A). Blocky pentlandite, massive chalcopyrite, and pyrite, and symplectic chalcopyrite-pyrite hosted by massive pyrrhotite
(71-EI-636). (B). Troilite exsolution lamellae, pentlandite flames, and minor chalcopyrite in massive pyrrhotite (12MMA-
5-8-5A). (C). Two forms of pentlandite, blocky grains, and exsolution lamellae, hosted by massive pyrrhotite (71-EI-615C).
(D). Blocky pentlandite, pyrite-pentlandite intergrowths and chalcopyrite in pyrrhotite, with a pyrite vein cutting the inter-
growths and pyrrhotite (71-EI-634). (E). Net-textured pyrrhotite containing chalcopyrite veins and marcasite flames (71-
EI-636). (F). Pyrrhotite and chalcopyrite containing veins of pyrite and magnetite (M29-21). (G). Argentopentlandite with
pentlandite exsolution lamellae hosted by chalcopyrite (BSE) (71-EI-624A). (H). Massive pentlandite containing macki-
nawite [(Fe,Ni)1+xS] exsolution lamellae (12MMA-5-8-5A). (I). Massive chalcopyrite containing cubanite exsolution lamellae
(RHP01-078). (J). Net-textured pyrrhotite, pentlandite, and chalcopyrite, with intergrown spinel and chalcopyrite-bearing
fractures interstitial to orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene (12MMA-5-8-1). (K). Pyrrhotite and pentlandite (altered to viola-
rite) interstitial to orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, and amphibole; fractures in orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene are filled with
chalcopyrite with evidence of localized microfaults (RHP01-109). (L). Blocky pentlandite, veins of pyrite intergrown with
chalcopyrite, and pentlandite exsolution lamellae at chalcopyrite grain boundaries, hosted in massive and strongly anisotropic
pyrrhotite (RHP01-152). Mineral abbreviations: Ag-pn = argentopentlandite, amph = amphibole, cp = chalcopyrite, cpx =
clinopyroxene, cub = cubanite, mag = magnetite, mk = mackinawite, mrc = marcasite, opx = orthopyroxene, pn = pentlandite,
po = pyrrhotite, py = pyrite, sil = silicate, tro = troilite, vl = violarite.
72 MANOR ET AL.

A B BSE C 25 μm
hs
po cp tro
pn sil
mer
mel
cp
sil py
mer
sil
pn
25 μm 1 μm po
pn

D BSE E po BSE F
mon hs
sil
opx
pn
cp mel sil

gf
ol
hs pn
tro
po Ag-pn mon
10 μm 10 μm
mag 25 μm
G BSE H
I
po cp sil

opx cp
pk
Pd-mon hs Ag-pn
cp
spy
py
pn cub
sil pn
pn opx mk
hs
10 μm cp 0.1 mm 50 μm

J BSE K BSE L Pd-Bi-Te BSE

cp
cp sil po

alt pn
hol
pn
mer
sil sil
Bi
nc pn
5 μm 10 μm 5 μm

Fig. 9. Photomicrographs and backscatter electron (BSE) images of platinum group and precious metal minerals in Giant
Mascot ores. (A). Bright white anhedral merenskyite hosted by pentlandite at the grain boundary of chalcopyrite, both within
pyrrhotite (71-EI-615A). (B). Merenskyite hosted in pyrite and chalcopyrite, and associated with pyrrhotite and pentlandite
(BSE) (179-E-847). (C). Bright white, anhedral palladian melonite tipped by hessite and enclosed in troilite proximal to pent-
landite flames (12MMA-5-8-5A). (D). Moncheite hosted by a compound vein of chalcopyrite and argentopentlandite within
fractured olivine (BSE) (RHP01-078). (E). Moncheite enclosed by silicates, a smaller elongate moncheite at the boundary of
pentlandite and silicate, and small satellite grains of hessite enclosed in silicates and along silicate-sulfide boundaries (BSE)
(RHP01-152). (F). Bright white, anhedral palladian melonite intergrown with euhedral gersdorffite, hosted by pentlandite
containing magnetite veins, and surrounded by troilite (12MMA-5-8-5A). (G). Palladian moncheite in a pentlandite vein, and
hessite in chalcopyrite veins in orthopyroxene (RHP01-078). (H). Bright white sperrylite at the boundary of chalcopyrite and
pyrrhotite, blocky pentlandite, and pentlandite flames proximal to pyrite (71-EI-657). (I). Cream-colored parkerite enclosed
in chalcopyrite containing argentopentlandite, mackinawite, and cubanite flames (RHP01-109). (J). Altaite in contact with
chalcopyrite, nickeline, and silicates (BSE) (RHP01-109). (K). Euhedral bismuth grain in contact with pyrrhotite, which con-
tains pentlandite flames and silicates (179-E-847). (L). Intergrown merenskyite, hollingworthite, and other Pd-Bi tellurides in
a composite vein of chalcopyrite and pentlandite in silicate (71-EI-615A). Mineral abbreviations as in Figure 8, except: alt =
altaite, ger = gersdorffite, hol = hollingworthite, hs = hessite, mel = palladian melonite, mer = merenskyite, mon = moncheite,
nc = nickeline, ol = olivine, opx = orthopyroxene, Pd-mon = palladian moncheite, pk = parkerite, spy = sperrylite. Refer to
Table 4 for additional textural descriptions.
 GIANT MASCOT Ni-Cu-PGE DEPOSIT, BC, CANADA 73

Pd
A B Ni+Pd+Pt

merenskyite
[Pd(Te,Bi)2]
kotulskite [Pd(Te,Bi)] sobolevskite [PdBi]

merenskyite [Pd(Te,Bi)2]
moncheite [Pt(Te,Bi)2] froodite [PdBi2]
melonite michenerite [PdBiTe]
melonite [NiTe2]
[NiTe2] moncheite
[Pt(Te,Bi)2]

Ni Pt Te Bi
Ni-merenskyite, EDS Pt-merenskyite, EDS chalcopyrite, EDS pentlandite, EDS
Ni-merenskyite, EMPA Pt-merenskyite, EMPA chalcopyrite, EMPA pentlandite, EMPA
merenskyite, EDS moncheite, EDS pyrrhotite, EDS Ag-pentlandite, EDS
merenskyite, EMPA Pd-moncheite, EMPA pyrrhotite, EMPA troilite, EMPA
Pd-melonite, EMPA pyrite, EMPA silicates, EDS

C
35 PGM Host Minerals
30 n=79
25
number

20
15
10
5
0
py

si
py
Ag

pe
ch

tro
lic
rrh

rit
al

nt
-p

ilit
at
e
co

la
en

ot

e
es
nd
py

ite
tla

ite
rit
nd

e
ite

Fig. 10. Compositions of platinum-, palladium-, and nickel-bearing tellurides and their host minerals at Giant Mascot. (A).
Ternary plot showing the distribution of telluride and bismuthotelluride minerals for the Pt-moncheite, Pd-merenskyite, and
Ni-melonite end members, where the binary joins indicate solid-solution series between minerals. (B). Ni + Pd + Pt-Te-Bi
ternary plot for platinum group minerals in Giant Mascot ores. The most common PGM are tellurides containing Pd and Pt
along with minor Bi and Ni. The red-outlined circles indicate end-member mineral compositions for reference. Each point
in the legend corresponds to either an EDS analysis (squares) or EMPA analysis (triangles). (C). Histogram showing that the
most common host minerals for PGM are pentlandite, pyrrhotite, and chalcopyrite. Analyses plotted in panels (A) and (B) are
based on both EDS and EMPA results normalized to 100%.

(Fig. 12). Net-textured sulfides have significantly lower IPGE
contents relative to disseminated sulfides, with the excep-
tion of sample RHP01-152 (Figs. 12, 13, A5). Two compo-
sitional groups are identified that are geographically distinct:
(1) IPGE-poor orebodies in the western mineralized zone
(WMZ; Fig. 4; e.g., Pride of Emory and Brunswick cluster),
and (2) IPGE-rich orebodies in the central and eastern ore-
bodies of the eastern mineralized zone (EMZ; Fig. 4; e.g.,
1600, 1900, 4600, Chinaman, Climax, and 3050 Adit; Figs. 12,
13A, A5). The IPGE-poor western mineralized zone is domi-
nated by net-textured sulfides that have the highest average
Ni and Cu (Ni/Cu = 3.4; Cu/Pd = 1.4 × 105; Ni/Pd = 3.2 ×
105) and the lowest abundances of IPGE (Pd/Ir = 3.1–96) and
PPGE (Pd/Pt = 1.3–70). Conversely, relatively elevated IPGE
(Pd/Ir = 2.8–35) and PPGE (Pd/Pt = 0.49–9.7) and lower Ni
and Cu (Ni/Cu = 1.8–2.9; Cu/Pd = 2.6–3.6 × 104; Ni/Pd = 8.9
× 104) characterize the IPGE-rich eastern mineralized zone
(Fig. 12). Primitive mantle-normalized patterns show a large
variation in PGE abundances, including pronounced positive
Rh and Pd anomalies and negative Pt anomalies (Figs. 13,
A6). The IPGE-poor group shows the lowest Ir and Ru abun-
dances. Samples from the Dolly Adit and 3050 East Portal
dumps have widely varying PGE contents, similar to samples
from the Pride of Emory (Fig. A6).
Sulfur isotope geochemistry
The sulfur isotope compositions (δ34S) of mineral separates
from the Giant Mascot ores (n = 44) range from –1.3 to –3.4‰
VCDT (Fig. 14), which is notably lighter than values for vol-
canic and plutonic rocks related to subduction zones globally
74 MANOR ET AL.

5
A dunite B 2000
C
8 pyroxenite
peridotite 4
hbl pyroxenite
6 hornblendite 1500
3

Pd (ppb)
Cu (wt%)
Ni (wt%)

4 1000
2
te
tlandi
pen
2 ich. 1 500
sto

5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 25 30
S (wt%) S (wt%) S (wt%)
5 104
1500 D E F
4
103

1000
Cu (wt%)

Pd (ppb)
Pt (ppb)

102
2
500
10
1

1
1:
5 10 15 20 25 30 2 4 6 8 1 10 102 103
S (wt%) Ni (wt%) Pt (ppb)
Fig. 11. Base metal contents and platinum group element concentrations in sulfide-rich whole-rock samples from the Giant
Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE deposit. Symbols and colors correspond to rock type. (A). Ni vs. S; dashed line is the Ni content of stoi-
chiometric pentlandite. (B). Cu vs. S. (C). Pd vs. S. (D). Pt vs. S. (E). Cu vs. Ni. (F). Pd vs. Pt (note logarithmic axes). hbl =
hornblende.

(in the range of +1 to +6‰; Ueda and Sakai, 1984; Ishihara
and Sasaki, 1989; Alt et al., 1993; de Hoog et al., 2001; Luhr
and Logan, 2002; Table 2; Fig. 14). One pyrite separate from
the Spuzzum quartz diorite has a relatively high δ34S = 1.9‰
VCDT. For the locally pyritiferous Settler schist, whole-rock
analyses reveal a slightly larger range of δ34S (–5.4 to –1.2‰
VCDT; n = 4) compared to the ultramafic rocks (Fig. 14).
Olivine compositions
The forsterite (Fo) contents in olivine from 220 analyses of
barren and mineralized rocks of the Giant Mascot ultramafic
intrusion range from Fo80.6–89.11 (Fig. 15). A dunite with dis-
seminated sulfides (12MMA-7-8-1) has the most restricted
range of forsterite contents (Fo83.7–84.8) (Table A2; Fig. 15).
Mineralized and barren peridotite yield similar olivine com-
positions of Fo83.0–89.1 and Fo82.5–88.1, respectively. Pyroxenites
with sulfide mineralization have the largest range of olivine
compositions (Fo80.6–88.2), whereas barren pyroxenites are
restricted to Fo82.1–83.8. Cores and rims of olivine can vary in
Fo content by as much as ~2.5 mol %, and in mineralized sam-
ples the rims are typically more Mg rich than cores. Barren
rocks show more homogeneous compositions with relatively
smaller compositional variation (Fo87.4–88.1 and Fo82.1–85.0) and
more Fe rich rims (Table A2).
The nickel concentrations in olivine in the Giant Mascot
rocks are highly variable from 336 to 3,859 ppm. Anoma-
lously high nickel contents (>2,000 ppm) occur in olivine with
forsterite contents ranging from Fo80.6 to Fo87.4 (Fig. 15). In
dunite, Ni in olivine ranges from 731 to 1,464 ppm. Miner-
alized peridotite and pyroxenite have the highest and most
variable Ni concentrations (336–3,859 and 336–3,439 ppm,
respectively) compared to lower values in barren peridotite
(576–1,797 ppm) and pyroxenite (666–1018 ppm; Fig. 15).
Discussion
Magmatic systems that host most of the world’s largest Ni-Cu-
PGE and PGE deposits are generated from parent magmas
that are characterized by high liquidus temperatures with rel-
atively low water contents (e.g., Lesher, 1989; Naldrett, 1989,
2004; Scoates and Mitchell, 2000; Li et al., 2003; Barnes et
al., 2010; Lightfoot et al., 2011; Ripley and Li, 2013). These
MgO-rich magmas form by high degrees of partial melting
in the mantle (>15–25%), in response to extension related to
rifting or the impingement of mantle plumes, with the result
that olivine and sulfide release Ni, Cu, and PGE into coex-
isting silicate melt (Barnes et al., 1985; Hamlyn et al., 1985;
Keays, 1995; Barnes and Lightfoot, 2005). In arc settings,
hydrous Mg-rich (10–18 wt % MgO) magmas containing up
 GIANT MASCOT Ni-Cu-PGE DEPOSIT, BC, CANADA 75

103 103 104

A B C

102 102 103

n=16

Rh (ppb)
Ru (ppb)

Pd (ppb)
10 10 102
East
n=16 Central
West
disseminated
1 1 10
net-textured
semi-massive n=16
massive
vein
0.1 0.1 1
0.1 1 10 102 103 0.1 1 10 102 103 0.01 0.1 1 10 102 103 104
Ir (ppb) Ir (ppb) Ir (ppb)
104 1000 1000
D E dump sample F
103
100
10 2
100
Pt (ppb)

Pd/Pt
Pd/Ir

10 10

1 10
n=16 1
0.1

0.01 1 0.1
0.01 0.1 1 10 102 103 104 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Ir (ppb) S (wt%) S (wt%)
Fig. 12. Platinum group element concentrations in sulfide-rich whole-rock samples from the Giant Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE
deposit. Symbol shapes correspond to locations (west, central, east, or dump) along Zofka Ridge (see Fig. 4). Symbol colors
represent mineralization textures. Light gray shaded region encompasses dump samples. Anomalous sample RHP01-152
is displayed with a gray “×”. (A). Ru vs. Ir. (B). Rh vs. Ir. (C). Pd vs. Ir. (D). Pt vs. Ir. (E). Pd/Ir vs. S. (F). Pt/Pt vs. S. Note
logarithmic axes in all diagrams.

to 7 wt % H2O have been attributed to 5 to 20% partial melt-
ing of the mantle wedge (Ulmer, 2001). Mungall et al. (2006)
demonstrated that relatively low degrees of partial melting
(<10%) can liberate all sulfide and associated PGE from the
upper mantle residue at the moderate to high oxygen fugaci-
ties (fO2) characteristic of the mantle wedge above subduct-
ing slabs (Ballhaus et al., 1991; Brandon and Draper, 1996;
Parkinson and Arculus, 1999; Kerrick and Connolly, 2001;
Rohrbach et al., 2005). Critical controls on ore-forming pro-
cesses are exerted by the redox state of the magma required
for forming sulfide (S2–) rather than sulfate (S6+) species in the
melt (e.g., Carroll and Rutherford, 1985; Luhr, 1990; Jugo et
al., 2005; Jugo, 2009). Ascent of oxidized basaltic to high-MgO
magmas into the crust may lead to favorable conditions for
reduction where sulfide saturation occurs (e.g., Jugo, 2009;
Tomkins et al., 2012), then followed by segregation of immis-
cible sulfide droplets that scavenge metals from the host sili-
cate melt (Campbell and Naldrett, 1979; Naldrett, 2011). In
this context, we examine the paragenetic history of the Giant
Mascot ultramafic suite and Ni-Cu-PGE deposit and mecha-
nisms responsible for metal enrichment and sulfide saturation
in a reduced magmatic arc conduit system.
Paragenesis of the Giant Mascot ultramafic suite and
associated Ni-Cu-PGE mineralization
A paragenetic sequence for coexisting silicates and sulfides
in the Giant Mascot ultramafic suite and Ni-Cu-PGE deposit
is presented in Figure 16. The four different silicate-domi-
nant mineral assemblages in the cumulates involving olivine,
orthopyroxene, clinopyroxene, hornblende, or spinel reflect
variations in temperature and in both oxygen and water fugac-
ities during crystallization. Sulfide compositions and textures
provide a detailed record of cooling and crystallization of the
magmatic sulfide melt that formed following sulfide satu-
ration (Figs. 8, 16) and are generally similar to many other
Ni-Cu-PGE deposits globally (Naldrett, 2004, 2011). Sulfide
blebs occur within and between olivine and orthopyroxene
crystals, with few observed inclusions of sulfide in chromite,
confirming the presence of a sulfide melt early in the crystal-
lization history of the Giant Mascot parent magma(s) (Figs. 8,
9, 15, A3). Giant Mascot ores contain abundant pentlandite
exsolution flames in pyrrhotite, which has variable Ni contents
(0.6–6.1 at %, mean = 0.5 at %; Fig. A4), and are consistent
with a Ni-rich monosulfide solid solution (mss) that crystal-
lized pentlandite at a range of temperatures down to 250°C
76 MANOR ET AL.

10000 10000
A B
1000 IPGE-rich 1000
(Central+East)
100% sulfide/Primitive Mantle

100 100

10 10

1 IPGE-poor 1
(West)

0.1 0.1

Disseminated ores
0.01 0.01
Ni Ir Ru Rh Pt Pd Au Cu Ni Ir Ru Rh Pt Pd Au Cu

10000 10000
C D
Cu-vein
1000 1000
100% sulfide/Primitive Mantle

100 100

10 10

1 1

0.1 0.1

Net-textured ores Massive + Semimassive ores

0.01 0.01
Ni Ir Ru Rh Pt Pd Au Cu Ni Ir Ru Rh Pt Pd Au Cu
Fig. 13. Primitive mantle-normalized diagrams displaying abundances of Ni, Cu, and PGE in 100% sulfide for mineralization
zones and sulfide textures in the Giant Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE deposit. (A). IPGE-poor western orebodies (green-shaded region)
and IPGE-rich central (blue lines) and eastern orebodies (orange lines). (B). Disseminated ores. (C). Net-textured ores. (D).
Massive (red lines) and semimassive (pink lines) ores, and a Cu-rich vein. Abundances in 100% sulfide are calculated by the
method of Naldrett et al. (2000a) and are normalized to primitive mantle values from Lyubetskaya and Korenaga (2007).

(e.g., Craig and Vaughan, 1981; Durazzo and Taylor, 1982;
Etschmann et al., 2004; Fig. 16).
Pyrrhotite flames in troilite contain the highest metal/sul-
fur ratios for pyrrhotite in Giant Mascot ores and are associ-
ated with the most Ni poor, Fe rich pentlandites (Fig. A4).
Naldrett et al. (2000b) observed similar compositional trends
for troilite and pentlandite in the Voisey’s Bay Ni-Cu-PGE
deposit, Labrador, and they attributed the presence of troilite
and high metal/sulfur to reactions with the variably graphitic
Tasiuyak gneiss. Orebodies in the Giant Mascot deposit have
distinctive pentlandite compositions (e.g., pentlandite in the
Pride of Emory is the most Ni rich; Fig. A4). The distinct Ni
and Co contents in pyrite veins (pyrite 3; Fig. 16) suggest that
these elements were stripped from coexisting pentlandite
during subsolidus fluid circulation, interpreted as either late-
magmatic or metamorphic fluids (e.g., Aguablanca, Piña et al.,
2013).
Minor desulfurization of base metal sulfides in Giant Mas-
cot ores occurred during late-magmatic or metamorphic
processes as a result of sulfur mobilization by volatile-rich
 GIANT MASCOT Ni-Cu-PGE DEPOSIT, BC, CANADA 77

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
5
n=43

MORB mantle

Subduction zone mantle

dunite
peridotite 2σ 4

hbl peridotite

Ni (wt.%)
3

ol pyroxenite
2
Rock Type

pyroxenite
orthopyroxenite 1

hbl pyroxenite 0
-4 -3 -2 -1
hbl orthopyroxenite δ34S (‰)

hornblendite
gabbronorite
(pyrite)
quartz diorite
Settler schist
(WR)
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

δ34S (‰)
Fig. 14. Sulfur isotope compositions of sulfides from sulfide-rich rocks in the Giant Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE deposit. A single
sample from Spuzzum quartz diorite contained pyrite separated by standard mineral separation techniques (Manor, 2014).
Settler schist samples are whole-rock analyses. Note the limited range of isotopic compositions for ultramafic rocks and the
overlapping values for country rocks. The orange field represents a range of δ34S compositions from volcanic arcs, including
the Marianas arc (1.4–5.5‰; Alt et al., 1993); Indonesian arc (4.7 ± 1.4‰, 1σ; de Hoog et al., 2001); Mexican arc (2.7–6.4;
Luhr and Logan, 2002); Japanese arc (4.4 ± 2.1‰, 1σ; Ueda and Sakai, 1984); and Sierra Nevada batholith (1.6–4.0‰; Ishi-
hara and Sasaki, 1989), taken to represent the range of δ34S values of the mantle wedge. The gray field represents a range of
δ34S compositions from MORB glasses as –0.91 ± 0.5‰, taken to represent MORB mantle values (Labidi et al., 2012). Inset
shows δ34S compositions vs. wt % Ni. Abbreviations: hbl = hornblende, ol = olivine.

complexes to form H2S or SO2 (e.g., Fleet and Wu, 1993,
1995; Baker et al., 2001; Peregoedova et al., 2004). Textural
evidence includes pyrite-pentlandite, pyrite-chalcopyrite, and
sulfide-silicate (e.g., orthopyroxene, olivine, chlorite, actino-
lite, hornblende) symplectites that have undergone “unmix-
ing” from interaction with fluids (Figs. 8A, A3), similar to
textures observed in the Santa Rita ore zone of the Mirabela
intrusion, Brazil (Knight et al., 2011). The presence of strained
and fractured sulfide and silicate minerals in Giant Mascot
ores is indicative of subsolidus compaction during formation
of the ores and host cumulates (Figs. 8J, K, 9D); they may also
reflect weak postmagmatic deformation. Late-stage magmatic
remobilization involving Cu-rich intermediate solid solution
(iss) and residual semimetal-rich melts resulted in the forma-
tion of chalcopyrite veins (e.g., Ebel and Naldrett, 1997).
Formation of platinum group minerals (PGM) in
the Giant Mascot ores
Platinum group minerals at Giant Mascot are associated with
sulfides and thus interpreted to represent PGE sequestra-
tion by the original sulfide liquid and subsequent crystalliza-
tion of PGM from a semimetal-rich melt (Table 4; Fig. 9).
Bismuthotelluride minerals observed in the Giant Mascot
ores exhibit a bimodal distribution between the PtTe2-PdTe2
and NiTe2-PdTe2 solid solution joins (Fig. 10A), forming a
moncheite-merenskyite group and a merenskyite-melonite
group. Analyses from the first group lie along the PtTe2-PdTe2
join and most grains belong to the moncheite-merenskyite
series. Tellurium contents vary substantially, such that Pt-rich
merenskyite grains are in the moncheite field, and all solid
solutions are relatively Ni poor. The second group lies along
the NiTe2-PdTe2 join where merenskyite is more abundant
compared to the PtTe2-PdTe2 join and relatively Pt poor. The
range of compositions is greater, and includes both Ni-rich
merenskyite and palladian melonite. This bimodal distribu-
tion of Pt-Pd-Ni bismuthotellurides is also observed in sulfide
ores from the Wellgreen Ni-Cu-PGE deposit in the northern
Canadian Cordillera (Yukon; Barkov et al., 2002). At Well-
green, there are significant abundances of Sb- and As-rich
PGM attributed to hydrothermal alteration, whereas only rare
examples of high-temperature arsenide phases with Pt and
Rh are observed at the Giant Mascot deposit (i.e., sperrylite
and hollingworthite). Platinum group minerals in the Giant
Mascot intrusion share certain features with those in the con-
vergent margin Aguablanca Ni-Cu-PGE deposit in Spain,
notably the dominance of palladian melonite-merenskyite-
moncheite solid solutions and crystallization from a primary
sulfide liquid. However, the Aguablanca ores contain higher
abundances of Sb and Bi, allowing for the crystallization of the
michenerite (PdBiTe) and the Sb-rich end-member testibio-
palladite [Pd(Sb,Bi)Te] (Piña et al., 2008).
Semimetal minerals observed in the Giant Mascot sulfide
ores are rich in Ag, Pb, Zn, Ni, As, Bi, Te and S, but lack
PGE (Table 4). The presence of these elements associated
78 MANOR ET AL.

4500

3500
1600

9 wt% Ni
Ni in olivine (ppm)

2500

Mineralized
ol:opx = 1:1 6.5 wt% Ni dunite
peridotite
hbl peridotite
1500 pyroxenite
ol pyroxenite
ol orthopyroxenite
Barren
4600 dunite
TLS
peridotite
ol pyroxenite
500
fractional crystallization
ol:sul = 25:1 Pride of Emory (1% increments)

90 88 86 84 82 80
Fo content in olivine
Fig. 15. Plot of forsterite content (mol %) vs. nickel concentrations (ppm) in olivine for mineralized and barren dunite, peri-
dotite, and hornblende pyroxenite rocks in the Giant Mascot intrusion. Purple-, orange-, and yellow-shaded regions encom-
pass compositional fields for the specified orebodies (1600, 4600, Pride of Emory). Calculated fractional crystallization trends
are shown for olivine, olivine + orthopyroxene, and olivine + sulfide in the proportions indicated from an estimated parent
magma composition (white-filled star). Thick dashed lines show equipotential lines for Fe-Ni exchange between olivine and
sulfide with variable Ni content. Gray arrows show representative equilibration paths for olivine that interacted with sulfide
liquid. Trapped liquid shift (TLS) arrow shows the evolution of olivine compositions that reacted with interstitial melt dur-
ing crystallization. Abbreviations: hbl = hornblende, ol = olivine, opx = orthopyroxene, sul = sulfide. See text for additional
modeling details and discussion.

with chalcopyrite and located within fractures in primary sili-
cates (i.e., olivine and pyroxene) is consistent with late-stage
magmatic mobilization of a residual Cu- and semimetal-rich
melt (e.g., Helmy, 2005; Helmy et al., 2007, 2010). Residual
melts from which the semimetal minerals crystallized were
likely rich in base and precious metals relative to the origi-
nal sulfide melt that crystallized Pt-, Pd- and Ni-bearing
bismuthotellurides.
There are two paragenetic types of PGM that formed in
the Giant Mascot sulfide ores: (1) grains enclosed in sulfide
minerals, and (2) grains located at sulfide-silicate boundar-
ies. Two-dimensional analysis of sulfides suggests that PGE
were collected by sulfide liquid and PGM were either subse-
quently exsolved at relatively high temperatures along crys-
tallographic interfaces, at sulfide compositional boundaries,
or along fractures in sulfides (Figs. 9, 10B, C; e.g., Cabri and
Laflamme, 1976), or crystallized from an immiscible PGE- and
semimetal-rich melt (650°–250°C; e.g., Helmy et al., 2007;
Holwell and McDonald, 2010). However, recent advances in
three-dimensional analyses of ores using high-resolution X-ray
computed tomography provides strong evidence that PGM
are not included in sulfides, and thus not exsolved upon cool-
ing, but rather nucleated at sulfide interfaces and triple junc-
tions between sulfides and silicates (e.g., Godel et al., 2010).
The mineralogical and textural relationships between PGM
and sulfide in Giant Mascot ores suggests that PGE were ini-
tially collected by the sulfide liquid, which then fractionated
to a semimetal-rich melt forming ligands with Te and Bi, and
rarely As and S, around 900°C (e.g., Holwell and McDonald,
2010). This melt subsequently crystallized Pd-Pt-Ni bismuth-
otellurides and semimetal minerals that nucleated along grain
boundaries of sulfide and silicate. Locally abundant veins of
chalcopyrite and Pt-rich PGM are evidence for small-scale
remobilization of Cu-rich residual sulfide melts from fluids.
 GIANT MASCOT Ni-Cu-PGE DEPOSIT, BC, CANADA 79

AGE ca. 93 Ma ca. 90-89 Ma

STAGE Primary crystallization and Ni-Cu-PGE mineralization Post-ore alteration
MINERAL decreasing temperature and remobilization

chromite/Cr-spinel lherzolite, websterite (± olivine),

olivine clinopyroxene websterite,
orthopyroxene clinopyroxenite (rare)
1 clinopyroxene
hornblende

Variable fO & fH O
plagioclase

2
phlogopite
chromite/Cr-spinel

REGIONAL DEFORMATION & METAMORPHISM

olivine
2 orthopyroxene orthopyroxenite (± olivine, no plag)
phlogopite
chromite/Cr-spinel hornblende dunite, hornblende
olivine
3 orthopyroxene
harzburgite, olivine orthopyroxenite
hornblende (no plag)
orthopyroxene
4 phlogopite
orthopyroxenite (no spinel or plag)
talc
tremolite minor alteration of
chlorite primary silicates (rims
anthophyllite and veins)
serpentine
magnetite
associated with S-loss
mss and serpentine
pyrrhotite 1
pentlandite 1
Fe-Ni-S

pyrite 1 pyrite 3 (late veins, +Ni)

PGM (Pd-rich)
violarite
alteration of pentlandite
polydymite
troilite
mackinawite 1 S-loss?
iss fracture filling
chalcopyrite
sphalerite
Pt-PGM in veins
PGM (Pt-rich)
Cu-Fe-S

pyrite 2
pyrrhotite 2
Ag-pentlandite
cubanite
pentlandite 2
mackinawite 2
PMM/galena
Fig. 16. Schematic paragenetic sequence for silicate and sulfide crystallization, subsolidus reactions, and post-ore remobiliza-
tion in the Giant Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE deposit. Dashed arrows indicate late magmatic replacement (e.g., orthopyroxene/clino-
pyroxene to hornblende) and solid diagonal lines indicate crystallization of monosulfide solid solution (mss) and intermediate
solid solution (iss). Thick horizontal lines represent relative timing of mineral formation; dashed lines indicate uncertainty.
Numbers 1-4 identify different assemblages observed in the various Giant Mascot cumulates. Numbers (1, 2, or 3) for pyr-
rhotite, pentlandite, pyrite, and mackinawite are interpreted to have crystallized from different processes or hosts based on
textural observations and mineral compositions. Timing of regional deformation and metamorphism after Brown and McClel-
land (2000) and Brown et al. (2000). plag = plagioclase.

Metal enrichment processes in sulfide liquid at Giant Mascot
At Giant Mascot, the main W-E-trending mineralized zone
exhibits distinct iridium-group PGE variation. High tenor sul-
fide compositions for Ni (3–14 wt %) and Cu (0.1–7.7 wt %),
and moderate tenors for PGE (84 ppb–5 g/t; avg = 1.4 g/t)
correspond to orebody location along the western and east-
ern mineralized zones (Fig. 4). Higher tenor sulfides are
more common in disseminated ores of the eastern mineral-
ized zone, whereas moderate tenor sulfides are typical of net-
textured and massive ores in the western mineralized zone.
80 MANOR ET AL.

Modeling results and R-factor calculations for the Giant
Mascot deposit are based on a best-fit line, following the
methodology of Thakurta et al. (2014), defined by the mass-
balance equation of Campbell and Naldrett (1979):
Yi = [Xi(0)Disul (R + 1)]/(R + Disul),
where Yi = final concentration of metal i in the sulfide liquid;
Xi(0) = initial concentration of metal i in the silicate liquid; and
Disul = distribution coefficient of metal i between the silicate
and sulfide liquid. Most samples fall within a range of R-factor
values of 100 to 2,500 (Fig. 17). The calculations assume dis-
sul
tribution coefficients of D Pd and DIrsul = 106 (Mungall and Bre-
sul sul
nan, 2014), D Cu = 1000 (Barnes and Maier, 1999), and D Ni
800 (Peach et al., 1990), and indicate that the primary silicate
magma contained approximately 240 ppm Ni, 107 ppm Cu,
1  ppb Pd, and 0.09 ppb Ir, with no constraint for Pt. Com-
puted Raleigh fractionation trends for mss and sulfide liquid
allow for investigation of the crystallization behavior of sul-
fides in Giant Mascot ores:
Cf = Ci F(Di-1),
where Cf and Ci = final and initial concentrations, respec-
tively, of the metal in the sulfide melt; F = percent fraction-
ation; and Dimss/sul = distribution coefficient of metal i between
the sulfide melt and mss. Assumed initial concentrations in
105
[Pd]100 (ppb)
sulfide melt are 20 ppb Pd and 650 ppb Ir, with Dimss/sul of 3.5
for Ir and 0.1 for Pd (Fleet and Stone, 1991; Fleet and Wu,
1993). The results indicate that the sulfide liquid crystallized
sulfides with a variable mixture of 20 to 60% fractionated mss
(Fig. 17, see figure caption for additional modeling details).
Samples with disseminated sulfides at Giant Mascot repre-
sent sulfide melt with upgraded metal contents due to greater
silicate-melt interaction (R-factor ~500–3,000; Figs. 13B, 17,
A5). In contrast, net-textured sulfides in the deposit have high
Cu and low PGE concentrations and originated from a more
fractionated mss (R-factor ~50–750; Figs. 13C, A5).
The different mantle-normalized patterns of the IPGE-
= poor western mineralized zone and the IPGE-rich eastern
mineralized zone indicate the presence of two distinct paren-
tal magmas that underwent either variable degrees of partial
melting or mss fractionation (e.g., Barnes et al., 1988; Barnes
and Maier, 1999; Barnes and Lightfoot, 2005; Mungall et al.,
2006; Figs. 13A, A6). Strong preferential partitioning of IPGE
into mss and subsequent early fractionation of mss from the
sulfide liquid could explain the IPGE-depleted mantle-nor-
malized patterns in the western orebodies (Figs. 13A, A6).
Magmas parental to the eastern mineralized zone may repre-
sent similar melt fractions, but mss fractionation was delayed,
allowing for increased IPGE concentrations, whereas the
PPGE favored partitioning into sulfide liquid at a later stage.
The western mineralized zone hosts the greatest volume of
massive to semimassive mineralization (e.g., Pride of Emory
and Brunswick 2 orebodies) that corresponds to R-factors of

60 to 1,050, whereas nearby disseminated orebodies (e.g.,

Brunswick 1 and 8) are characterized by higher R-factors of
2,700 to 7,300 (Fig. 17). Disseminated sulfides in the eastern
104 mineralized zone correspond to R-factors of 500 to 3,500. The
R=3500
R=2500 anomalous depletion of Pt and Au in Giant Mascot ores in
F=0.1

F=0.3

mantle-normalized diagrams may indicate either (1) a finger-

print of late-magmatic or metamorphic desulfurization during
103 liquid which Pt and Au are removed due to high solubility in fluids
R=1000
(e.g., Barnes et al., 1985; Hanley et al., 2005); or (2) Pt-bear-
ing alloys crystallized directly from the silicate magma prior to
R=250
F=1
F=0.6

sulfide liquid segregation and were fractionated at depth (e.g.,

102 Thakurta et al., 2014).
Significance of nickel contents in olivine at Giant Mascot
R=50
Nickel concentrations in olivine can provide insight into the
mss crystallization of olivine relative to sulfide melt (i.e., timing of
10
sulfide saturation) and subsequent postcrystallization effects
disseminated semi-massive (Naldrett, 2004; Fig. 15). Due to the lack of knowledge of
net-textured massive [Ir]100 (ppb) parental magma composition(s) at Giant Mascot, a hypotheti-
1
0.1 1 10 102
103 104 cal magma was iteratively calculated using KD values to rep-
Fig. 17. Plot of palladium vs. iridium concentrations (ppb) for sulfide ores in resent the exchange of FeO and MgO between both olivine
Fe O/MgO
the Giant Mascot intrusion recalculated to 100% sulfide. The thick red line (K ol/ liq = 0.3; Roeder and Emslie, 1970) and orthopyroxene
Fe O/ MgO
shows an R-factor model trend (R = 50–3,500) for a best-fit line through these (K op x/ liq = 0.255; Straub et al., 2008), and silicate liquid. The
data (based on methodology of Thakurta et al., 2014). Initial silicate magma resultant melt composition, taking into account the FeO/MgO
compositions determined by the best-fit line are 0.09 ppb Ir and 1 ppb Pd.
Most samples fall within a range of R-factor values of 100 to 2,500. Partition
ratio in magma, olivine, and orthopyroxene contains 9 wt %
coefficients used for modeling of fractionation between monosulfide solid MgO, 6.5 wt % FeO, and 50 wt % SiO2. The associated nickel
solution (mss) and sulfide liquid D PmsGs/Esul are 3.5 for Ir and 0.1 for Pd (Fleet contents of the fractionated liquids were calculated assuming
and Stone, 1991; Fleet and Wu, 1993); those between silicate and sulfide melt an initial concentration of 350 ppm NiO, D ol/ liq
Ni = 15 (Straub et
DPs ulGE are 106 for Pd and Ir (Mungall and Brenan, 2014), 103 for Cu (Barnes opx/liq
al., 2008), D Ni = 1.2 (Beattie et al., 1991), and D Ni sul/liq
= 500
and Maier, 1999), and 800 for Ni (Peach et al., 1990). Progressive fraction-
ation of mss is marked by a blue “+” symbol, and the coexisting sulfide liquid (Peach and Mathez, 1993; Gaetani and Grove, 1997).
is marked by an orange “×”. “F” represents the percent of mss fractionation Following the procedures outlined in Naldrett (2004) and
and remaining sulfide liquid. Li et al. (2007), we modeled two ideal fractional crystallization
 GIANT MASCOT Ni-Cu-PGE DEPOSIT, BC, CANADA 81

trends: one for olivine crystallization alone, and one for cotec-
tic olivine + orthopyroxene crystallization in a ratio of 1/1.
These trends encompass most of the measured olivine com-
positions in unmineralized rocks at Giant Mascot (Fig. 15).
The presence of minor interstitial trapped liquid shifts the
composition of the olivine + orthopyroxene trend to slightly
elevated Ni concentrations after ~15% crystallization (e.g.,
Barnes, 1986).
The anomalously high Ni contents in olivine at Giant Mascot
appear to reflect subsolidus exchange of Fe and Ni between
coexisting olivine and high tenor sulfide liquid (Fig. 15; e.g.,
Barnes et al., 2013). Olivine in dunites and pyroxenites from
the Pride of Emory and 4600 orebodies could have coexisted
with a sulfide liquid containing ~6.5 wt % Ni, whereas oliv-
ine in peridotite from the 1600 orebody coexisted with sulfide
containing ~8 to 12 wt % Ni. In both cases, interaction with
sulfide liquid occurred early in the crystallization history of the
parental magma (<20% crystallized), which has implications
for sulfide saturation mechanisms (discussed below). The pres-
ence of Mg- and Ni-rich rims on olivine is additional evidence
for equilibration between olivine and sulfide liquid at tempera-
tures below the solidus of the silicate mineral assemblage (e.g.,
Barnes et al., 2013; Table A2). Olivine with relatively high Ni
and low Fo contents (2,400–3,400 ppm Ni, Fo80–84) may have
formed by additional mixing with sulfide liquid or may have
crystallized from more fractionated magma (Fig. 15).
Redox conditions during formation of the
Giant Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE deposit
The genesis of Ni-Cu-PGE deposits in suprasubduction zone
settings requires the reduction of oxidized magmas to produce
sulfide (S2–) as the predominant sulfur species relative to sul-
fate (S6+) (e.g., Carroll and Rutherford, 1985; Luhr, 1990; Jugo
et al., 2005; Jugo, 2009). Recent investigations of Alaskan-type
intrusions (i.e., Duke Island, Alaska; Thakurta et al., 2008)
have revealed the coexistence of sulfide and sulfate phases,
mixing parameters (Fleet and Macrae, 1983; Brenan and
Caciagli, 2000).
Calculations for metal tenors in Giant Mascot ores (n =
53) yield an average raw Ni/Fe ratio of 0.12 ± 0.07. Sulfide-
bearing olivine cumulates in the Giant Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE
deposit have KD values between 3.8 and 12 (Fig. 18). Lower
KD values are correlated with anomalous Ni tenors (i.e.,
>7 wt %) and are interpreted to indicate significant increase
in olivine Ni contents (>2,500 ppm) due to subsolidus equili-
bration and relatively high fO2 (e.g., Brenan, 2003; Figs. 15,
18). The dependence of KD values and Ni content in the sul-
fide liquid on fO2 are expressed by the equation (Brenan and
Caciagli, 2000):
log (fO2) = –8.43 ([KD/wt % Ni]0.177).
The results for calculated fO2 in the Giant Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE
deposit range from 10–7.2 to 10–9.3 (~QFM + 1; Fig. 18) and
are similar to other sulfide deposits worldwide (e.g., Jinchuan,
Stillwater, Duluth; Brenan and Li, 2000). The 1600 orebody
is the most Ni rich and oxidized, which is interpreted to result
from the effect of subsolidus Fe-Ni exchange (see above). The
Pride of Emory and 1600 orebodies contain less Ni and are
more reduced (Fig. 18).
Sulfide saturation mechanisms for the
Giant Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE deposit
Sulfide saturation in a magmatic system relies on a number
of intrinsic parameters of the parent magma (e.g., T, P, fO2,
fS2, FeO, and SiO2 content), in addition to external processes
such as magma mixing, addition of external S or SiO2, and
16
QFM
14
(425)
KD = (Fe/Ni)olivine/(Fe/Ni)sulfide

thus constraining the oxidation state of the parent magmas to 12 (525)

relatively high oxygen fugacity (fO2) at least 2 log units above QFM+1
the quartz-fayalite-magnetite buffer (>ΔQFM + 2; Jugo et al., su
10 Fe b-so
2005; Jugo, 2009). As sulfide is the dominant species of sulfur (325)
-N lid
i e us
at Giant Mascot, the fO2 at the time of formation of mineral- xc
ha
ng
ization is constrained to be <QFM + 2. Assimilation of graph- 8 e
ite has been proposed as the mechanism of magma reduction
for convergent margin Ni-Cu-PGE deposits, as exemplified (700)
6 (1700)
in both the Turnagain Alaskan-type intrusion (Nixon, 1998)
and the Horoman deposit in the Opirarukaomappu Gabbroic
Complex (Tomkins et al., 2012). At Giant Mascot, we propose 4
that the parental magma(s) assimilated the locally graphitic 1600
Pride of Emory
Settler schist (Fig. 2), a process that generated conditions
2 4600 (Muir, 1971)
favorable for sulfide speciation and subsequent formation of dump sample
immiscible sulfide droplets. dump sample, average
For determining the fO2 of the sulfide-saturated magmas at 0
Giant Mascot, we utilized Fe and Ni concentrations for coex- 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
isting olivine and sulfide liquid to employ the Fe-Ni exchange Ni in 100% sulfide (wt%)
oxygen barometer of Brenan and Caciagli (2000). Partitioning Fig. 18. Plot of olivine-sulfide liquid Fe-Ni exchange coefficient (KD Fe-Ni
)
of Ni and Fe between olivine and sulfide liquid is shown as: vs. Ni concentrations (wt %) in 100% sulfide, showing the oxidation state of
Giant Mascot ores, following the methodology of Brenan and Caciagli (2000).
NiOolivine + FeSsulfide = NiSsulfide + FeOolivine, Redox curves for QFM and QFM + 1, including the 2σ uncertainty on the
QFM + 1 curve (gray field), are after Barnes et al. (2013). Numbers in paren-
and the exchange of Fe and Ni between phases is typically theses are calculated R-factors for indicated samples. See text for additional
expressed as an exchange coefficient, KD, assuming ideal details.
82 MANOR ET AL.
fractional crystallization (reviews in Naldrett, 2004, 2011;
Ripley and Li, 2013; Mungall, 2014). Sulfur isotope composi-
tions for mineralized samples of the Giant Mascot ores are
restricted to –3.4 to –1.3‰, values that overlap with those
of the locally pyrite-bearing, graphitic Settler schist and are
permissive of crustal assimilation by a parental magma with
a sulfur isotope signature characteristic of subduction zone
mantle (1–6‰; Japanese arc: Ueda and Sakai, 1984; Sierra
Nevada batholith: Ishihara and Sasaki, 1989; Marianas arc: Alt
et al., 1993; Indonesian arc: de Hoog et al., 2001; Mexican arc:
Luhr and Logan, 2002; Table 2; Fig. 14). The δ34S values of
arc mantle are distinct from those of MORB mantle (–0.91 ±
0.5‰; Fig. 14; Labidi et al., 2012), a feature that is attributed
to the incorporation of seawater sulfate (δ34S = 21‰), sedi-
ment, or altered oceanic crust into the mantle wedge (Luhr
and Logan, 2002). Sulfur isotope results from the western,
central, and eastern orebodies at Giant Mascot overlap and
indicate a similar sulfur isotope source for all of the orebodies
(e.g., Ripley and Li, 2003). The overlapping δ34S values for
Giant Mascot ores and the Settler schist are consistent with a
model whereby the addition of external S is a principal mech-
anism for sulfide saturation as documented in most large,
rift-related Ni-Cu-PGE deposits (e.g., Duluth, Theriault and
Barnes, 1998; Voisey’s Bay, Ripley et al., 2002; Noril’sk, Li et
al., 2003; Ripley et al., 2003).
The addition of SiO2 to a mafic-ultramafic magma decreases
the S content required to reach sulfide saturation (i.e., SCSS),
which leads to the generation of immiscible sulfide droplets
and scavenging of chalcophile elements from the parent melt
(Irvine, 1975). The sulfide saturation in the Giant Mascot
magmas would be further reduced due to the water content
required to stabilize hornblende in Giant Mascot magmas
(e.g., Ripley and Li, 2013). In addition, inherited zircon is
present in a pyroxenite from the Giant Mascot ultramafic suite
(Manor, 2014) and is interpreted to indicate bulk assimilation
of the dioritic Spuzzum pluton by the Giant Mascot parent
magmas. Sulfide saturation in the Giant Mascot intrusion thus
occurred as a result of the addition of external sulfur and silica
from the Settler schist and Spuzzum diorites, respectively.
Conduit-style mineralization
Magmatic conduits or feeders in ultramafic-mafic intrusions
are hosts to Ni-Cu-PGE mineralization in a variety of tec-
tonic settings. These conduits allow for multiple injections
of magma in a system to ascend toward larger magma cham-
bers higher in the crust (e.g., Noril’sk: Naldrett and Lightfoot,
1999; Jinchuan: Li et al., 2004; Voisey’s Bay: Lightfoot et al.,
2011) where sulfides can settle and accumulate when ascent
velocities decrease (e.g., de Bremond d’Ars et al., 2001).
The concentrically zoned and massive ore lenses present in
Giant Mascot orebodies are remarkably similar in scale and
structure compared to conduits in other major Ni-Cu-PGE
deposits (Fig. 19), including the Reid Brook zone of Voisey’s
Bay (Lightfoot et al., 2011), Eagle deposit (Ding et al., 2011),
and Eagle’s Nest deposit (Mungall et al., 2010), and also the
magmatic conduits that host the Hongqiling No. 7 (Wei et al.,
2013), Lengshuiqing (Munteanu et al., 2011), and Limoeiro
(Mota-e-Silva et al., 2013) Ni-Cu-PGE deposits.
At Giant Mascot, Aho (1956) proposed that the subvertical
orebodies formed following injection of crystal-rich magma
(i.e., slurries) produced at depth. These crystal-rich magmas
ascended into primary mineralized channels for the massive,
unzoned orebodies, whereas the zoned orebodies involved
successive injections through the same channelways (e.g.,
Figs. 5, 6). The absence of breccia fragments in the orebod-
ies, with the exception of local inclusions of wall rock, suggests
that upward magma velocities were not sufficient to transport
partially molten or solidified sulfides from below. Thus, we
interpret both zoned and unzoned orebodies to have formed
from multiple injections of sulfide droplet-laden magma
through subvertical conduits that subsequently underwent
gravitative settling and wall-rock collapse or channel infill
(Figs. 5, 6, 19D, E). The distribution of ore could have
been regionally controlled by an underlying, W-E-trending,
N-dipping structure (Aho, 1957; Figs. 2, 4). The mineralized
conduits may have served as the primary feeders to a larger
crustal magma chamber that hosted the majority of the ultra-
mafic cumulates and additional ore (primarily an extension
of the western mineralization zone), which has since been
eroded during rapid late Miocene uplift and exhumation in
this part of the Canadian Cordillera (Reiners et al., 2002;
Gehrels et al., 2009).
The structure of mineralized conduits and location of ore
within them are similar in most deposits globally and indicate
high magma fluxes through relatively narrow conduits irre-
spective of tectonic setting and parent magma compositions
(e.g., Fig. 19). The geochemistry of sulfide ores from these
different conduit systems reveals marked similarities indica-
tive of similar ore-forming processes. Average chalcophile ele-
ment concentrations in high-tenor sulfides from the western
mineralization zone (3–6 wt % Ni) are similar to the relatively
lower tenor sulfides at Voisey’s Bay (3–4 wt % Ni; Naldrett
et al., 2000a), with their characteristic depletion in the IPGE
(e.g., Ir, Ru). In contrast, ores from the eastern mineraliza-
tion zone (4–10 wt % Ni) overlap in composition with the
higher tenor semimassive and massive sulfides typical ofthe
Eagle deposit (6–8 wt % Ni; Ding et al., 2011; Fig. 20). The
mineralized conduits at Giant Mascot, Eagle, and Voisey’s
Bay have relatively small footprints (i.e., small cross-sectional
areas) and yet host relatively high-tenor sulfide ores, requiring
metal upgrading of sulfides that were entrained in successive
magma pulses. Mineralized conduits in a variety of tectonic
settings (e.g., rift, arc) represent increasingly important explo-
ration targets that favor the collection of high-tenor sulfides
and PGE (e.g., Lightfoot and Evans-Lamswood, 2015).
Conclusions
This study has documented the spatial distribution of chalco-
phile elements and processes governing sulfide saturation and
metal enrichment in ultramafic arc cumulates of the Giant
Mascot Ni-Cu-PGE deposit in the Canadian Cordillera, pro-
viding insight into ore-forming processes in relatively small
magmatic conduit systems in convergent margin settings. The
textures of Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides reflect an orthomagmatic
origin for Giant Mascot ores and the PGM formed from a
semimetal-rich melt. The Ni-rich sulfide liquids underwent
varying degrees of metal enrichment, fractionation of mono-
sulfide solid solution, and subsolidus equilibration with olivine
during emplacement in the midcrust of an active convergent
margin. Two geographically distinct mineralized zones (west
 GIANT MASCOT Ni-Cu-PGE DEPOSIT, BC, CANADA 83

A Reid Brook Zone, Voisey’s Bay B Eagle intrusion, Midcontinent Rift C Eagle’s Nest, McFaulds Lake

feldspathic
peridotite

disseminated-
massive sulfide troctolite-
semimassive olivine melagabbro
sulfide
semimassive and
massive sulfide

troctolite- peridotite
olivine gabbro
massive sulfide

ferrogabbro-
ferrodiorite

10 m 50 m 50 m
after Lightfoot et al. (2011) after Ripley and Li (2011) after Mungall et al. (2010)

D Brunswick #1 orebody, Giant Mascot E 1900 orebody, Giant Mascot F Pride of Emory, Giant Mascot

pyroxenite
semimassive pyroxenite hornblende
sulfide in dunite pyroxenite
semimassive peridotite
orthopyroxenite sulfide

peridotite
massive sulfide
in dunite massive
sulfide
massive
10 m 10 m sulfide 10 m

Fig. 19. Simplified conceptual geologic representations of mineralized conduits from the (A) Reid Brook zone, Voisey’s Bay,
Labrador (modified after Lightfoot et al., 2011); (B) Eagle intrusion, Midcontinent Rift, Michigan (modified after Ripley and
Li, 2011); (C) Eagle’s Nest deposit, McFaulds Lake, Ontario (modified after Mungall et al., 2010); (D) Brunswick 1 zoned
orebody, Giant Mascot; (E) 1900 reversely zoned orebody, Giant Mascot; (F) Pride of Emory orebody, Giant Mascot.

10000
EMZ, Giant Mascot
WMZ, Giant Mascot
Average in 100% Sulfide/Primitive Mantle

Voisey's Bay
Eagle
1000

100

10
Fig. 20. Primitive mantle-normalized diagram showing averages of
Ni, Cu, and PGE in 100% sulfide for the western (WMZ) and eastern
(EMZ) mineralized zones at Giant Mascot compared to those from
the Eagle (Ding et al., 2011) and Voisey’s Bay (Naldrett et al., 2000a)
Ni-Cu-PGE deposits. Eagle averages = lower and upper semimassive
1
sulfide, IPGE-rich massive sulfide, unfractionated massive sulfide, and
PPGE-rich massive sulfide. Voisey’s Bay averages = Eastern Deeps,
Ovoid, Mini-ovoid, and Reid Brook zone. Abundances in 100% sul-
fide are normalized to primitive mantle values from Lyubetskaya and
0.1 Korenaga (2007).
Ni Ir Ru Rh Pt Pd Au Cu
84 MANOR ET AL.
and east) were produced and are related to dynamic conduits
through which multiple pulses of magma ascended. Sulfide
saturation in the Giant Mascot parental magma(s) was trig-
gered by reduction of a relatively oxidized arc magma by
assimilation of graphitic schist to favor sulfide over sulfate
speciation in the melt, assimilation of S- and silica-bearing
country rocks, and fractional crystallization of olivine and
orthopyroxene. Narrow mineralized conduits at Giant Mascot
contain moderately PGE-enriched, Ni-rich sulfides with iden-
tifiable PGM and indicate that Ni-Cu-PGE mineralization in
convergent margins represents significant, although difficult,
exploration targets with increasing economic potential.
Acknowledgments
We thank Corey Wall, Alex Colyer, Wes Harmon, Lauren
Harrison, and Sarah Jackson-Brown for help with fieldwork
and sample collection, and Valley Helicopters in Hope for
flights to the mine site. Mati Raudsepp, Edith Czech, Elisa-
betta Pani, Jenny Lai, and Lan Kato (UBC) and Patricia Hunt
(GSC-Ottawa) are thanked for training and guidance with
SEM and EMPA analyses, and Ingrid Kjarsgaard (Ottawa) for
petrographic and EMPA work on sulfides and PGM. Thanks
to Emily Mullen for help with olivine modeling, and Tracy
Barry for redrafting orebody maps. Ken Hickey is acknowl-
edged for early reviews of this manuscript. Discussions with
Jon Scoates, Louis Cabri, Jacob Hanley, and Ed Ripley were
greatly appreciated. The final version of this manuscript was
greatly improved following thorough reviews from David
Holwell and Wolfgang Maier, and editorial handling by Larry
Meinert. Funding for this project is provided by the Targeted
Geoscience Initiative 4 (TGI-4) program of the Geologi-
cal Survey of Canada, an SEG Canada Foundation Student
Research Grant to Matthew Manor, and an NSERC Discov-
ery Grant to James Scoates.
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