Unit 1 Chapter 2 CMMD Transducers

Course Title:
Concept of Metrology and Machine

Drawing
Course Code: 18ME34
By: Keshavamurthy YC
UNIT -I
• Transducers: Characteristics transfer

efficiency, primary and secondary
transducers, Electrical, mechanical
transducers, Signal transmission and
processing: Devices and systems. Signal
Display & Recording Devices
2 KYC
Introduction to Transducers
• The generalized measuring system consists of three functional
elements: primary detector-transducer stage, intermediate
modifying stage, and output or terminating stage.
• Each stage performs certain functions so that the value of the
physical variable to be measured (measurand) is displayed as
output.
• In addition, a controlling function is required in many
applications. For example, measurement systems employed in
process control comprise a fourth stage called feedback control
stage.
• The feedback control stage essentially consists of a controller
that interprets the measured signal, depending on which
decision is taken to control the process.
• Consequently, there is a change in the process parameter that
affects the magnitude of the sensed variable. It is essential to
note here that more the accuracy of measurement of the control
variable, the better the accuracy of control. Hence, efforts
must be made towards accurate measurements before
3 making any attempt to control the same. KYC
Transfer efficiency
• The detecting or sensing element of a measuring system first
makes contact with the quantity to be measured, and the
sensed information is immediately transduced into an analogous
form.
• The transducer, which may be electrical, mechanical, optical,
magnetic, piezoelectric, etc., converts the sensed information
into a more convenient form.
• A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into
another form.
• The term transfer efficiency was first defined by Simpson (1955)
for comparing the different devices used in the first stage.
• Depending on the information sensed and delivered by the
sensor, transfer efficiency is defined as follows:
I del
Transfer efficiency =
I sen
• Idel is the information delivered by the pickup device and Isen is
the information sensed by the pickup device.
4 KYC
Transfer efficiency
Four stages in generalized measuring system
5 KYC
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
• Transducers are classified as follows:

1. Primary and secondary transducers
2. Based on the principle of transduction
3. Active and passive transducers
4. Analog and digital transducers
5. Direct and inverse transducers
6. Null and deflection transducers
6 KYC
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS
• Transducers are generally defined as devices that transform
values of physical quantities in the form of input signals into
corresponding electrical output signals.
• The physical quantity may be heat, intensity of light, flow rate, etc.
The energy may be in electrical, mechanical, or acoustical form.
• Transducers are devices that are used to transform the
information sensed (signals) between two different physical
domains.
• Transducers, which include the entire detector transducer or
primary stage of the generalized measurement system, may
comprise two important components:
➢ Sensing or detecting element: The function of this element is to
respond to a physical phenomenon or a change in the physical
phenomenon. Hence it is termed a primary transducer.
➢ Transduction element: The function of a transduction element is
to transform the output obtained by the sensing element to an
analogous electrical output. Hence it is termed a secondary
transducer.
7 KYC
• In addition to these, the primary stage also consists of auxiliary
sources of energy, power amplifiers, and calibration sources.
8 KYC
Measurement of pressure using Bourdon tube and LVDT
Pressure-displacement :bourdon tube- primary transducer
Displacement-analogous voltage-LVDT- secondary transducer
9 KYC
Based on Principle of Transduction
• This classification is based on how the input quantity is
transduced into capacitance, resistance, and inductance values.
They are known as capacitive, resistive, and inductive
transducers.
• Transducers can also be piezoelectric, thermoelectric, magneto-
strictive, electro-kinetic, and optical.
10 KYC
Active and Passive Transducers
• Active transducers are of a self-generating type, wherein they
develop their own voltage or current output. They do not need
any auxiliary power source to produce the output.
• The energy required to produce the output is derived from the
physical quantity being measured. Examples of active
transducers are piezoelectric crystals (used for force or
acceleration measurement), tachogenerators, thermocouples,
and photovoltaic cells.
• Passive transducers derive the power required for transduction
from an auxiliary source of power. A part of the power required
for generating the output is derived from the physical quantity
being measured.
• Since they receive power from an auxiliary source, they are
termed externally powered transducers. Further, these
transducers remain passive in the absence of an external power
source; hence, they are called passive transducers. Resistive,
capacitive, and inductive transducers are some of the examples
11
of passive transducers. KYC
Active and Passive Transducers
12 KYC
Analog and Digital Transducers
• Based on the output generated, that is, depending on whether
the output generated is a continuous function of time or is in
discrete form, transducers are classified as analog and digital
transducers.
• In case of analog transducers, the input quantity is converted
into an analog output, which is a continuous function of time.
LVDT, strain gauge, thermocouple, and thermistor are some
examples of analog transducers.
• If a transducer converts the input quantity into an electrical
signal that is in the form of pulses, as output, it is called a digital
transducer. These pulses are not continuous functions of time
but are discrete in nature.
• In fact, it is easier to process and transmit data as a function of
two numbers 0 and 1. Examples are shaft encoders, linear
displacement transducers using conducting or non-conducting
contacts, and opaque or translucent segments.
13 KYC
Direct and Inverse Transducers
• When a measuring device measures and transforms a non-
electrical variable into an electrical variable, it is called a direct
transducer.
• A thermocouple that is used to measure temperature, radiation,
and heat flow is an example of a transducer.
• If an electrical quantity is transformed into a non-electrical
quantity, it is termed an inverse transducer.
• A very common example of an inverse transducer is a
piezoelectric crystal wherein a voltage is given as the input. This
is because when a voltage is applied across its surfaces, its
dimensions are changed causing a mechanical displacement.
Direct Transducers
14 KYC
Direct and Inverse Transducers
Inverse Transducers
15 KYC
Null- and Deflection-type Transducers
• A null-type device works on the principle of maintaining a zero
deflection by applying an appropriate known effect that opposes
the one generated by the measured quantity.
• This type of transducer requires a detector capable of detecting
an imbalance and a means to restore a balance either manually
or automatically.
• Since it is required to balance the deflection preferably at the
zero level, in order to determine the numerical values, precise
information of the magnitude of the opposing effect is essential.
• The major disadvantage of this method is that it cannot be used
for dynamic measurements.
• Example, in a dead-weight pressure gauge, which operates on
the null method, standard weights are added to the platform of
known weight and gravitational force can be used to balance the
pressure force on the face of the piston.
• The balance of forces is indicated by the platform remaining
stationary in between the two stops. The pressure required for
the balance may be calculated as the weights added and the
16 area of the piston are known. KYC
Null- and Deflection-type Transducers
• A deflection-type transducer works on the principle that the
measured quantity produces a physical effect that stimulates an
analogous effect in the opposite direction in some parts of the
measuring instrument.
• There is an increase in the opposing effect until a balance is
restored, at which stage the measurement of deflection is
carried out.
• A rudimentary pressure gauge is an example of a deflection
transducer. It contains a piston that is driven by the fluid
pressure to produce a resultant force.
• The piston acts as a primary transducer and a secondary
transducer, which also acts as the variable conversion element.
• The force generated by the piston rod stimulates an opposing
force in the spring due to an imbalance of forces on the piston
rod. This causes a deflection of the spring.
• As the spring deflection increases, its force increases and thus
a balance is achieved. Another example is a spring balance
system. Calibration of the spring determines the accuracy in a
17 deflection-type instrument. KYC
QUALITY ATTRIBUTES FOR TRANSDUCERS
• A transducer should possess the following qualities:
1. Repeatability: A transducer must have a high degree of
accuracy and repeatability.
2. Linearity: It should have a very high degree of linearity
within the specified operating range.
3. Dynamic response: The dynamic response of the
transducer should be instantaneous.
4. Impedance: It should have a high input impedance and a
low output impedance for loading effect elimination.
5. High resolution: It should have good resolution over the
complete selected range.
6. Size: The size of the transducer should be preferably small.
7. Hysteresis: The transducer should possess low or no
hysteresis.
18 KYC
QUALITY ATTRIBUTES FOR TRANSDUCERS
8. Robustness: It should be able to endure pressure,

vibrations, shocks, and rough handling.
9. Adaptability: The transducer should be capable of working
in a corrosive environment.
10. Sensitivity: Cross-sensitivity of the transducer should be
zero or minimum, and it should exhibit high sensitivity to the
desired signal.
11. Stability and reliability: The degree of stability and
reliability of the transducer should be high.
12. Response: It should have a requisite time domain
specification of transient and frequency response.
19 KYC
ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS
• In majority of measurement systems, electrical elements serves
as a secondary transducer while the mechanical elements
serves as primary detector transducer and the output is
generally a displacement.
• The electrical element serving as secondary transducer
transduces the displacement into an electrical quantity namely
voltage or current.
• The basic electrical change may be resistive, inductive,
capacitive or any of the special changes.
• Classification of Electrical transducers
• (i) Resistive Transducers
• (ii) Inductive Transducers
• (iii) Capacitive Transducers
20 KYC
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS
• Classification of Electrical transducers
• (i) Resistive Transducers
➢ (a) Resistance Strain Gauge
➢ (b) Resistance Thermometers
➢ (c) Thermistors (Thermal resistors)
• (ii) Inductive Transducers
➢ (a) Variable self-inductance
❖ (i) Single coil
❖ (ii) Two coil
➢ (b) Variable mutual-inductance
❖ (i) Simple two coil
❖ (ii) Three coil
➢ (c) Variable reluctance
❖ (i) Moving iron
❖ (ii) Moving coil
❖ (iii) Moving magnet
• (iii) Capacitive Transducers
❖ (i) Changing Dielectric current
❖ (ii) Changing Area
21 ❖ (iii) Changing distance KYC
Resistive Transducers
• Resistance of an electrical conductor varies according to the
relation L
R= R=Resistance in ohms,
A
 =Resistivity of the material in ohm-cm
L=length of the conductor in cm
A=cross sectional area of the conductor in cm 2
• Following are some of the resistive transducers
• (i) Sliding contact Devices (ii)Potentiometers
➢ Sliding contact resistive transducer converts mechanical
displacement input into an either voltage or current output.
This is achieved by changing the effective length L of the
conductor in above equation
➢ The slide or contactor maintains electrical contact with the
resistance element as it slides along the guide rod.
➢ The effective resistance existing between either end of the
resistance element and the slide is a measure of the linear
displacement of the slide. These type of devices are used for
22 sensing relatively large displacements. KYC
Sliding contact Device

Variable resistance consisting of a wire and movable contactor
23 KYC
• Potentiometers: The resistant element may be formed by
wrapping a resistance wire around a form or card. The turns are
spaced to prevent shorting and the brush slides across the turns
from one turn to the next.
• In actual practice, either the arrangement may be wound for a
rectilinear movement or the resistance element may be formed
into an arc and angular movement.
• Sliding contact devices are also made using conductive films as
the variable-resistance elements, rather than wire. Common
examples include carbon-composition films, in which graphite or
carbon particles are suspended in an epoxy or polyester binder,
and ceramic metal composition films.
• In this the effective resistance between either end of the
resistance element and the slide is a measure of angular
displacement of the slide.
24 KYC
Angular motion variable resistance, or potentiometer

(a) wire wound (b) carbon composition
25 KYC
• Resistance Strain gauge; works on the principle of variation of
all the three quantities, resistivity (), length (L) and cross
sectional area of the conductor in order to bring about a change
in resistance.
• If an electrical conductor is stretched or compressed, its
resistance changes due to the variations in both the length and
diameter of the conductor.
• In addition there is a change in the value of resistivity of the
conductor when it is strained and is called piezo-resistance.
Hence, resistance strain gauges are also known as
piezoresistive gauges.
• Strain gauges are used for measuring strain and associated
stress. Transducers like load cells, torque meters employs strain
gauges as secondary transducers.
26 KYC
• Resistance Thermometers: Temperature changes, the
resistance of a conducting material. This principle is used to
measure the temperature. The variation of resistance R with
temperature T for most of the metals is given by
R = Ro (1 + 1 T +  2 T 2 + ...... +  n T n + .......)
• Where Ro is the resistance at temperature T=0, and 1, 2, …..
n are constants.
• The requirements of a conductor material used in resistive
thermometers is that the change in resistance of the material
per unit change in temperature should be as large as possible.
27 KYC
• Thermistors (Thermal Resistors): Thermistors are thermally
sensitive variable resistors made of ceramic like semi
conducting materials.
• They behave as resistors with a high negative temperature
co-efficient of resistance. For example the resistance of a
thermistor at room temperature is decreased by 5% for 1C
rise in temperature.
• This high sensitivity to temperature changes make the
thermistors useful for precision temperature measurements,
control and compensation.
• In construction, the thermistors are composed of sintered
mixture of metallic oxides such as Mn, Ni, Co, Cu, Fe and
uranium. They are available in variety of shapes and sizes
like beads, rods, discs.
28 KYC
Thermistors
29 KYC
Inductive Transducer
• Inductive transducers are based on the voltage output of an
inductor (or coil) whose inductance changes in response
changes in response to changes in the measurand.
• Variable Self Inductance: Single Coil
• When a single coil is used as transducer element, the
mechanical input changes the permeability of the flux path
generated by the coil, thereby changing its inductance.
• This change in inductance can be measured by suitable circuit,
indicating the value of the input.
• Flux path may be changed by a change in the airgap.
30 KYC
• Variable Self Inductance: Two Coil
• Two coil self inductance, will be similar to single coil with center
tap.
• Movement of the core alters the relative inductance of the two
coils. These transducers are usually incorporated in inductive
bridge circuit in which variation in the inductance ratio between
the two coils provides the output. This is used as a secondary
transducer for pressure measurement.
31 KYC
• Variable Mutual Inductance: The magnetic flux from a power
coil is coupled to a pickup coil, which supplies the output. Input
information, in the form of armature displacement, changes the
coupling between the coils.
• In the arrangement shown, the air gaps between the core and
the armature govern the degree of coupling.
• In other arrangement the coupling may be varied by changing
the relative positions of the coils and armature, either linearly or
angularly.
• Inductive coupling between coils, which depends on the
reluctance of the magnetic-flux path, is changed by the relative
proximity of a permeable material.
• A variation of this has been used in a transducer for measuring
small inside diameters.
32 KYC
Mutual inductance transducer (Two Coil). Coil A is energizing coil

and B is the pickup coil. As the armature is moved, thereby
altering the airgap, the output from coil B is changed, and this
change may be used as a measure of armature movement.
33 KYC
Mutual inductance transducer (Two Coil). Electronic micrometer
34 KYC
• Variable Mutual inductance: Three coil: Differential
transformer
• Variable Mutual inductance three coil type transducer is a linear
variable differential transformer.
• It provides an a.c. voltage output proportional to the
displacement of the core passing through the windings.
• The center coil is energized from an a.c. power source and the
two end coils, connected in phase opposition, are used as
pickup coils.
• Undoubtedly the most broadly used of the variable inductance
transducers in the differential transformer.
35 KYC
• Differential transformer: (a) Schematic arrangement

(b)section through transformer
36 KYC
• Variable Reluctance Transducers:
• The term variable reluctance implies some form of inductance
device incorporating a permanent magnet.
• In most cases these devices are limited to dynamic application,
either periodic or transient, where the flux lines supplied by the
magnet are cut by the turns of the coil.
• In its simplest form, the variable-reluctance device consists of a
coil wound on a permanent magnet core. Any variation of the
reluctance of the magnetic flux path causes a change in flux.
• As the flux field varies, a voltage is induced in the coil,
according to Faraday’s law: d
V = −n 
dt
• V=induced voltage (V), n=number of turns of coil and
=magnetic flux through coil (Wb)
37 KYC
• Since the rate of change of flux depends directly on the speed
at which the teeth move past the magnet, the variable
reluctance transducer is sensitive to velocity, rather than
displacement.
Simple variable-reluctance pickup
38 KYC
Capacitive Transducer
• When a capacitor is formed from a pair of parallel flat plates, its
capacitance is given by the following equation
 0 KA
C=
d
• C=capacitance (pF)
• 0=permittivity of free space, 8,8542pF/m,
• K=dielectric constant of medium between plates (1 for air)
• A=area of one side of one plate (m2),
• d=separation of plate surfaces (m)
• Greater sensitivity can be obtained by using several capacitors
in parallel. This may be accomplished with a stack of n equally
spaced plates in which alternate plates are connected to one
another. The capacitance of such a stack is
 0 KA(n − 1)
C=
39
d KYC
Capacitive Transducers
• Capacitive Transducer: Changing Dielectric Constant
• The capacitance between the central rod and the surrounding
tube varies with changing dielectric constant brought about by
changing liquid level.
• The device readily detects liquid level even though the difference
in dielectric constant between the liquid and vapor states may be
as low as 0.05
Capacitance
pickup to
measure liquid
level
40 KYC
• Capacitive Transducer: Changing Area
• Capacitance change depending on changing effective area has
been used for the secondary transducing element of a torque
meter.
• The device uses a sleeve with teeth or serrations cut axially,
and a matching internal member or shaft with similar axially cut
teeth.
• A clearance is provided between the tips of the teeth. Torque
carried by an elastic member causes a shift in the relative
positions of the teeth, thereby changing the effective area.
• The resulting capacitance change is calibrated in terms of
torque.
41 KYC
Section showing relative arrangement of teeth in

capacitance type torque meter
42 KYC
• Capacitive Transducer: Changing Distance

• Varying the distance between the plates of a capacitor is
undoubtedly the most common method for using capacitance in
a pickup.
• In capacitive type pressure transducer, capacitance between
the diaphragm to which the pressure is applied and the
electrode foot is used as a measure of the diaphragm’s relative
position.
• Flexing of the diaphragm under pressure alters the distance
between it and the electrode.
43 KYC
Capacitive type Pressure pickup
44 KYC
MECHANICAL TRANSDUCERS
• Mechanical quantities include force, pressure, displacement,
flowrate, temperature etc.
• The initial concept of converting an applied force into a
displacement is basic to many types of transducers.
• The mechanical elements commonly used to convert the
applied force into a displacement are elastic members.
• Many mechanical measurement systems uses springs of one or
other form. The commonly used springs are cantilever spring,
helical and spiral springs, torsion bars, proving rings.
• Spiral springs: Spiral springs are used to produce controlling
torque in analogue type electrical instruments. By increasing the
number of turns, the deformation per unit length can be
reduced. Thus, the controlling torque can be made proportional
to the angle of deflection.
• The springs should be stressed well below their elastic limit so
that there should not be any permanent set in the spring
material.
45 KYC
Spiral Springs
46 KYC
• Torsion Bars: Torsion bars are the primary sensing elements
for torque used in torque meters. The twist or deflection of the
bar is proportional to the applied torque and the deformation is
used as a measure of torque.
• Some torque meters are designed such that angular
displacement due to twisting of the bar is measured with a
displacement transducer.
47 KYC
• Proving ring: Proving ring has been the standard for calibrating
tensile testing machines.
• A proving ring is a circular ring of rectangular cross section and
may be subjected to tensile or compressive forces across its
diameter.
• The force deflection relation for thin ring is given by
16 EI
F= y
( / 2) − (4 /  ) D 3
F=force
E=young's modulus
I=moment of inertia about the
centroidal axis of bending section
D=outside diameter of the ring
y=deflection
48 KYC
• Proving ring: Proving ring utilises the principle of a linear
variable differential transformer (LVDT) which senses the
displacement caused by the force resulting in a proportional
voltage.
49 KYC
• Pressure measuring devices use elastic members to sense the
pressure. These elastic members convert the pressure into
displacement and are of the following types:
• (i) Bourdon tubes
• (ii) Diaphragms
• (iii) Bellows
• Bourdon tubes: Bourdon tubes are of elliptical cross section
tubes bent to the shapes as shown below
50 KYC
• Bourdon tube: One end of the tube is sealed and physically

held while the other end is open for the fluid to enter.
• The fluid pressure to be measured enters the tube and tends
to straighten the tube on account of pressure. This causes
the free end to move which can be measured.
• The commonly used materials for bourdon tubes are brass,
phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, steel etc.
• Bourdon tube are used to detect higher pressures (200kPa)
because their spring gradient is insufficient for detecting
lower pressures.
• The tubes are made of strain hardened alloys, (brass,
bronze, stainless steel).
51 KYC
Bourdon Tube gauge

52 KYC
53 KYC
54 KYC
• Diaphragms: Elastic diaphragms are used as primary pressure
transducers in many dynamic pressure measuring devices.
These diaphragms may be either flat or corrugated.
• A diaphragm is a thin flat plate of circular shape fixed around its
circumference. When a differential pressure P1-P2 occurs across
the diaphragm, it will deflect.
• The deflection may be sensed by an appropriate displacement
transducer such as strain gauge.
• A flat diaphragm is often used in conjunction with electrical
secondary transducers whose sensitivity permits small
diaphragm deflections.
• The corrugated diaphragm is particularly useful when larger
deflections are required.
55 KYC
Flat diaphragm Corrugated diaphragm
56 KYC
• Diaphragm (continued): An alternative form of diaphragm to
obtain larger deflections is a metallic capsule or pressure
capsule. In which two corrugated diaphragms are joined back to
back at their edges. Pressure P2 is applied to the inside of the
capsule which is surrounded by the pressure P1.
Metallic Capsule
57 KYC
• Bellows: Metallic bellows are thin walled tubes formed by
hydraulic presses into a corrugated shape. Bellows can be
produced in large diameters of upto 300mm.
• Bellows are made of 80-20 brass (80%cu, 20% Zn), phosphor
bronze, stainless steel and beryllium copper.
• A differential pressure causes a displacement of bellows, which
may be converted to an electrical signal.
58 Schematic of Metallic Bellows KYC

Signal transmission and processing:
Devices and systems
• An input signal is often converted by the detector transducer to a
mechanical displacement. It is then commonly fed to a
secondary transducer, which converts it into a form, usually
electrical, that is more easily processes by the intermediate
stage.
• In some cases, however, such a displacement is fed to
mechanical intermediate elements, such as linkages, gearing or
cams; these mechanical elements present design problems of
considerable magnitude, particularly if dynamic inputs are to be
handled.
• In the field of dynamic measurements, strictly mechanical
systems are much more uncommon than they were in years
past, largely because of several inherent disadvantages.
• Mechanical amplification by these elements is quite limited.
When amplification is required frictional forces are also
amplified, resulting in considerable undesirable signal loading.
These effects, coupled with backlash and elastic deformations,
59 result in poor response. KYC
Devices and systems
• Output from detector-transducer in electrical form is convenient
to perform further signal conditioning.
• Signal conditioning equipment may be required to do linear
processes like amplification, attenuation, integration,
differentiation, addition and subtraction.
• Signal conditioning are also required to do non-linear processes
like modulation, demodulation, sampling, filtering or
multiplication by another function.
• These tasks are not simple and require proper selection of
components and most faithful methods of reproducing output
signals, for the third stage devices.
• Measurement of dynamic mechanical quantities requires faithful
representation of their analogue or digital output obtained from
the intermediate stage (signal conditioning stage) and this place
a severe strain on the signal conditioning equipment's.
60 KYC
Devices and systems
• The following are some of the problems inherent in any
mechanical modifying system.
i. Kinematic linearity
ii. Mechanical Amplification or Gain
iii. Reflected Frictional Amplification
iv. Reflected Inertial Amplification
v. Amplification of Backlash
vi. Amplification of Elastic Deformation
vii. Tolerance Problems
viii.Temperature Problems
61 KYC
Devices and systems
• Kinematic Linearity: The linkages used for amplification should
be such that a linear relationship exists between the input and
the output i.e., at every point on the linkage the designed
amplification should be obtained.
• This is difficult to achieve since the linkages are likely to
undergo deformation due to usage. And also control of
tolerances on link dimensions and fixed pivot-point locations are
important.
• Mechanical amplification; may be expressed in terms of a
"Gain". This gain is equal to the mechanical advantage.
output displacement output velocity
Gain=Mechanical Advantage= =
input displacement input velocity
• When mechanical amplification is used, errors are caused on
account of inertial loading, elastic deformation, frictional loading
and backlash.
• Errors resulting from inertial loading and elastic deformation
could be classified as systematic errors, whereas those due to
62
frictional loading and backlash would be random errors. KYC
Devices and systems
• Reflected Frictional Amplification: Any source of friction in
the linkages will result in a force which gets amplified by the
designed amplification between the source and the input.
• This effect is referred as ‘reflected frictional amplification’. If
there are several sources of such friction, all these sources will
leads to forces which gets amplified and reflected to the input.
This is expressed by the equation
Ff r =ΣAFf
• Ffr= Total reflected frictional force at the input of the system.
• A= Mechanical amplification or gain.
• Ff = actual frictional force at its source
63 KYC
Devices and systems
• Reflected Inertial Amplification: Inertial forces causes
problems similar to those caused by friction forces. Their effects
are also reflected back to the input in proportion to the
amplification between the source of the force and the input.
• However, inertial forces are distributed and are dynamic in
nature, whereas frictional forces are concentrated and static in
nature. The inertial force may be expressed as,
Fir =  AΔFi
• where Fir= Total reflected inertial force to be overcome at the
system input.
• A= Mechanical amplification or gain
• Fi=Inertial force increment at any point in the system
• The inertial force varies with acceleration which varies directly
as the square of the velocity. Hence, whenever speeds are
involved, inertial forces are more. Therefore, the total reflected
64
force is given by F =F +F
r fr ir KYC
Devices and systems
• Amplification of Backlash: Backlash results from a temporary
non-constraint in a linkage, caused by clearances required in
mechanical fits where relative motion occurs.
• Backlash results in a lost motion at the output equal to the actual
backlash multiplied by the amplification between the source of
backlash and the output. In considering the effects of backlash,
it is convenient to express in terms of displacement losses being
projected ahead to the output rather than being reflected back to
the input.
• yb= Backlash resulting in loss of motion in the kinematic train.
• ybp=Total projected displacement loss resulting from backlash.
• A= Amplification or gain between the source of loss and the
output.
y bp =  Ay b
65 KYC
Devices and systems
• Amplification of Elastic Deformation: Elastic deformation is
the 'give’ or 'spring’ in the parts resulting directly from the loads
that are being handled.
• It also causes a lost motion at the output like backlash, but
elastic deformations are distributed through out the kinematic
tram unlike backlash which is a point source.
yep =  AΔye
• Where yep= total projected displacement loss at the output
caused by elastic deformation.
• A= amplification between source of loss and output
• ye= elastic deformation increment al any point in the system.
Therefore, the total displacement loss
y p = y bp + yep
66 KYC
Devices and systems
• Tolerance Problems: In any mechanical system involving
relative motion like a journal rotating in a bearing, tolerances
have to be provided.
• These tolerance results in a lost motion. By keeping the
tolerance range as low as possible we can minimize the lost
motion due to tolerances. However the lost motion due to
tolerances cannot be totally avoided. .
• Temperature Problems: In practice a measuring system cannot
react to the design signal alone and ignore all other signals.
• Temperature adversely affects the instrument operation. It is
impossible to maintain a constant temperature environment for
the measuring system. Therefore the usual solution is to accept
the temperature variation and to design the methods to
compensate for temperature variations .
• Temperature variations cause dimensional changes and affects
physical properties, resulting in errors referred to as ‘zero shift’
and ‘scale error’·
67 KYC
Devices and systems
• Zero shift : It results in a change in the no-input reading,
temperature variations is the primary cause for this error. In
normal cases the zero indication on the output scale is made
corresponding to the no-input condition.
• For example: Consider spring scale which should be set at zero
reading when there is no weight in the pan. If the temperature
changes after the scale has been set to zero, there may be a
differential dimensional changes between the spring and the
scale altering the no-load reading.
• This change is referred to as zero shift. Zero shift is primarily a
function of linear dimensional change caused by expansion or
contraction with changing temperature.
L1 = L0 (1 + T )
• L1 is the dimension at any temperature T1, L0 is the dimension at
some reference temperature T0,  is the co-efficient of thermal
expansion and T is the change in temperature (T1-T0)
68 KYC
Devices and systems
• Scale Error: Temperature changes also affects the scale
calibration when elastic load-carrying members are involved.
• For example in spring scales, the coil and wire diameters of the
spring will be altered with temperature change resulting in a
different spring constant and modulus of elasticity of the spring
material.
• These Changes alter the scale calibration and the resulting error
is referred to as scale error.
• The thermoelastic co-efficient may be expressed as,
E1 = E0 (1 + C T )
• where, E1 is the tensile modulus of elasticity at any temperature
T1, E0 is the tensile modulus of elasticity at temperature T0, C is
the co-efficient for tensile modulus of elasticity and T is the
change in temperature.
69 KYC
Devices and systems
• Methods for Limiting Temperature Errors
• Minimization: This is achieved by careful selection of materials
and the operating temperature ranges. The effect can- also be
minimized by selecting materials with low temperature
coefficients.
• Compensation: This is achieved by selecting inversely reacting
elements such that the error due to one of the elements is
compensated by the error due to the other elements.
• Elimination: This is done by operating the equipment's in a
temperature-controlled atmosphere.
70 KYC
Devices and systems
• Many mechanical input signals are transduced to electrical
signals by the first stage devices.
• Such transduced signals must be modified so as to be
acceptable for the third stage devices.
• The modification may consist of voltage amplification or power
amplification or both.
• In special types the modification may involve filtering,
integration, differentiation, remote recording etc.
• Input Circuitry: Depending on type of transducer used in first-
stage for secondary transduction, special types of input circuits
are used. These electrical transducers can be of two types :
• 1) Passive transducer which require an auxiliary source of
energy for further working. Example bonded wire strain gage.
• 2) Active transducer which are self powered. Example
piezoelectric transducer.
71 KYC
Devices and systems
• The type of circuits employed with these transducers are
respectively known as passive circuits and active circuits.
• A passive transducer requires special arrangements to
introduce the auxiliary power supply and the type of
arrangement depends on the principle involved.
• For example, resistive pickups may be powered by an, a.c or
d.c. source, whereas capacitive and inductive types require only
an a.c. source.
• Following are the most common forms of input circuits used in
transducers
• (i) Simple current-sensitive circuits
• (ii) Ballast Circuits
• (iii) Voltage-dividing circuits
• (iv) Voltage balancing potentiometer circuits
• (v) Bridge circuits
• (vi) Resonant circuits
72 KYC
Devices and systems
• Simple Current Sensitive Circuit: This circuit uses the flow of
current through a passive resistance transducer as an indication
of the value of the resistance.
• The transducer may employ any of the various form of variable
resistance elements.
• The resistance of transducer changes when there is a change in.
the physical quantity which is being measured, thereby causing
change in the current. This current is sensed and the. physical
quantity can be measured directly by calibrating.
73 KYC
Devices and systems
• Let Rt =maximum resistance of transducer.
• kRt = resistance of the transducer when measuring a particular
value of physical quantity.
• Rm = resistance of the measuring circuit excluding the
transducer.
• k represents a percentage factor which may vary from 0 to1 or
0 to100%, depending on the magnitude of physical quantity
being measured.
• If the transducer element is in the form of a sliding contact
resistor, the value of k varies through the complete range of 0 to
100%.
• On the other hand, if the transducer represents a thermistor
then the value of k varies over a limiting range which does not
include 0%.
74 KYC
Devices and systems
• Using ohm's law the current flowing through the circuit i0 and
hence the current indicated by the indicator is,
ei
io =
kRt + Rm
• The maximum value of the current occurs when k = 0,

ei
imax =
Rm
io Rm 1
• Rewriting = =
imax Rm + kRt  Rt 
1+ k  
 m
R
75 KYC
Devices and systems
• Figure shows the variation of io/imax ratio with k for various
values of Rt/Rm, io represents the output and k depends on the
input signal and so represents the input.
• Thus the Figure represents the input-output relationship for a
current sensitive circuit. It can be observed that the input-output
relationship is non-linear which is undesirable.
• In addition higher the ratio Rt/Rm, the greater is the output
variation. It can also be noted that the output io is a function of
imax which in turn is dependent on ei. This means that careful
control of the driving voltage is necessary if calibration has to be
maintained.
Variation of output current with input

signal k for a current sensitive circuit
76 KYC
Devices and systems
• Ballast circuit: A ballast circuit is only a simple variation of the
current sensitive circuit. In this case a voltage sensitive device is
connected across the transducer. lt is also called as voltage
sensitive circuit.
• A ballast resistor Rb is the resistance of the measuring circuit
excluding the transducer.
• A ballast resistance is very much essential in voltage-sensitive
circuit since in the absence of the ballast resistance Rb, the
voltage indicator will always record the full source voltage ei.
Hence some value of resistance Rb is necessary for proper
functioning of the circuit.
77 KYC
Devices and systems
• In order to analyse a ballast circuit, we assume that the voltage
indicator has an infinite resistance such that it does not draw
any current.
• Therefore, by ohm’s law the output current is
ei
io =
Rb + kRt
• If eo is the voltage across k Rt, which is indicated by the voltage
indicator, then the output voltage indicated is,
ei kRt
eo = io (kRt ) =
Rb + kRt
eo kRt kRt / Rb
= =
ei Rb + kRt  kRt 
1+  
 Rb 
78 KYC
Devices and systems
• For a ballast circuit, eo/ei is a measure of the output and k Rt/Rb
is a measure of the input.
• Percentage variation in supply voltage ei, results in a greater
change in output than does a similar percentage change in k,
hence very careful voltage regulation must be employed.
Further, relation between output and input is not linear.
Input-output
Relationship for
Ballast Circuit
79 KYC
Devices and systems
• Electronic Amplifiers: Amplification is always used in a circuitry
intended for mechanical measurement. The term electronic
means that in some part of circuit, electrons are caused to
flow through space in the absence of a physical conductor.
• In mechanical measurements electronic amplifiers are used to
provide voltage gain, current gain and impedance
transformation.
• In most of the transducers electrical voltage is the output. But
the voltage level available from the transducer is very low,
hence a voltage amplifier is used ta increase the level for
subsequent processing.
• Sometimes input signal may be used to drive a recorder or
control apparatus. In such cases power must be increased by
using current or power amplifiers.
• Piezoelectric transducers produces sufficient signal level but
are accompanied by undesirable output impedance level.
80 KYC
Devices and systems
• Disadvantage of high-impedance is their susceptibility to noise.
Low-impedance are much less prone to this problem.
• Hence, it is desirable to include an impedance transformation in
the form of an amplifier which converts high-impedance input to
a low-impedance output. This type of amplifier is called a buffer.
• General principles of an ideal electronic amplifiers:
• (i) Infinite input impedance – no input current, hence no load on
previous stage
• (ii) Infinite gain
• (iii) Low noise or zero output impedance
• (iv) Instant response
• (v) Zero output for zero input
• (vi) Ability to ignore or reject unwanted inputs
81 KYC
Devices and systems
• Vacuum tube amplifiers: In this, electronic amplification is
based on the fact that electrons emitted from a heated
cathode are attracted to a positively charged plate, causing
a current to flow in the plate circuit.
• The flow of electrons are controlled by a grid which is placed
between the cathode and the plate and is negatively
charged relative to the cathode.
• This negative voltage on the grid is called bias voltage.
Variations in the charge on the grid supplied by the input
signal controls the current flow in the plate circuit.
• Number of stages may be connected together for greater
amplifications so that the load of the first stage becomes the
input for the II stage and so on.
82 KYC
Devices and systems
Single Stage Amplifier Circuit

C supplies the necessary bias voltage, B provides the plate
supply, and A heats the cathode. In practice, these voltages
are drawn from a common supply using voltage dividers
83 KYC
Devices and systems
• Voltage and Power Amplifiers: If the terminating device is an
indicator, only voltage amplification is sufficient and such an
amplifier is called voltage amplifier.
• If the terminating device consists of a recorder or some form of
controller then additional power is required to drive these
devices.
• Amplifiers which amplify the power in addition to voltage for
driving such devices arc known us power amplifiers.
• A-C and D-C Amplifiers: Amplifiers are classified depending on
the type of input signal which they will accept.
• D.C. amplifiers are difficult to design and can handle both
constant as well as varying inputs.
• But it is difficult to maintain constant amplification. An A.C.
amplifier can handle only varying inputs.
84 KYC
Devices and systems
• Chopper Amplifiers: An A.C. amplifier may be used to amplify
a D.C. input with the help of an additional circuit component
known as chopper and such an amplifier is called chopper
amplifier. Chopper is an electrically driven on-off switch.
• Application of an A.C. voltage to the driver coil causes the
chopper to vibrate between a pair of contacts. When a D.C.
input signal is connected, the amplifier receives a chopped or
square-wave voltage which being an A.C. amplifier, it amplifies
without any difficulty.
• Amplifier output displayed on a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO)
screen for constant and a dynamic input respectively.
• In each case, the lower trace is present providing a reference
line. When the signal frequency approaches that of chopping
frequency, problem arises.
• A minimum ratio of 10:1 between chopped frequency and signal
frequency is the Jimit for chopper amplifiers i.e., the input signal
frequency should not be more than 1/10th of chopped frequency
KYC
85
Devices and systems
Chopper Amplifier: Chopper is an electrically driven

on-off switch
86 KYC
Devices and systems
• Carrier Amplifiers: Input signal information is often carried on
an a.c. frequency, in which case the input signal is said to
modulate the carrier frequency.
• Certain special-purpose amplifiers include carrier source as a
part or the amplifier, such arrangements are called carrier
amplifiers.
• Carrier systems provide an a.c. output whose amplitude is blind
to sign of the input signal.
• The output from a differential transformer is an example of a
modulated signal. The transformer is energized by an a.c.
exciting frequency.
• The core position either static or varying determines the
amplitude of the output.
• Certain special carrier amplifiers may incorporate the phase
discriminator circuit, to discriminate the signals resulting from
different core positions in the case of a differential transformer.
87 KYC
Devices and systems
Carrier Amplifier system for a Differential Transformer
88 KYC
Devices and systems
• Tuned Amplifiers: Amplifiers which are designed to allow or
amplify only a predetermined frequency as in the case of a
carrier system, are said to be tuned.
• They consists of a separate component called the tuned filter
which ideally allows the predetermined frequency to pass
rejecting all others.
• In practice the sharpness of tuning is limited, and a band of
frequencies are allowed to pass. The main advantage of a
tuned amplifier that unwanted signals at other frequencies are
eliminated.
89 KYC
Devices and systems
• Cathode follower Amplifier: Slight modification of the
simple single-stage-amplifier circuit leads to cathode follower
amplifier.
• If the output is taken across the cathode resistor, such an
amplifier is known as cathode-follower amplifier.
• The signal input is introduced through the grid. The voltage
gain is always than unity.
• The main advantage from this type of circuit is of
transforming a high impedance source at the grid to a low
impedance output.
• It is commonly used for coupling high impedance transducers
such as piezoelectric type, to low impedance terminating or
intermediate devices.
90 KYC
Devices and systems
Cathode follower Amplifier
91 KYC
Devices and systems
Performance Characteristics of Amplifiers
i. Response: The dynamic response of an amplifier must be
equal or greater than that of the transducer feeding it. And the
response should-be flat over a wide range of frequencies.
ii. Loading Effects: In order to prevent loading effects the
amplifiers input impedance should be very high as compared to
the output impedance of the transducer feeding it. The loading
effects causes loss of sensitivity and create non-linearity.
iii.Zero drift: It is generally large and is mainly on account of
equipment not sufficiently warmed up and there is a short time
lag till the equipment is thoroughly warmed up. The amplifiers
have to be provided with balancing controls so that the output is
made equal to zero when the input is zero.
iv.Noise: It is due to many random processes such as gas noise
in electron tubes, resistors, and transistor circuits. Noise limits
the amplifier behaviour mainly with respect to the threshold or
92
the smallest signal that can be detected. KYC
Devices and systems
• Telemetry: Telemetry is the technique of measuring from a
distance. Telemetering may be defined as indicating, recording
or integrating of a quantity at a distance by electrical means.
• It is a very important part of the intermediate measurement
stage in the systems used for missile and aircraft flight testing.
• They require radio links which permits the use of readout
devices located on the ground.
• Telemetry is also used in industrial, medical and transportation
applications.
Block Diagram of General Telemetering System

93 KYC
Devices and systems
• The primary detector and end devices of the telemetering
system have the same functions as in any general
measurement system.
• However the intermediate stage consists of three elements,
such as telemeter transmitter, telemeter channel and
telemeter receiver.
• The function of the telemeter transmitter is to convert the
output of a primary detector into an analogous transmitted
signal which can be transmitted over the telemeter channel.
• The function of the telemeter receiver at the remote location
is to convert the transmitted signal into a related suitable
quantity.
94 KYC
Devices and systems
• Advantages of telemetering over recording of data at the
source are as follows
➢ For the same capacity, weight of telemetering equipment is
less.
➢ Many channels may be individually and continuously
monitored without the direct attention of the operator.
➢ Exceeding of safe limits may be immediately recognized and
corrective measures can be taken.
➢ In the case of destructive failure, telemetered data gives a
complete record up to the final moment.
➢ Practical recording time is not limited.
• Disadvantages of Telemetering Systems are:
➢ It is more complex and expensive
➢ The required extra processing of the data leads to greater
chance for error.
➢ Greater opportunity for the introduction of unwanted signals.
95 KYC
Signal Display & Recording Devices
• Introduction to Terminating Devices: Usefulness of any
measuring system depends on its ability to present the measured
quantity in a form which can be understood fully by the human
operator or any controlling device.
• The primary function of a terminating device is to accept the
analogous driving signal and to provide output for immediate
reading or for recording.
• For direct human interpretation, except for simple ‘yes’ or ‘no’
indication, the terminating devices provides the information as :
• 1) A relative displacement : Examples : a pointer moving over a
scale, a scale moving past an index, light beam and scale, liquid
column and scale etc.
• 2) A digital form: Examples : odometer in an automobile
speedometer, an electric decade counter, a rotating drum
mechanical counter.
• 3) Yes or no limiting type : Examples : red oil-pressure lights in
96
automobiles, pilot lamps on equipment's. KYC
• Most of the dynamic mechanical measurements requires

electrical terminating devices.
• Due to poor response characteristics the mechanical,
hydraulic-pneumatic and optical systems cannot be used for
rapidly changing inputs.
• Majority of the terminating devices are simple counter of items
or events.
• For example, a mechanical type automobile odometer simply
counts the turns of a driving shaft through a gear reduction,
which scales the read-out to kilometers.
97 KYC
• Meter Indicators: Pointer-and-scale meters are useful for static
and steady-state dynamic indications, but they are not generally
usable for transient measurements. This is due to relatively high
inertia of the meter movement.
• Meter indicators may be classified as :
i. Simple D'Arsonval type for measurement of current or voltage
ii. Ohmmeters and volt-ohm milli ammeters and
iii. Vacuum-tube voltmeters.
• Among these simple D'Arsonval meter movement is widely
employed as the final indicating device.
98 KYC
• Analog Electric Meter Indicator: The common electric meter
used for measuring either current or voltage is based on the
D’Arsonval movement.
• It consists of a coil assembly mounted on a pivoted shaft
whose rotation is constrained by two spiral springs, one at
each end of the shaft.
• The coil assembly is mounted in a magnetic field.
• The electric current to be measured is passed through the coil
and the two interacting magnetic fields result in a torque
applied to the pivoted assembly.
• Then the resulting displacement of the pointer on the scale is
calibrated in terms of electric current.
• This principle forms the basis for most of the electric meters,
stylus and light-beam oscillographs.
99 KYC
D’Arsonval Meter movement

• Basically, the D'Arsonval movement is current sensitive hence
irrespective of whether it is used as current meter or voltmeter,
current must flow.
• Naturally in most applications, smaller the current flow, the lower
will be the loading on the circuit being measured. Further the
100
meter-movement itself possesses some internal resistance. KYC
• Basic d-c voltmeter and d-c current meter circuits.
• Either multiplier or shunt resistors are used in conjunction with
the same basic meter movement.
• To minimize circuit loading it is desirable that total voltmeter
resistance should be much greater than the resistance of the
circuit under test.
• For the same reason, the current-meter resistance must be as
low as possible.
• In both the cases, meter movements providing large deflections
for the given current flow through the meter are required for high
sensitivity.
101 D-C Voltmeter circuit D-C Current meter circuit

KYC
• Mechanical Counters: A mechanical counter consists of a
number of small drums, each numbered from 0 to 9 round the
periphery.
• The first drum may be rotated continuously or rotated in
increments of 36° by a ratchet. As each rotation of Drum 1 is
completed, a transfer-tooth segment engages with a transfer
pinion, to rotate the Drum 2 by 36°. A complete rotation of Drum
2 rotates, Drum 3 by 36°, and so on.
• This device is frequently used in automobile odometers, in
component counters, and shaft-revolution counters.
• Alternately, operation may be by electric solenoid, actuated by a
pulse from a switch or transducer. This may give counting rates
of up to 1000 per minute.
• Variations of the basic counters may be used to subtract digits
as well as add, or to operate a switch after a preset number of
pulses or rotations have been counted.
102 KYC
MECHANISM OF A MECHANICAL COUNTER
103 KYC
• Cathode Raj Oscilloscope (CRO): CRO is the most versatile
read-out device for mechanical measurements. It is used for
measurement and analysis of waveforms and other phenomena
in electrical and electronic circuits.
• CRO is a voltage-sensitive instrument with an inertia less beam
of electrons striking the fluorescent screen.
• The extremely low inertia beam of electrons enables it to be
used for following the changes in rapidly varying voltages.
• The important parts of cathode-ray tube are :
• 1) Electron gun assembly: The electron gun assembly
produces a sharply focused beam of electrons which inturn are
accelerated to high velocity.
• This beam of electrons strikes the fluorescent screen with
sufficient energy to cause a luminous spot on the screen.
104 KYC
• 2) Electron gun: An electron gun emits electrons and makes
them into a beam. It consists of a heater, cathode, grid,
focusing and accelerating anodes.
• Electrons are emitted from an indirectly heated cathode.
These electrons pass through a small hole in the control grid.
• The intensity of electron beam depends on the number of
electrons emitted from the cathode.
• The grid controls the electrons emitted from the cathode and
hence the intensity is controlled by the grid .
• The electrons passing through the grid are accelerated by
accelerating anodes.
• 3) Deflection plates: After leaving the electron gun, the
electron beam passes through two pairs of electrostatic
deflection plates.
• Voltage applied to a pair of vertical plates moves the electron
beam vertically up or down. KYC
105
• And if the voltage is applied to the pair of horizontal plates,
they move the electron beam horizontally from one end to the
other end of the screen.
• The cathode ray tube (CRT) is evacuated so that the emitted
electrons can move freely from one end of the lube to the
other.
• The normal form of CRO uses a horizontal input voltage which
is an internally generated ramp voltage called 'Time Base'.
• This horizontal voltage moves the luminous spot periodically in
a horizontal direction over the display area of the screen.
• The vertical input to the CRO is the voltage under investigation.
• This vertical input voltage moves the luminous spot up and
down in accordance, with the instantaneous value of the
voltage.
• The luminous spot thus traces .the waveform of the input
voltage with respect to time.
106 KYC
Parts of Cathode-ray Tube
107 KYC
• CRO Circuit: The main features of CRO are as follows :
• (a) Oscilloscope Amplifiers: Sensitivity of the cathode ray
tube is very low, varying from 0.010 - to 0.15cm deflection per
d.c. volt, or from 6 to 100 volts/cm of deflection.
• In order to use CRO widely for measurement work, they are
provided with a means for signal amplification before the
signal is applied to the deflection plates.
• In addition oscilloscopes are equipped for d.c. and a.c.
amplifications on both the vertical and horizontal plates
• (b) Sawtooth Oscillator or Time base Generator: A typical
cathode ray oscilloscope is equipped with an integral
sawtooth or sweep oscillator.
• It is a variable frequency oscillator which produces an output
voltage time relation in sawtooth form.
108 KYC
• Voltage increases uniformly with time until a maximum is

reached, at which point it collapses instantaneously.
• When the output from a sawtooth oscillator is applied to the
horizontal deflection plates of the CRT, the bright spot of light
will traverse the screen face at a uniform velocity.
• As the voltage reaches a maximum and collapses to zero, the
spot is striked back across the screen to its starting point, from
which repeats the cycle.
109 KYC
• (c) Synchronization: Whatever type of sweep is used, it must
be synchronized with the signal being measured.
Synchronization is done to obtain stationary pattern.
• This requires that the time base be operated at a submultiple
frequency of the signal under measurement. lf the
synchronization is not done, the pattern is not stationary, but
appears to drift across the screen.
• If we use vertical input as synchronizing signal source, then
synchronization selector should be set to "Internal". Then the
voltage pulses from the input signal will be applied to sweep
oscillator and is used to control the oscillator frequency over a
small range
• A simple make-and-break contactor could be attached to the
compressor shaft, and a voltage pulse could be provided for
synchronization through the use of a simple dry cell. Such a
circuit is connected between the external synchronization input
and the ground, and the synchronization selector is set to
110
"External". KYC
• d) Intensity or Z-Modulation: The fluorescent trace
produced by the electron beam may be brightened or
darkened by applying a positive or negative voltage
respectively to the grid of the cathode ray tube.
• Some oscilloscopes make provision for applying a brightness
modulating voltage from an external source, either through a
terminal on the front panel. or through a connection on the
back of the instrument. This is known as intensity or Z-
modulation.
• e) External Horizontal Input: It is not necessary to use the
sweep oscillator for the horizontal input, and the input
terminals are provided for connecting other sources of
voltage. This permits a comparison of voltages, frequencies
and phase relations.
111 KYC
Block Diagram of a CRO Circuit
112 KYC
• Applications of CRO
• (i) To observe waveform of voltage
• (ii) To measure voltage and current
• (iii) To measure phase relations and frequency
➢ In phase and 180 out of phase relations.
➢ 90 Phase relations
➢  phase relation
113 KYC
• To observe waveform of voltage: In order to observe
waveform on a CRO, the waveform of the voltage under test is
applied to vertical or ‘Y’ deflection plates and a voltage
obtained from a sawtooth generator is applied to horizontal or
‘X’ deflection plates.
• When the horizontal sawtooth (ramp) voltage, along with an
input voltage is applied simultaneously to vertical (Y)
deflection plates, then the beam will be under influence of the
following two forces :
• (a) one in the horizontal direction moving the beam from left to
right and
• (b) the second force in the vertical direction moving the beam
up and down.
• Since, the deflection is proportional to the voltage applied to
the deflection plates, the horizontal movement is proportional
to the voltage applied to the 'X’ plates at any instant.
114 KYC
• In addition, since the ramp voltage is linear it traces a straight on
the screen of the CRT.
• The vertical deflection is proportional to the voltage applied to the
‘Y’ plates at any instant and thus the beam moves up or down
according to the magnitude and polarity of the input voltage.
Waveform on CRT screen

115 KYC
• To measure voltage and current: The deflection of the
electron beam is proportional to the voltage of the deflection
plates. Thus with help of a scale on CRT screen the voltage can
be measured.
• A constant gain amplifier and a calibrated shift controls may be
incorporated with CRO’s to measure voltages.
• The 'Y' shift control is adjusted such that a positive peak of the
test voltage coincides with some datum line on the screen the
shift control is then operated until a negative peak coincides
with the datum.
• The movement of the control is arranged to read peak-to-peak
voltage directly.
• The value of a current can be obtained by measuring the
voltage drop across a known resistance connected in the circuit.
116 KYC
• To measure phase relations and frequency: Lissajous
patterns are the characteristic patterns obtained on the CRT
screen when sinusoidal voltages are simultaneously applied to
horizontal and vertical plates.
• Suppose two sinusoidal voltages from different sources are
connected to a CRO, one to the vertical and the other to the
horizontal plates then any of the following patterns may result.
• (a) In-phase and 180° out of phase relations : If two
sinusoidal voltages of equal frequency which are in phase with
each other are applied to 'X' and 'Y' deflection plates. Then as
the 'X' voltage increases, 'Y' voltage als increases.
• The 'X' voltage will deflect the beam along the horizontal axis
while the 'Y' voltage will deflect it in the vertical direction. Then
the resulting trace of the beam will be a straight line placed
diagonally across the face of the CRT
117 KYC
Lissajous pattern for In-phase and 180 out of phase relations
118 KYC
• (b) 90° Phase relations : When two sinusoidal voltages of
equal frequency but with 90° out of phase are applied to CRO,
then the resulting trace of the beam will be a circle. In this case
when one voltage passes through zero, the other will be at
maximum and vice verse.
Lissajous pattern for equal voltages and frequency

119 but 90 out of phase KYC
• (c)  phase relation: When two equal voltages of equal
frequency but with a phase shift of  are applied to a CRO.
Then the resulting trace of the beam will be an ellipse.
Lissajous pattern for two equal voltages of same

120 frequency with a phase shift of  KYC
• X-Y Plotters: It is an instrument used to obtain a cartesian
graph originated by two d.c. inputs, one plotted along the X-axis
and the other along the Y-axis.
• In X-Y plotters an emf is plotted as a function of another emf.
This is done by having one self-balancing potentiometer to
control the position of the paper, while another self-balancing
potentiometer to control the position of the pen.
• In some X-Y plotters, one self-balancing potentiometer circuit
moves a recording pen in the X-direction and another self-
balancing potentiometer circuit moves the pen in the Y-direction,
while the paper remains stationary.
• The emf, used for the operation of X-Y plotters may be the
output of a transducer that may measure displacement, force,
pressure, strain or any other physical quantity. Thus with the
help of X-Y plotters along with appropriate transducers, a
physical quantity may be plotted against another physical
quantity.
121 KYC
• X-Y plotter consists of a pair of servo-systems driving a
recording pen in two axes through a proper sliding pen and
moving arm arrangement with reference to a stationary paper
chart.
• The signals are attenuated to the full-scale range of the plotter.
The signal then passes to balance circuit where it is compared
with an internal reference voltage.
• Then the difference between the input signal voltage and the
reference voltage is fed to a chopper which converts d.c. signal
to an a.c. signal.
• The signal is then amplified in order to drive the servomotors.
The action described above takes place in both the axis
simultaneously.
• Thus we get a record, of one variable with respect to another.
122 KYC
XY Plotter
123 KYC

Unit 1 Chapter 2 CMMD Transducers

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Unit 1 Chapter 2 CMMD Transducers

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Course Title:

Concept of Metrology and Machine

• Transducers: Characteristics transfer

Four stages in generalized measuring system

• Transducers are classified as follows:

Measurement of pressure using Bourdon tube and LVDT

Pressure-displacement :bourdon tube- primary transducer

Displacement-analogous voltage-LVDT- secondary transducer

8. Robustness: It should be able to endure pressure,

Sliding contact Device

Angular motion variable resistance, or potentiometer

Mutual inductance transducer (Two Coil). Coil A is energizing coil

Mutual inductance transducer (Two Coil). Electronic micrometer

• Differential transformer: (a) Schematic arrangement

Simple variable-reluctance pickup

Section showing relative arrangement of teeth in

• Capacitive Transducer: Changing Distance

Capacitive type Pressure pickup

• Bourdon tube: One end of the tube is sealed and physically

Bourdon Tube gauge

Flat diaphragm Corrugated diaphragm

58 Schematic of Metallic Bellows KYC

• The maximum value of the current occurs when k = 0,

Variation of output current with input

Single Stage Amplifier Circuit

Chopper Amplifier: Chopper is an electrically driven

Carrier Amplifier system for a Differential Transformer

Cathode follower Amplifier

Block Diagram of General Telemetering System

• Most of the dynamic mechanical measurements requires

D’Arsonval Meter movement

101 D-C Voltmeter circuit D-C Current meter circuit

MECHANISM OF A MECHANICAL COUNTER

Parts of Cathode-ray Tube

• Voltage increases uniformly with time until a maximum is

Block Diagram of a CRO Circuit

Waveform on CRT screen

Lissajous pattern for In-phase and 180 out of phase relations

Lissajous pattern for equal voltages and frequency

Lissajous pattern for two equal voltages of same

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