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I. PHYSICS – natural science that deals with B. COMMON PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND
the understanding of non-living things. It deals STANDARD UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
specifically with matter and energy and their
relationship. a. FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES
Quantity Symbol Unit
A. BRANCHES OF PHYSICS Length l m (meter)
Mass m kg (kilogram)
• CLASSICAL PHYSICS – refers to the Time t s (second)
traditional topics in physics that were Electric Current I A (Ampere)
recognized and developed before the Temperature
beginning of 20th century. These topics are T K (Kelvin)
(Absolute)
concerned with matter and energy under Amount of
normal conditions. (NMAT focuses on n mol (mole)
Substance
Classical Physics)
Luminous
1. Mechanics – the study of forces acting I cd (Candela)
Intensity
on bodies whether at rest or in motion.
b. DERIVED QUANTITIES
a. Statics – on forces acting on
Area A m2
bodies at rest
Volume V m3
b. Kinematics – on motion without
Density D kg/m3
regard to its cause
c. Dynamics – on motion and the Speed/Velocity v/d m/s
forces that affect it Acceleration m/s2
2. Acoustics – the study of the production Force/ Weight F/W kg ⋅ m/s (N, Newton)
2

and propagation of sound waves. Pressure P N/m2 (Pa, pascal)

3. Optics – the study of light.
a. Physical optics – on the
production, nature and
properties of light
b. Physiological optics – on part
played by light in vision
c. Geometrical optics – on the
reflection and refraction of light
as encountered in the study of
mirrors and lenses
4. Thermodynamics – the study of the
relationship between heat and other
forms of energy.
5. Electromagnetism – the study of the
properties of electric current and
magnetism, and their relationship
a. Electrostatics – on electric
charges at rest
b. Electrodynamics – on moving
charges
c. Magnetostatics – on magnetic
poles at rest
• MODERN PHYSICS – refers to concepts of
physics that have surfaced since the
beginning of the 20th century. This branch is
mostly concerned with the behavior of
matter and energy under extreme
conditions (the very large or the very small).
Work W N⋅m (J, joule)
Power P N⋅m/s (W, watt)
C. SCALARS and VECTORS
• Scalar Quantity – is a quantity that is
described by its magnitude.
e.g. 40 kg, describes mass
30 min, describes time
5 km, shows distance
27°C, gives the temperature
• Scalar quantities add up or subtract like
ordinary numbers.
• Vector Quantity – is a quantity that is
completely described by both magnitude
and direction.
e.g. 80 km/h E, tells the velocity of a
vehicle (the magnitude is 80 km/h and
direction is east).
20 N upward, describes a force of
20 N (magnitude) directed upward.
1 m/s2 to the right, which expresses
the acceleration of a moving object
with a magnitude of 1 m/s2 directed to
the right.

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k as the distance traveled in a given
II. MECHANICS time interval.
To have constant velocity, both speed and
-the sub branch of classical physics that direction must be constant. Motion at
us concerned with the forces acting on bodies, constant velocity is motion in a straight line
whether at rest or in motion at uniform speed.
Divided to:
a. Statics – focuses on the way in 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
velocity =
which forces combine with each other 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
as to produce equilibrium.
b. Kinematics – focuses on the motion (𝑽𝒊!𝑽𝒇)
displacement = 𝟐
 𝑥  𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
of a body without regard to the cause
of that motion.
c. Dynamics – focuses on the way in
which force produces motion. • Acceleration – rate of change in
velocity at given time interval. An
MOTION – movement of an object exhibited object is accelerating when it speeds
by a change in position up, slows down (usually deceleration)
• Rectilinear motion – motion of an or changes direction. VECTOR
object traveling in a straight path. QUANTITY.
• Curvilinear motion – object traveling
𝒎
in a curved path. 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆  𝒊𝒏  𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚    ( )
𝒔
• Angular motion – object traveling at acceleration =
𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒑𝒔𝒆𝒅  𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆  (𝒔)
certain angles.
(𝑽𝒇 − 𝑽𝒊)
A. KINEMATICS: DESCRIPTION OF MOTION              →  =    
𝒂 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
KINEMATICS – it is the study that deals with
the description of motion. It uses the following
basic concepts of motion: distance, KINEMATIC EQUATIONS
displacement, speed, velocity and
acceleration. Velocity 𝒅
• Distance – the total path length =  
𝑽 𝒕
traversed by an object moving from
Velocity 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑉𝑓
one location to another. SCALAR
QUANTITY (e.g. 5.0 meters) 2
• Displacement – separation of object Acceleration 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖
=  
and a reference point. VECTOR ! 𝑡
QUANTITY (e.g. 5.0 m East) 𝑉𝑓 + 𝑉𝑖
Displacement
=    𝑡
! 2
• Speed – rate at which distance is
covered at a given time. SCALAR Displacement 1
= 𝑉𝑖𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 !
QUANTITY ! 2
*Instantaneous speed – speed at Displacement 𝑉𝑓 ! −   𝑉𝑖 !
any instant. =  
! 2𝑎
*Average speed – distance
traveled by the total time elapsed
in traveling the distance.
• Velocity – direction is associated with
speed. VECTOR QUANTITY
For UNIFORM MOTION IN A
STRAIGHT LINE, the magnitude of
the net displacement is the same

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B. MOTION OF FALLING OBJECTS (FREE FALL) same height, whether it is on its way up or
down.
• If an object is held above the ground and
released, it would fall toward the ground
TERMINAL VELOCITY – maximum velocity
due to the gravitational attraction
attained by an object falling through a fluid.
between the earth and the object.
It occurs when the drag force balances the
• Galileo hypothesized that two objects
gravitational force on the object. At this
would fall at the same rate regardless of
instance, the object has reached its limiting
their mass.
velocity and can no longer accelerate.
• He was able to observe that in the
absence of air resistance, heavy and light
C. PROJECTILE MOTION
objects will fall at the same time and, in
the absence of friction, a moving object
PROJECTILE MOTION – object thrown with an
will maintain its motion unless acted upon
initial horizontal velocity and acted upon by
by a retarding force.
the earth’s pull of gravity. It travels in a curved
• He further deduced from his observations
path called trajectory.
that the time of fall increases as height of
It is a combination of vertical and horizontal
fall increases.
motions that are completely independent
• If there is no air resistance, then gravity is
of each other.
the only thing that affects a falling object,
such an object is said to be in FREE FALL.

FREE FALL – when an object is dropped, the

object starts from rest and gains speed as it
falls. This gain in speed indicates that the
object accelerates as it falls because of
gravity, g.

The displacement of falling objects in a

given period of time is computed by the
equation:
d = vit + ½ gt2

The final velocity of falling objects can be

The horizontal and vertical motions of a
calculated by the equations:
projectile that is projected at an angle
vf2 = vi2 + 2gd
vf = vi + gt

Although we speak of falling objects,

objects in upward motion experience the
same free fall acceleration.

The velocity decreases as the object rises

until its velocity momentarily becomes
zero as it reaches its maximum height and
then fall back toward the earth with
increasing velocity.

If air resistance is neglected, the object

will move with the same speed at the

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HORIZONTAL PROJECTIONS – the velocity of a
projectile can separated into horizontal and
vertical components.
The vertical component (vy) varies while the
horizontal component (vx) is constant.
The actual velocity (vR) is represented by
the resultant vectors that form the diagonal
of the rectangle formed by the vertical and
horizontal components.
Vx
VR
Vy
V R2 = V x2 + V y2
VR = V x2 + V y2
The maximum height (dy) and horizontal
distance (dx) can be calculated by using
the formula of free falling body and that for
constant speed motion, respectively. Thus,
dy = gt2 / 2
dx = vx • t
D. DYNAMICS: FORCE THAT CAUSES CHANGES
IN MOTION
DYNAMICS – the study that focuses on the
way in which forces produces motion.
Force represents an object’s interaction
with its environment.
“FORCE do NOT ALWAYS CAUSE MOTION”
NET FORCE - is a physical quantity that is a
capable of changing an object’s state of
motion.
Net force which is the vector sum of all the
forces acting on the body, causes an object
at rest to start moving. Once the object is set
into motion, force can also speed it up or
slow it down.
e.g. When you throw a ball. The ball
remains relatively at rest when it is in your
hand. When you throw it, it is set into
motion.
Net force causes a moving object to stop, as
when brakes stop a car or when you catch a
ball. A moving object will maintain its motion
unless acted upon by a retarding force
(friction).
Net force causes a moving object to change
its direction.
e.g. When a baseball collides with a bat
and it bounces off in another direction.
FORCE may be acting on an object, its
capability to cause change in the state of
motion may be balanced or canceled by
another force or forces. Therefore, change in
motion may not necessarily follow when a
force is applied. But, it follows that, if a force
acts alone, the object on which it acts will
change its state of motion. VECTOR QUANTITY.
Force can speed or slow down a moving
object. It produces acceleration.
• Balanced forces – the net force is
zero when two forces are equal and
they act in opposite directions.
• Unbalances forces – a nonzero net
force. This net force produces
acceleration.
E. NEWTON’s LAW OF MOTION
• LAW OF INERTIA
- a body at rest remains at rest and a
body already in motion remains in
motion with a constant velocity
(constant speed and direction), in the
absence of an unbalanced applied
force.
• INERTIA – tendency of an object to
maintain its initial state of motion.
• An object which is more massive has
more inertia or has more resistance to
change in motion than a less massive
object does.
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• LAW OF ACCELERATION
- the acceleration of an object is
directly proportional to the net force
acting on the object and inversely
proportional to the mass.
- if no net force acts on an object, the
velocity of the object does not change.
- the greater force you apply, the faster
will the car accelerate. So if more
people push, the car will reach same
velocity faster.
acceleration = force / mass
*newton – a net force which, when
applied to a 1 kg mass, gives it an
acceleration of 1 m/s2
• LAW OF INTERACTION
- When an object exerts a force on
another object, the second object
exerts on the first a force of the same
magnitude but in the opposite direction.
- For every force (action) there is an
equal and opposite force (reaction).
examples:
a. Imagine that you are playing
basketball and have just hit a ball.
The bat exerts force on the ball that
causes it to move. At the same time
that the bat exerts a force on the
ball, the ball is also exerting an
opposite force on the bat.
b. When you lean against a wall,
the wall pushes back on you with a
force equal to that which you exert
on the wall. If the force exerted by
the wall does not exist, you will
collapse with the wall.
The third law, may seem to contradict
the second law. If there are always
equal and opposite forces, how can
there be a nonzero net force?
It is always important to remember
that the forces in each pair in the
third law are OPPOSING FORCES that
do not act on the same object,
while the forces in the second law
are acting on a particular object (or
system).
F. MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE
MOMENTUM
• The heavy or massive objects have
greater momentum even if they are
moving slowly. But this does not seem to
be true always.
• A light object can have as much
momentum as heavy object,
depending on how fast it moves.
The Linear Momentum of an object of mass
moving with a velocity is defined as the
product of the mass and the velocity.
p = mv
Linear momentum is a VECTOR QUANTITY
whose direction is the direction of velocity.
Like velocity, it can be resolved into
rectangular components.
px = mvx and py = mvy
Unit of Momentum = kg • m/s
The momentum of an object changes if its
velocity and/or its mass changes.
Impulse – cause of change in momentum.
VECTOR QUANTITY. It is directly proportional
to the change in momentum.
Unit = kg • m/s
I = FnetΔt
I = Δp
I = mΔv
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
-the total momentum of a system does
not change if there is no net external
force acting on it.
m1v1i + m2v2i = m1v1f + m2v2f
NOT MOVING OBJECT = Zero momentum
(No velocity)
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 G. TYPES OF COLLISION

“ALL COLLISIONS CONSERVE MOMENTUM”

Elastic Collision Inelastic Collision

“separation” “Stick-on”
Billiard ball Car collision

KE is conserved KE is not conserved

Different velocity after Common velocity

collision or when after collision
separated
I. LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

H. UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION – motion in a
circle at a constant speed
What is uniform speed?
The speed of an object is the distance it
covers divided by time.
𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝒗 =  
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
*Period – the time needed by an object in
uniform circular motion to complete an
orbit.
*The distance is the circumference of the
circle with radius is given as 2𝜋r
In uniform circular motion, notice that even
the speed is constant, the direction is
always changing with time. Therefore,
velocity is changing with time. If this is so,
then there must be an acceleration.
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION is
accelerated motion.
CENTRIPETAL FORCE (Fc) – the force that
causes an object to move in a circle at a
constant speed. This force is directed
towards the circle.
A body in uniform circular motion
experience a centripetal acceleration.
F = ma
Fc = mac
!!
Fc = m
!
This law states that every object in the
universe attracts every other object with a
force that is directly proportional to the
product of the masses of the two objects
and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between the centers of the
two objects and in a line connecting to
their centers.
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
Fg = G
𝑹𝟐
𝑵  𝒎𝟐
where G = 6.67 x 10-11
𝒌𝒈𝟐
J. MASS AND WEIGHT
• Mass – how much matter there is in an
object.
• The greater the mass of an object,
the stronger is the earth’s
an
gravitational pull on it.
• Mass is very basic and depends
only on the number and kinds of
atoms that compose an object.
• The amount of material in an
object remains the same whether it
is located on earth, moon or outer
space.
• Mass is also the measure of the
inertia of an object. The greater
the mass of an object, the greater
is its inertia and the force is needed
to change its state of motion.

Fc = mv2/r

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 • Weight – a force. The earth’s
gravitational force on an object. It is
measured in newtons (N).
• Weight depends on an objects
location and how strongly that
object is attracted by the earth’s
gravity.
Relationship of MASS and WEIGHT
• Greater masses have greater weights
while smaller masses have smaller
weights.
• In the same place, double mass implies a
weight that is doubled.
• Mass and weight are not equal to each
other.
• Mass speaks to the amount of matter in
an object while weight is how that matter
is strongly attracted by the force of
gravity.
• Mass remains the same and does not
depend on the location.
• Weight varies with location.
K. ENERGY, WORK, POWER
ENERGY – the capacity to do work
• Kinetic Energy – energy possessed by
bodies in motion.
e.g. When a baseball is thrown,
energy is supplied to the ball causing it
to rise straight up in the air. As the ball
reaches its highest point, all its kinetic
energy is stored to gravitational
energy. The stored energy is again
transformed into kinetic energy as the
ball descends to the ground.
KE = ½ mv2 (joules)
• Potential Energy – associated with forces
that depend on the position or
configuration of a body and its
surroundings. We can think of potential
energy as stored energy,
e.g. When you lift a box from the
ground, the box gains gravitational
potential energy. The higher the box,
the more gravitational energy it
possesses.
PE = mgh (joules)
CONSERVATION OF MECHANICAL ENERGY
Law of Conservation of Energy
Energy can be neither be created nor
destroyed; it can only be transformed from one
form to another.
• When energy changes from one form
to another, the amount of energy
stays the same.
• Whenever an object is raised to a
height, work is done against gravity
and object gains gravitational
potential energy equal to the amount
of work done.
• As the object falls, the potential
energy decreases and there is a
corresponding increase in kinetic
energy.
• The loss in potential energy is equal to
the gain in kinetic energy.
• Energy is only transformed, not lost.
Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy
The sum of kinetic energy and potential
energy in a conservative system is constant
and equal to the total mechanical energy of
the system.
TE = PE + KE
ΔKE = -ΔPE
KEi + PEi = KEf + PEf
½ mvi2 + mgh = ½ mvf2 + mgh
WORK – refers to a task that is accomplished by
exerting physical and mental efforts. Work is
done whenever a force produces movement.
For work to be done, three conditions must
be met:
ü There must be a force acting on the
object.
ü The object has to move a certain
distance called the displacement.
ü There must be a component of the
force in the direction of the motion.
e.g.
A mother lifting up the baby from the crib does
work on the baby while a father carrying the
baby across the room does not do any work
on the baby. Why do you think so?
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 Work is done by the mother as she lifts
up the baby because the component of the
force exerted on the baby is parallel to the
displacement. On the other hand, no work is
done by the father as he carries the baby
because no part of the force is parallel to the
displacement.
Work done – as the product of the magnitude
of the displacement multiplied by the
component of the force parallel to the
displacement
W = (F cos 𝜃) d
where,
W – work
F – force parallel to the displacement
d – displacement
𝜽 - the angle between the force and
the displacement.
The amount of force exerted on an
object is measured in newtons (N). The
displacement made is measure in meters (m).
Hence, the amount of work is measured in
newton-meters (N-m)
The SI unit of work is the N-m or kg •
m2/s2 or joules (J).
When the component of the force is in
the same direction as the displacement, the
work done is positive. When the component of
the force is opposite to the displacement, the
work done is negative. If the force is
perpendicular to the displacement, the work is
zero.
POWER – the rate of doing work
𝒘𝒐𝒓𝒌  𝒅𝒐𝒏𝒆
P= 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝑾
P = 𝒕 ; joules/second (J/s)
or Watts (W)
When you go up the stairs fast, you
expend more power in a shorter time than
when you go slowly.
1 joule/second (1J/s) = 1 Watt (W)
1000 watts = 1 kilowatt (kW)
1 horsepower (hp) = 746 watts
Power and Velocity
When a constant force performs work
on an object and moves it at a constant rate,
the power developed is equal to the product
of the force and velocity.
𝑾 𝑭    𝒅
P= =
𝒕 𝒕
𝒅
𝒗 =  
𝒕
P=F•v
This equation reveals that a powerful
machine is both strong (big force) and fast (big
velocity). This means that a powerful machine
is strong enough to apply a large amount of
force to cause a large displacement in short
period of time.
L. FLUID DYNAMICS and BERNOULLI’s PRINCIPLE
When a fluid flows through a
constriction, its velocity increases, you will
observe this if you stand on the bank of a river
where the water current flows with a higher
velocity at the narrow portion of the river and
slower at the wider version.
When the velocity of the fluid increases,
the pressure drops.
Bernoulli’s Principle – the relationship between
fluid and pressure exerted by a moving fluid. As
the velocity of the fluid increases, the pressure
decreases.
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III. THERMODYNAMICS
A. TEMPERATURE and HEAT
• Thermal Energy – form of energy
characterized by randomness of motion at
the atomic and molecular level
• Temperature – measure of hotness and
coldness of a body
• Heat – energy that transfers from a body of
higher temperature to another body of
lower temperature
It is possible for a substance to have a
high temperature and give out or contain a
small amount of heat. Or it may have a low
temperature and give out a considerable
amount of heat.
If you say that a substance has more
heat when hot than when cold, then you
are not absolutely correct. It is better to say
that a substance has more thermal energy
per unit mass when it is hot than when it is
cold.
B. TYPES OF HEAT TRANSFER
• Heat transfer - the study of heat flow within
an object and from one object to another
due to differences in temperature.
Types
a. RADIATION – heat energy travels as
electromagnetic waves in the same
manner and speed as light.
- Radiation can transfer heat from a
source to another object even if there is a
vacuum between them.
e.g. The fire in a bonfire, it releases
some of its energy in the form of
electromagnetic waves. The waves
travel through space until they hit
something. These waves heat up
things that absorb them. This is why
you can feel the heat from the bonfire
even if your hand is not actually
touching it. The bonfire literally
‘radiates’ heat.
b. Conduction – heat energy travels when
two objects at different temperatures are
in direct contact with each other. During
conduction, vibrating atoms or molecules
excite the atoms or molecules next to
them. Conduction mainly occurs in SOLID
objects.
e.g. Have you ever left a spoon in bowl
of hot soup and found the spoon too hot
to hold? This occurs because heat from
the soup is transferred to the spoon by
conduction.
c. Convection – the heat in fluids is
transferred to cooler regions by currents.
These currents are caused by warmer and
less dense ‘pockets’ of fluid rising in cooler
and more dense surroundings. It follows
Archimedes principle, which states that
less dense materials float on denser
materials. Here the cooler fluid moves to
the bottom, heats up and rises again,
forming a cycle.
Radiation from the sun heats the ground, the
ground heats the air by conduction and the air
rise as a haze (a suspension of solid particles of
dust and smoke) and the air moves upward by
convection.
C. SPECIFIC HEAT
Specific heat – the amount of energy required
to raise the temperature of one kilogram of a
substance by one Kelvin. The unit of measure
for specific heat is joules per kilogram-kelvin
(J/kg• K).
Another unit of measure of specific heat
is calorie per gram degree Celsius (cal/g•°C),
where 1 cal = 4.186 J
The amount of heat required to raise its
temperature by one degree is known as heat
capacity or thermal capacity of a substance.
It is the product of the mass of the substance
and its specific heat.
The transfer of heat from an object
depends on object’s mass, the specific heat
and the difference in temperature between
the object and its surroundings.
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 ΔQ = mCΔT E. LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

• Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

where,
If two objects are in thermal equilibrium
ΔQ – amount of heat transferred
with the third, then they are thermal
m – mass
equilibrium with each other.
C – specific heat
ΔT – change in temperature
e.g.
3  
The heat lost by one object equals the heat
gained by another object.        
Heat lost = Heat gained
1   2   1   2  
mCΔT lost = mCΔT gained

D. PHASES CHANGE
A B
• Latent heat – the amount of energy given
Look at the system 1,2 and 3.
out or absorbed when a substance
System 3 is in thermal contact with both
changes while not having change in
systems 1 and 2; but 1 and 2 are NOT
temperature.
thermal contact with each other in
• Latent heat of fusion – energy is
diagram A. When 1 and 2 are in thermal
absorbed from the air to melt solid ice
equilibrium with 3 (meaning, they have
into liquid water without any change in
temperature as 3), then 1and 2 are now
temperature.
thermal equilibrium with each other. This
• Latent heat of vaporization of water –
is checked by placing 1 and 2 in
energy is absorbed to change water
thermal contact with each other.
into steam without a change in
temperature.
• Thermodynamic Processes
a. Adiabatic – no heat enters or leave
the system. No heat transfer process.
b. Isothermal – temperature and
internal energy of the system is
constant.
c. Isovolumetric or Isochoric – constant
volume. No work done.
d. Isobaric – pressure in the system
does not change.

• First Law of Thermodynamics

The change in internal energy of
a system equals the difference between
the heat taken in or given out by the
system and the work done by or on the
system.

ΔU = Q – W
where,
ΔU – the change in the system’s
internal energy
Q – the net amount of heat flowing
into a system during a given process
W – the net work done by the system

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The first law simply means that “when an
amount of heat, Q, is added to the system,
some of this added energy remains in the
system increasing its internal energy by an
amount, ΔU, while the rest of added energy
leaves the system as the system does work,
W. It also tells us that s system’s internal
energy can be changed by transferring
energy by either work, heat or combination
of two.
• Entropy – the measure of disorder in a
system.
What happens when heat is added to
an object? The particles in the object will
be moving at randomly different speeds.
When this happens, disorder follows.
Once the range of speed exhibited by
the particles increases, the disorder
increases. And when the disorder increases,
the entropy becomes larger.
Entropy is also a measure of how much
energy (heat) is unavailable for conversion
into work.
• Second Law of Thermodynamics
Natural processes go in a direction that
maintains or increases the total entropy of
the universe.
This law says something about the
sequence in which events naturally take
place. Systems naturally move toward
states of greater disorder.
Processes can be reversible
irreversible.
A reversible process is one which
occurs very slowly and in which the
system is very nearly in equilibrium all the
time. Thus the total entropy of the
system and its surroundings is constant
(therefore, zero). This process is ideal
one, but does not occur in nature.
All natural (spontaneous) process
are irreversible – one in which there is a
great deviation from the equilibrium
state; thus increase in entropy occurs.
When all systems taking part in a
process are included, the total entropy
either remains constant if the process is
reversible or increases if the process is
irreversible.
IV. RADIOACTIVITY
A. TYPES OF RADIOACTIVITY
1. Alpha Particles
These are composed of two
protons and two neutrons; hence
they are helium nuclei. Alpha
particles have two positive electrical
charges, travel about one-tenth the
speed of light and have masses
about four times that of the
hydrogen atom. They are deflected
only slightly by a magnetic field.
2. Beta Particles
Beta particles are electrons
which have single negative charges
and travel at nearly speed of light.
Their mass is only a fraction of the
mass of alpha particles. Thus, even
though they have only half as much
charge, they are deflected
significantly more by a magnetic
field and in opposite direction.
The high speed of beta particles
makes them much more penetrating
than alpha particles.
3. Gamma Rays
These are high energy
electromagnetic waves. They are
the same kind of radiation as visible
or light, but much shorter wavelength
and thus higher frequency.
Gamma rays are produced by
energy transitions in the nucleus, but
do not change the composition of
the nuclear particles.
They are the most penetrating of
the radiation given off by
radioactive elements. They are not
electrically charged and not
deflected by a magnetic field.
B. NUCLEAR FISSION AND FUSION
𝐀
𝐙𝐗
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1. Nuclear Fission
keeps stars (such as the sun) shining for
billions of years.
\
V. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
Terminologies:
They split apart into more stable fragments.
Usually, fission occurs when neutron collides
with a large, unstable nucleus. The neutron
is absorbed, making the nucleus more
unstable, and the nucleus splits in two.
Several neutrons are released.
2. Nuclear Fusion
Massive nuclei tend to be unstable, and
they can become more stable through the
process of fission. In a similar way, light
nuclei can become more stable by joining
together in the process called nuclear
fission.
The fusion of two light nuclei produces a
nucleus of heavier mass.
𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅𝒔
𝟐
𝟏𝑯 +   𝟏𝟏𝑯     𝟑𝟐𝑯𝒆 +   𝟏𝟏𝒑
Often in fusion reactions, the result is not
single particle but two or more.
Fusion reaction is accompanied by the
release of a large amount of energy. Fusion
reactions release more energy than fission
reactions. It is the source of energy that
• The attraction and repulsion follow the
law of electric charges, “like charges
repel and unlike charges attract.”
• Conductors – Materials whose electric
charges are free to move within. (e.g.
Copper, aluminum, silver, iron, carbon
and water (not pure water).
• Insulators – electric charges are not
free to move. (e.g. glass, rubber, silk,
plastic)
• Semiconductors – another kind of
material that is somewhere between
insulators and conductors. (e.g. Silicon,
germanium). They become perfect
conductors at a very low temperature.
CONDUCTORS can be charged by
CONDUCTION and INDUCTION
• Conduction – transfer of electrons from
a charged object to another object
by direct contact. In the conduction
process, a body with one type of
charge produces the same type of
charge on a conductor.
• Induction – movement of electrons to
one part of an object by the electric
field of another object. In this process,
the opposite type of charged is
induced.
• Polarization – the electric charges can
shift slightly to one side when there is a
charge nearby.
A. COULOMB’S LAW
“The force of attraction or repulsion
between two small charged bodies is
directly proportional to the product of
two charges and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between
them.”
𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝑭=𝒌
𝑹𝟐
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The standard unit for charge is called
coulombs, C. One coulomb is defined as the
amount of charge transferred through a
point on a conductor in one second by a
current of one ampere.
Q = It
Q – change in coulombs
I – current in amperes
t – time in seconds
After the unit of charge was ascertained, the
constant of proportionality k was measured.
Experimental results in vacuum placed k at a
value very close to 9 x 109 N • m2/C2
𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚  (𝑾)
𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 =  
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆  (𝒒)
𝒋𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒆
• UNIT: Volt  =    𝒐𝒓  𝑽
𝒄𝒐𝒖𝒍𝒐𝒎𝒃
• RESISTANCE – opposition a material offers to
current. (Symbol = R). All materials offer
some resistance to current but the amount
of resistance differs from each other.
• UNIT: Ohm, represented by the symbol Ω.
Ohm is defined as the amount of
resistance that allows 1 A of current to
flow when the voltage is 1 V.

Resistance of object depends on three

B. ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS factors:
• CURRENT – the movement of charged
particles in a specific direction. The
charged particle may be an electron, a
positive ion or a negative ion, and they are
referred to as current carriers. (Symbol = I)
• Current is the measure of how much
charge is passed through a given point
in a conductor per given amount of
time.
• UNIT: coulomb/second or Ampere (A)
𝒍
𝑹 =  
𝑨
1. Length (l) – the longer the length, the
greater the resistance.
2. Cross-sectional area (A) – the smaller
the cross sectional area, the greater the
resistance.
3. Resistivity (ρ) – the greater the
resistivity, the greater the resistance.

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒  (𝑞) *Temperature – the higher the

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡  (𝐼) =   temperature, the greater the resistance.
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒  (𝑡)

• ALTERNATING CURRENT AND DIRECT

C. OHMS LAW
CURRENT
Direct Current (DC) – If the current
Ohms Law – current is directly proportional to
continues to flow in the same direction
the voltage and inversely proportional to the
through the conducting wire all the
resistance.
time. The kind of current we get from
flashlight cells and batteries.
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆  (𝑽)
Alternating Current (AC) – If the Current (𝑰) =
current periodically reverses the 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆  (𝑹)
direction in which it is moving. This is
the kind of current we have in our From this equation, V = IR and R = V/I
home and school.
• Ammeter – measures current in amperes
• VOLTAGE – also known an electromotive • Ohmmeter – measures resistance in ohms
force (emf) or potential difference (pd). • Voltmeter – measures voltage in volts
the electric pressure that causes current
to flow.
• Potential difference – potential energy
divided by charge.

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 D. SIMPLE CIRCUIT
• An Electric Circuit is a conducting loop in
which a current can transfer electrical
energy from a suitable source to a useful
load.
Parts of Simple Electric Circuit
• PARALLEL CIRCUITS – has more than one
1. Source or Supply – provides the
voltage needed to force current
through the circuit. (e.g. battery)
2. Conductors – through which the
current can travel. (e.g. copper wire,
gold, silver)
3. Load – a device that converts
electrical energy into some useful form.
(e.g. electric motor, light bulb). Different
loads have different amounts of
resistance.
4. Control device or switch – continues
or discontinues the flow of electric
current through the circuit (e.g. push
buttons, single-pole switch, single-throw
switch)
5. Protection device or Fuse – interrupts
the circuit in case of a malfunction, can
be included but this is often omitted.
E. MULTIPLE LOAD CIRCUITS
Terminologies and key concepts only
-circuits which have two or more loads
• A magnet has two magnetic poles (north
• SERIES CIRCUITS – has two or more loads
but current flows through a single
• A magnetic field is a region in which a
conducting path.
Rules for resistances in series:
1. The current that flows through each
resistance is the same as the total
• The earth has a magnetic field that
current throughout the circuit.
• An electric current in a wire produces a
IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = … = In
2. The sum of all the individual voltage
drops is the same as the applied
electromotive force (emf) or voltage.
VT = V1 + V2 + V3 + … + Vn
3. The total resistance is equal to the
sum of the individual resistances.
RT = R1 + R2 + R3 … + Rn
-In a series circuit, if any part of the
circuit is open, current stops flowing and
voltage and power are removed from
all loads. One way to determine which
load is open is to measure the individual
voltages.
path for current to flow.
Rules for resistances in parallel:
1. The total current that flows through
the circuit is equal to the sum of the
currents in the separate resistances.
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + … + In
2. The potential drop in each resistor is
the same as the magnitude of the
applied electromotive force
VT = V1 = V2 = V3 = … = Vn
3. The reciprocal of the total resistance
is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of
the separate resistances.
𝟏
𝑹𝑻 =  
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+   +   +   … +  
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝒏
F. ELECTROMAGNETISM
and south) and is surrounded by a
magnetic field.
magnetic force can be detected. It
exerts a force on a wire, causing current
to move through the wire.
resembles a giant bar magnet.
magnetic field around the wire.
leandroespino 15
 • A current is induced in a wire in a moving
or changing magnetic field.
• An electric motor converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy.
• A generator converts mechanical energy
to electrical energy.
• A galvanometer uses the magnetic force
on a current-carrying wire to turn a
pointer on a scale which can then be
used to measure small amounts of
current.
• An ammeter measures current while the
voltmeter measures voltage.
• A transformer increases or decreases the
voltage of an alternating current.
• Electricity can be generated from
different sources: the sun, underground
steam, fossil fuels, falling water, tides,
wind and nuclear energy.
G. ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
• Electromagnetic waves are emitted by
accelerating electric charges, often by
electrons in atoms. EM waves are a form
of travelling electrical and magnetic
transverse waves. EM waves have
common properties:
(a) They exhibit reflection, refraction,
diffraction and interference.
(b) They travel at a speed of light (3 x
108 m/s)
(c) They obey the wave relation (v=fλ)
Electromagnetic spectrum – extensive range
of waves. Each type of EM wave occupies a
particular range of wavelengths known as a
band. The waves come from different
sources and differ widely in their uses and
effects.
a. Radio and TV waves – have the longest
wavelengths and the lowest frequencies
in the EM spectrum. They can be
produces by making electricity oscillate in
an aerial or antenna, and are used to
transmit sound and picture information
over long distances.
b. Microwaves – are radio waves of very
short wavelength. They are used in
satellite communications, radar, mobile
phone networks and for cooking.
c. Infrared Waves – are waves that lie in
the region beyond red end of the visible
spectrum. The wavelength of infrared
waves is too long to be visible to the
naked eye. Infrared radiation is most
noticeable when given off by hot objects,
especially when objects are red hot.
d. Visible waves – only when the
temperature of an object is at about
700°C, the shortest waves present can be
detected by the naked eye. These visible
waves are what we know as light waves.
When white light passes through a
prism, it is separated into its constituent
colors, ROYGBIV. Violet light has the
shortest wavelength and red light has
the longest.
e. Ultraviolet waves – are invisible
radiations that lie beyond the violet end
of the visible spectrum. UV light has a
shorter wavelength than violet light.
f. X-rays – have short wavelengths and
high frequencies and are very
penetrating. They are produced by the
rapid acceleration of electrons in X-ray
machines that collide with atoms. These
atoms then emit X-rays.
g. Gamma Rays – are high energy waves
that produced from nuclear reactions.
They have shorter wavelengths than X-
rays because energy changes within the
nucleus are normally much larger than
those that take place outside it. They are
more dangerous than X-rays because
radioactive substance emit them.
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 B. PROPERTIES OF LIGHT
VI. OPTICS and ACOUSTICS
I. Effects of materials on light
Light Sound a. Opaque materials – materials that
• Electromagnetic • Mechanical Wave absorb light waves that fall on them. (e.g.
Wave • Longitudinal wave Brick, wood and metal)
• Transverse Wave • Density dependent. b. Transparent materials – materials that
• Fastest in solid transmit light waves and permit objects to
Speed of Light: because it has the be seen clearly through them. (e.g. glass
3 x 108 m/s highest density and some plastics)
c. Translucent materials – Allow light to be
Medium: Medium: transmitted through them but its rays are
Solid – slowest Solid – fastest distorted during the passage. (e.g.
Liquid Liquid lampshades, wax paper and frosted glass)
Gas Gas - slowest
Vacuum - fastest
II. Reflection – Bouncing of light.
When you look at a shiny metal fixture or a
A. CHANGE IN MEDIUM mirror, you can see yourself. But when you
Change in medium will result to change look at other objects such as a book or a
in speed, direction, frequency and wooden table, you can only see the object
wavelength. itself.
a. Diffuse reflection – allows us to see
objects from any angle.
b. Regular or Specular reflection –
enables us to see an image on the
surface.

III. Refraction – These phenomena occurs

because light bends as it passes through the
boundaries among air, glass and water. The
bending of light as it travels from a transparent
medium of one density to another medium of
a different optical density.
When light passes from a substance with a
lower optical density into another with a
higher optical density, it slows down and
bends towards the normal. The reverse is
θ incidence > θ refraction – bent towards the true when light passes from substance with
normal line = decrease in speed. a higher optical density into another with a
lower optical density.
θ refraction > θ incidence – bent away the Light travels fast in air, slow in water and
normal line = increase in speed. slower still in glass. Glass causes light to
bend more than either air or water

leandroespino 17
 
 because glass refracts light more. It has
higher index of refraction, or the
measure of how much a ray of light
bends when it enters a material. The
higher the index of refraction of a
medium, the more it bends light.
IV. Dispersion – the process by which light is
separated into colors due to differences in
degrees of refraction.
When a narrow beam of white light enters
a triangular glass block called prism, the
beam splits into the different range of
colors called the spectrum.
Red light has the longest wavelength and
violet has the shortest.
The rainbow is formed by the dispersion of
sunlight in drops of water. When sunlight
passes through each spherical raindrop, it is
refracted and dispersed and then internally
reflected to one or more times before it
finally emerges out of the raindrop. The
sunlight is again reflected and refracted at
different angles as it passes through other
drops. You will usually see a rainbow in the
morning or toward late afternoon when the
ray of the sun fall obliquely on earth, or
during a shower when the sun is low in the
sky.
Each water droplet disperses the whole
range of colors, arranged according to
frequency.
C. IMAGES FORMED BY THE REFLECTION OF
LIGHT
I. Reflections on Plane Mirrors
Plane Mirror – a mirror with a flat surface us
called a plane mirror
Virtual image – the image you see that
is upright and appears to be behind the
mirror.
Right-left reversal – if you stand in front
of a plane mirror and raise your right
hand, the mirror image will raise its left
hand.
II. Reflections on Curved Mirrors
Curved mirrors are usually spherical mirrors.
The reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is
part of a large sphere. A concave mirror
curves inward like a cave. A convex mirror
curves outward.
Curved mirror parts:
• Vertex, V
• Center of curvature, C – center of
the sphere from which the mirror
is formed.
• Principal focus or focal point, F
• Radius of curvature, R – the
distance from V to C.
• Focal length, f – the distance
from V to F.
Images formed by a Concave Mirror
A mirror with a surface that curves
inward like the inside of a bowl is a
concave mirror. It turns parallel rays into
convergent rays.
Concave mirrors can form either virtual
or real images.
Real images – are those created
when light rays actually converge or
meet at a point.
Virtual images – are those formed at
a location where light rays reflected
from mirror seem to diverge. Such
images cannot be projected on a
screen.
When parallel rays of light hit a concave
mirror, the rays are reflected inward. The
reflected rays meet and cross over at
point F, called focal point or principal
focus. The distance of F from the vertex
of the mirror is the focal length of the
mirror.
leandroespino 18
 Images formed by a Convex Mirror A convex lens is thicker at the center than
A mirror with a surface the curves at the edges while a concave lens is thinner
outward is a convex mirror. When at the center of the edges.
parallel rays of light hit a convex mirror,
the rays are reflected outwards. The
reflected rays appear to spread out
from a point, the principal focus, behind
the mirror. Therefore, a convex mirror is a
diverging mirror.

Since the lens has two surfaces, it has

Different images formed by a Concave Mirror
Image position,
Object Position
Nature of Image
Behind the mirror,
a. Between F and V Virtual, erect and
larger
b. At F No image
At infinity,
c. Between F and C Real, inverted and
smaller
At C,
d. At C Real, inverted and
same size
Between F and C,
e. Beyond C Real, inverted and
larger Different images formed by a Convex lens
At F,
f. Outside C or at
Real, inverted and
Infinity
smaller
a. Between F and O
III. Refractions in Thin Lenses
A lens is a curved piece of glass or some
other transparent material that is used to
refract light. Like mirrors, lenses can have c. Between F and 2F
different shapes and the type of image
formed depends on the shape of the lens.
They may be concave (diverging) or
convex (converging).
two focal points, F and F’, and the
center of lens, C, between them. The
focal points are the same distance from
the lens’ midpoint, O.
• Focal length, f - The distance
between the lens’ midpoint and its
focal point
•
a. Refraction in Converging (Convex)
Lenses
When parallel rays of light pass
through a convex lens, they are
refracted inwards. The refracted rays
meet and cross over at the principal
focus.
-Used to correct Farsightedness or
hyperopia
Image position,
Object Position
Nature of Image
In front of the lens,
Virtual, erect, larger
than object
b. At F No image
Beyond 2F
Real, inverted and
larger
At 2F,
d. At 2F Real, inverted and
same size

leandroespino 19  
 Between F and 2F,
e. Beyond 2F Real, inverted and
smaller
At F,
f. Outside 2F or at
Real, inverted and
Infinity
smaller

b. Refraction in Diverging (concave)

Lenses
When parallel rays of light pass
through a concave lens, they are
refracted outward. The refracted rays
appear to spread out from the
principal focus.
-Used to correct Nearsightedness or
myopia.

Reference:
Practical and Explorational PHYSICS, Modular
Approach by Alicia L. Padua and Ricardo M.
Crisostomo

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