Well Foundation

Well Foundation:
Well foundation is the most commonly adopted foundation for major bridges in India. Since then
many major bridges across wide rivers have been founded on wells.
Well foundation is preferable to pile foundation when foundation has to resist large lateral
forces.
The foundations may consist of a single large diameter well or of a group of smaller wells of
circular or other shaped. The shape of wells may be circular, double D, Square, rectangular,
Dum-bell shaped etc.,
The circular bell shapes are used when the bridges has multi lane carriage way. For the piers and
abutments of very large size used in the cantilever, cable stayed or suspension bridges large
rectangular wells with multi degree holes of square shape may be used. The size of the dredge
holes is decided so as to facilitate ease of construction and inspection of the foundation.
While deciding the bottom level of the foundation the following considerations may be kept in
view.
a. Normally, a sandy strata with adequate bearing capacity is preferred to a clayey strata.
b. A thin stratum of clay occuring between two layers of sand is not relied upon but pierced
through
c. The foundation has to be laid on the clayey layer, a well is rested on stiff clay only.
The size of the well for a particular foundation would depend on a large number of factors. The
minimum size of a dredge hole is 2.5m. The thickness of steining should be adequate to permit
sinking of the well without excessive knowledge. From considerations of sinking effort and
erection of shuttering , a large diameter well is nowadays preferred to a group of small sized
wells. From practical considerations, the maximum size of a single circular well should be
limited to about 12 m diameter for a concrete steining and 6m diameter for a brick masonry
steining. If the wells are to rest on sloping rock, smaller wells may be advantageous for ensuring
even seating of the wells on the rock. However, in the case of
Twin circular wells or three wells with a common capping slab have been used in earlier
constructions for wide piers and abutments. The wells in these cases had small diameter.
Currently, this type is not so popular. Double D and dumbell shaped wells are suitable for deep
foundations and double line railways. Multi cellular wells are adopted for deep foundations for
long span bridges, as in the Howrah bridge and second Hoogly bridge.
Components:
A well foundation consists of the following components.
a. Steining
b. Well Curb
c. Bottom Plug
d. Sand filling
e. Top Plug
f. Well Cap
g Cutting edge
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Well Foundations for Bridges are Obsolete!!!
S.A.Reddi, Fellow Indian National Academy of Engineering
Introduction
Bridge foundations are the most complicated and difficult to construct. Unexpected difficulties cause
delays, extra costs and revision of designs due to altered situations. Loss of human lives was normal
rather than exception. In the Sixties, more than 50 lives were lost due to the accident during pneumatic
sinking operations for well foundations of Mahanadi bridge in Orissa. For Kali Bridge at Karwar in
Karnataka, pneumatic sinking was required for inspection of the founding surface of the wells. Apart
from delays and extra costs, large number of workers suffered caisson disease. Due to difficulties in well
sinking, two contractors left the job and the third took more than 5 years to complete the well
foundations. Alternative construction techniques and equipments have emerged. With the introduction
of advanced piling equipment, large diameter piles up to 3.5 m dia are easily realized at a fast rate, with
a significant reduction in cost and material quantities. Bridges elsewhere are now constructed with pile
foundations.
Figure 1: Brahmaputra bridge foundations No. 17 & 18
Pre-cast RC bored piles of 2.5m diameter was first successfully realized in India for the old Thana Creek
Bridge constructed in 1960s. For the 13 Km long Saudi–Baharain Causeway large diameter pre-cast pre-
stressed bored piles were adopted. By 2005, piles of 2-3 m dia, upto 120m deep are extensively used in
the rest of the world. These new techniques eliminate complicated weather-dependent and risky
operations in water. They have reduced the delays considerably and minimized the technical and
financial risks. The development of modern techniques has considerably reduced quantities of materials
used for foundations as well as energy consumption and environmental impacts.
Well Foundation Problems at Brahmaputra Bridge at

Tezpur
The bridge was more than 3 km long with 26 spans of 120 m and 2 shore spans of 70 m each, founded
on 12m dia Wells. Sinking well No.2 to full depth was not possible due to bouldery strata Despite best
efforts, the well only went down by 35.25 m after three seasons and at extra cost! The well was plugged
at RL 32.075 m and 5 nos 1.5 m dia RCC bored piles (25-35m) were provided to anchor the well, one in
the middle through the dredge hole and 4 outside at the four corners. Further a launching apron of
crated boulder 3 m thick was laid making a circle of 60 m dia around the well, at RL 61.00. These extra
works caused further delay in the completion of the substructure works.
Well foundations on sloping rock: Brahmaputra Bridge at

Jogighopa (2.28 km)
Figure 2: Pile foundations for Jamuna bridge
The wells of main span were 11 m x 17 m double ‘D’ type. Foundations 17 & 18 were resting on hard
rock at steep incline of almost 1:1 slope. It was not possible to rest the foundations partially on two
types of strata. Hence to found these wells, 1500 mm dia anchor piles, 12 nos for each foundation were
provided through the body of the steining, extending to about 10 m below the cutting edge.
Due to the steep incline, part of the cutting edge was resting on the rock while the other parts were
overhanging. In order to contain the bottom plug, two rows of jet grouted piles were introduced around
the periphery of the well steining which acted as curtain wall (fig.1). 1500 dia piles also driven up to hard
rock along the periphery through the steining. The completion of the project was extended by 3 years.
Additional cost was several crores. Effective use of Pile Foundations - Jamuna River Bridge in Bangladesh
(figs.2 &3).
Figure 3: Completed view of the Jamuna bridge
A 4.8 km long, four lane road bridge with 100 m spans was constructed in the 1990s on the Jamuna river
(Brahmaputra in India). The foundation design was challenging. Very deep wells are extremely slow to
construct, costly, increasing the total cost. Various alternatives were considered including caissons,
driven precast piles and driven steel tubular piles. The only viable option was large diameter tubular
steel piles driven at a rake (fig.2). The piles were fabricated in Korea, shipped to site and installed by
hydraulic hammer. The diameter of the piles ranged between 2.5 and 3.15 m and the steel tubes were
filled with concrete. Maximum pile length was 72 m below bed level. During one working season from
October 1995 to June 1996 all the 121 main work piles plus two full scale trial piles were driven.
This optimization resulted in overall reduction in the bridge costs by more than 50%. This solution also
reduced the use of resources (concrete and steel) considerably and was beneficial to environmental
impact. The piles were installed in 8 months; the well foundations of three bridges across the same river
constructed in India have taken 3-5 years each to complete.
Damages During Construction - Ganga Bridge at Bhagalpur

(4.6 km)
The well foundations consist of single circular wells 11.6 m dia. The calculated maximum scour depth
was 36 m below water level. The soil strata were sandy up to about 30 m followed by hard stiff clay.
During construction, the wells started tilting and the problems continued right through the sinking.
Despite extensive chiseling, the rate of sinking was painfully slow.
 Well 2 - The founding level was 64.7 m below the water level. The rate of sinking through clay
was about 1.5 - 2 cm/hr. 3500 crane hours were used to sink the well.
 Well 17 - The well shifted by 1.86 m. The piers were to be retained at the original position;
resulting in excessive moments in the well. To counter the moments counterweight was
provided in the form of a dummy well sunk to a depth of 20 m in the adjacent area and
connected to the main well through a common well cap.
 Well 32 - The well shifted by 1150 mm. A similar solution as in well 17 was adopted.
 Well 4 - During concreting of curb, sand leaked from the island and the entire curb tilted and
sank by 4.5 m. A new sheet pile cofferdam had to be erected and a new well curb was cast. The
total delay was one month.
 Well 9 - the total height of the steining except last 2 m was completed with 7.5 m balance
sinking. Due to presence of stiff clay, 8 m sump was made to facilitate sinking. After several
weeks, the well suddenly jumped by about 9 m with the top of steining below water level. Work
resumed after monsoon. A temporary RC cofferdam was constructed and the sunk well
dewatered to expose and build up further steining. Time loss: about 6 months.
 Wells 3 & 4 -Wells were sunk by about 44 and 37 m before the monsoon season in 1996. The
wells were toppled due to scour and disappeared during the floods. Based on a number of trial
bores well No.3 was found tilted along the bridge axis. Well No.4 was found on the upstream
side along the direction of current. These wells weighing up to 9900 t could not be restored and
were abandoned. New wells were cast and sunk by changing the span arrangement. Floating
caissons were used.
 Extra cost and time - The cost on completion was Rs.106 cr against accepted tender cost of
Rs.55 cr! The time overrun was 5 years!
Tilts and Shifts in Well Foundations - Vasai Creek Bridges

Near Mumbai
Bassein Creek road bridge near Mumbai (1970) faced problems of heavy tilting of the well foundations.
Two of the foundations no.4 & 6 tilted very heavily and all attempt to correct the tile failed. The
foundations were abandoned and the design of the bridge was changed to accommodate new
foundations and longer spans. The project was delayed by six years with termination of the first
contract, arbitration, litigation.
Despite previous histories of two bridges built across the same creek that faced problems with well
foundations, the same were again adopted for another Vasai Creek Bridge. During construction, heavy
tilting of wells was observed. The corrective measures for one well alone took almost two years delaying
completion of the foundations; costing about Rs. 2 crores.
Sudden Jumping of Wells During Sinking

Sometimes the well sinks suddenly due to excessive sump or weak soil layer and the steining disappears
below water level, making it difficult to continue further work on the well steining.
In one of the well foundations in a bridge across river Ganga, the total height of steining except last 2 m
was concreted. The well was in the final stages of steining, with about 7.5 m to reach the founding level.
As the well was stuck up in stiff clay, efforts were made to sink the well by creating a sump of about 8 m
below the cutting edge. All of a sudden the well sank suddenly by about 9 m and the top of steining was
below the water level by about 3.5 m. Rectification measures were very expensive and time consuming.
Ganga bridge at Varanasi: Very stiff clay was encountered at 25 m below and sinking of well foundations
No. 3 and 5 was very difficult, did not move for three months. Then well No.3 jumped by several meters
without any warning when two workers and one supervisor were taking sump sounding. The tragic
accident killed all the three people. The well No.5 also jumped by about 5 m and was submerged in the
water by 1m.
Artesian Conditions During Construction of Well

Foundations
Nepal Bridge (Kohalpur / Mahakali Section )
Artesian conditions were encountered during soil investigations for the Shivganga bridge (8 spans of 32
m). At locations P-4 and P-5 artesian head of about 4.3 m was encountered at about 17 m below ground
level. The well was redesigned with foundation terminating above the artesian layer, resulting in shallow
foundations resting on clay. Due to founding the wells at shallow depth, it was necessary to provide
adequate bed protection so as to prevent scour. The bed protection consisted of:
 Upstream and downstream aprons

 Cut-off walls, upstream & downstream
 Concrete floor
An Expensive Solution Indeed !!

The completion was delayed by more than one season as the solution was based on an Expert
Committee investigation and report. This led to delay in finalization of the designs and drawings for the
foundation well and necessity of issuing variation orders to cover the items of cut-off walls and bed
protection works which were not envisaged in the original contract.
Ganga Bridge, Patna

The 5.6 km long bridge comprises of 46 spans of 120 m each resting on 56 m deep well foundations
(12m dia.). Two of the wells in the midstream (Nos. 41 and 45) encountered artesian conditions during
the final stages of sinking There was continuous sand blowing filling the dredge hole to 5-6 m above the
cutting edge. Months of efforts to sink the well proved futile. A technical advisory committee took about
a year for arriving at a solution. Temporary steel cofferdam was built enveloping the well and an
artificial head of about 6 m of water was created to counter act the sand bubbling. Delay: two years
Cracking of Well Steining During Construction

Cracking of well steining is one of the serious problems faced many times in the construction of well
foundations, resulting in time and cost overruns. The causes are usually:
1. Blasting, Dewatering
2. Insufficient steining thickness
3. Jumping due to excessive sump
4. Sand blows
5. Surcharge due to dumping dredge material close to well.
6. Failure of cutting edges.
When such cracking occurs, at least one season is lost for the investigation, developing remedial
measures, approvals of the same etc. In the last 45 years, the author is aware of more then 200 cases of
bridges constructed by various construction agencies, where the dredge hole of well has to be filled with
concrete due to cracks in steining.
Figure 4: Pasighat Bridge, AP

Figure 5: Pasighat Bridge, Boulder dredged during well sinking
During well sinking of Tapi Bridge, Maharashtra, hard strata was met. Due to blasting, extensive cracks
developed in steinings New steinings had to be constructed inside the wells. The original contract period
was four years. Attempts were made for five years to sink the wells. Work was suspended for five years
for want of decision to revise the founding level. An expert committee ultimately recommended raising
the foundation level of wells by more than 20m The bridge was completed after fourteen years. The
contractor suffered losses due to the delays. The owner suffered substantial losses due to time overrun.
Delay: 10 years.
Extraordinary Delays in Construction of Well Foundations

Pasighat Bidge, Arunachal Pradesh, 703 m long
The project started in 1987 and the construction of well foundations continued for the next 20 years! As
per the design, based on misleading soil data, six wells were to be sunk to about 50 m below bed. The
actual strata met with during sinking were hard conglomerate with densely compacted and very large
boulders (fig.6) were found right from the beginning of sinking. After 15 years of struggle to
pneumatically sink the wells to RL – 50 m, the designed founding level was drastically raised by 22m in
2002.
Major Bridges (Worldwide) on Pile Foundations

Su Tong Bridge, China : The 6 km long Cable-stay bridge crosses Yangtze river near Shangai will carry a
six lane highway with emergency lanes, with a record 1088 m main span and 300 m high concrete
pylons. Each tower is supported on 131 cast-in-situ bored piles 120 m long and 2.7 m diameter. Due to
strong currents, significant scour is expected around the foundations, and suitable scour protection is
provided around the pylons. The central span has a clearance of 62 m for container ships to pass
through. The bridge used 200,000 t of steel, 1 million cum of concrete.
Stonecutters Bridge, Hong Kong: The 1600 m long Stonecutters Bridge Hong Kong with cable-stay span
of 1018 m is one of the longest in the world. The bridge is founded on 3.0 m dia piles, up to 90 m deep,
socketted into rock. Bandra Worli Sea Link Mumbai: The sea link consists of 5.6 km long, 8-laned bridge
with cable stayed portion of 600 m. The bridge is founded on 1.5 m diameter bored piles. Concrete for
the piles is M50 grade and for pile caps is M60. Silica fume and fly ash are used for concrete preparation.
Analysis by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA),

USA
More than 100,000 bridges would be constructed during the next two decades. Foundations represent
about 30% or more of the cost of the highway bridges. The predominant type of foundation system used
for the highway bridges in the US is pile. Many bridges can tolerate significant magnitudes of a total and
differential vertical settlement without becoming seriously over-stressed
Appreciation
The Indian Bridge Engineers are by and large mentally tuned to providing well foundations for bridges as
a reflect action; whereas it is very necessary to analyze the comparative merits and demerits,
construction time frame and cost of construction of bridges with well/pile foundations before finally
choosing the type of foundation. An analysis of the history of well foundations during the last five
decades indicates innumerable difficulties, delays and cost overruns in a majority of the cases.
Realization of well foundations requires special skills and experience which are gradually dwindling.
Developments have taken place in respect of large diameter pile foundations as well as equipment for
the same. The time and cost advantages of opting for pile foundations have been amply demonstrated
worldwide and to a limited extent in India. Piles up to a diameter of 3m and depth of up to 120m have
been realized for a number of major bridges worldwide, with cost saving of up to 40% when compared
to well foundations.
There is currently no restriction in the IRC Code regarding use of pile foundation. However, many
Owners impose restrictions in the tender documents, without any justification. The example cited above
concerning the problems of well foundations amply justifies a second look on the choice of foundations.
In fact, the use of well foundations for bridges should be an exception rather than the rule.
Chenab River Bridge at Akhnoor Near Jammu

The project was started in the early Seventies. A .scheme for a 231m long bridge with 5 spans
(3x46+2x46.5) upstream of existing steel bridge was originally conceived. The scheme involved
construction of five well foundations in the volatile Chenab River, to be sunk through difficult strata –
hard conglomerate, in spite of insurmountable difficulties elsewhere under similar circumstances. Two
successive contracts and 30 years later, the impossibility of sinking wells through such strata was
realized.
Figure 6: Chenab Bridge at Akhnoor-Longest Span Cantilever PSC Bridge, eliminated wells
Based on lateral thinking, it was decided to abandon the partly sunk wells and go for a scheme with
longer central span, eliminating the water foundations altogether. With a 160m central span, both the
main pier foundations were located in the dry on the banks, resting on raft foundations. These
foundations were completed in months instead of decades earlier in unsuccessful attempts to sink wells
in water. The abutments consist of hollow box and piers consist of hollow rectangular section on raft
foundations.
The superstructure was designed and constructed as a continuous cantilever of 280m length, with a
central span of 160m (longest in India at the time). Two pairs of cantilever gantries were deployed. The
bridge with the new layout eliminating well foundations was completed in 20 months
Other Records: The Chenab bridge deck was constructed with the shortest time cycle of 6 days
consistently achieved for the construction of each pair of segments. This was made possible by an high
early strength concrete which enabled pre-stressing at 60 hours after concreting. Fe500 steel
reinforcement bars were used for the first time in India in a cantilever construction bridge. The huge
Bearings with anchors were located among highly congested reinforcement; normal concrete
placement, vibration was impossible. Special Conbextra Grout replaced normal High Strength Concrete
below bearings. Self–compacting concrete (S.C.C) was used for the first time for concrete below the
bearings.
Segments on both sides of the Pier were concreted simultaneously balancing the weights. When the
22nd segments were facing each other and the shuttering of the 23rd segment i.e. the linking segment
was to have been placed there was no level difference and the levels matched on both tips to the
nearest millimeter both in plan (centre line) as well as in elevation. This was possible because every day
the levels were maintained by a team of surveyors with the help of total station. These levels were sent
to the Design consultant who monitored these personally. In fact, after the concreting of each pair of
segments the levels as actually measured and as envisaged by the designer fitted almost like a ‘T’. This
proves that the parameters fixed by the Design consultant and the parameters as actually achieved
during execution were complimenting each other. The cables were so placed that almost all the cables
were straight and without any curve. Thus prestressing results were exactly as shown in approved
drawings both in terms of extension and gauge pressure.
Figure 7: Chenab Bridge, Giant Bearings

Figure 8: Chenab Bridge Hydraulic Earthquake Dampers
The author was Value Engineering Consultant for the Fast Track Project.
NBMCW September 2010

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. 1. INTRODUCTION
In the Indian subcontinent there are many rivers
where the depth of alluvial deposits is very high and the
scour around the pier foundations can be very deep if
the piers are located within the active channel of river.
For such condition well foundation is a very appropriate
type of foundation.
To the author’s knowledge one 3 km long Railway
bridge crossing a creek was supported on pile
foundations. After some years, the sway of the pile
foundations was so large when the mail trains crossed
the creek; the Railways not only reduced the speed of
the trains substantially but constructed another bridge
adjacent to this bridge on well foundations. Thus under
certain situation, well foundation is a highly desirable
type of foundation.
In India the technology for the design and construction
of well foundation is quite advanced. In all rivers, including
large rivers with torrential flow of water currents, well
foundations were provided. In the foundations of Howrah
Bridge in Kolkata giant monoliths were provided. In Second
Hoogly Bridge also in Kolkata with one of the longest
span cable stayed bridges in the world having the central
span of 457 m being same as that of Howrah Bridge, an
ingenius solution was adopted. Instead of a monolith for
the foundation of each tower of the cable stay bridge, 2
well foundations up to 23 m dia were placed side by side
at 30 m center and interconnected by a 14 m deep beam.
This solution was construction-wise easier and more
controllable and quantity of material used was much less.
These wells were constructed purely by gravity sinking
method.
These well foundations under main towers were kept
totally empty for the service condition. The entire well
was designed as a water tight structure. At the junction
of any two lifts of concreting of well steining, water
stops were provided to prevent leakage of water through
construction joints of well steining.
The wells were constructed using gravity sinking
method of construction. As stated earlier, the wells were
kept totally empty and no water was inside the well during
the service condition primarily to reduce the load of water
on the foundations, since vertical loads were very large
for the central spans of 457 m and side spans of 183 m.
At the base of wells RCC slabs were constructed which
were designed for the upward force from the base of
the well. For support of the slab and continuity of
reinforcement, recesses were kept in the steining above
the well curb where bond bar reinforcements were kept
bent. A cover was provided with a steel plate which,
were kept in position by bolts, to keep the bond
reinforcement recesses free from blocking with mud’s.
After the wells were sunk up to the designed level, the
bottom plug was laid with colcrete. The wells were
dewatered. It was noted that the colcrete bottom plug
not only withstood the upward pressure but also was
reasonably leakproof. Thereafter, those steel plate covers
were removed and reinforcements were bent back to
the designed positions. Reinforcements were laid and
concreting was done. In this way a fully water tight design
was done for these wells.
Deep well foundation up to 67 m deep across the
river Ganga in Varanasi and upto 68 m deep across the
river Brahmaputra at Jogighopa were used. In Varanasi
Paper No.533
THE SINKING OF WELL FOUNDATIONS IN DIFFICULT SITUATIONS†
GOURANGA PRASAD SAHA*
ABSTRACT
Well foundations are quite appropriate foundations for alluvial soils in rivers and creeks where maximum depth of scour
can be quite large. In India technology of well foundation for design and construction is quite well developed. Still there
are situations where serious problems are encountered at site during construction of well foundations. Some of the typical
problems have been identified and solutions adopted by the author and also elsewhere in some earlier jobs have been
presented in this Paper.
* Executive Director, M/s Construma Consultancy Pvt. Ltd. Mumbai Email: construma_sp@rediffmail.com
† Written comments on this Paper are invited and will be received upto 30th September, 2007.
124 SAHA ON
Bridge wells, no sand filling was done. These wells were
filled with water only to reduce the weight at the founding
level. In long span bridges or in bridges where the
horizontal force is large, heavy foundation mass is
desirable for stability and serviceability requirements point
of view and hence well foundation is a highly appropriate
solution.
In spite of the excellent development of technology
on well foundations there are still some areas where
engineers face difficulty while sinking of wells, some of
which are stated in this paper from the direct experience
of the author. The author had the opportunity of having
associated with construction of well foundations of many
large and outstanding bridges including Second Hoogly
Bridge, Varanasi Bridge, etc., while working with
Gammon India Ltd., and Hindustan Construction Co.
Ltd.
2. SINKING WELL THROUGH STIFF CLAY STRATA
If a very stiff clay layer is encountered during the
sinking of a well, the engineer has to face a very tough
and challenging situation if the well becomes stationery
and does not move at all.
At that time due to the action of horizontal water
current force, the well may start tilting. The well becomes
more vulnerable due to tilt if a step is provided on the
outside face of the well steining to reduce the thickness
of the steining. At the initial stage if the tilt is not brought
under control, the tilt goes on increasing making the
situation very difficult to control. This leads to a very
expensive and time-consuming affair for attempting to
make the well straight and vertical within practical limits.
This is a very serious situation and one should
examine how this resistance is developed. A solution
should be devised on the basis of insight into the causes
for the resistance to sink.
Referring to Fig. 1 it may be seen that the primary
resistance comes on the sides and also by bearing at the
base over the area of the well steining. The projection
on the outside surface over the height of the kerb by 50
mm to 75 mm as recommended in IRC 78-2000 is very
helpful to reduce the resistance due to stiff clay on the
outside surface of the well.
(a) To overcome this resistance to the author’s
knowledge, the following measures have been tried
by various engineers.
(i) Continue grabbing much below the cutting edge
level of the well.
(ii) Dewater well up to certain depth to reduce the
buoyancy and thereby increase the weight of
the well.
(iii) Remove soil in contact with the outside surface
of the well by grabbing to a certain depth.
(iv) Flushing with a jet of water on the outside soil
through holes, which are kept in the steining at
certain intervals during the construction of the
steining of the well.
(v) By thumping on the water inside the dredge hole.
(vi) By Kentledge loading on the well.
The merits and demerits of each of the above
measures are discussed below.
(i) Some engineers continue grabbing much below
the cutting edge level of the well
Fig. 1. Showing location of pipes within well steining
(a) PIPES PLACED
PERPENDICULARLY
(B) PIPES PLACED VERTICALLY
UPWARDS
THE SINKHINIGGHOLFI GWHTESLLO FF OTUHNE D1A7T8IOTHNCSOIUNN DCIILFFMICEUELTTIN SGITUATIONS 125
One site engineer with vast experience in
construction of well foundations and claimed in
achieving success by adapting this method,
continued grabbing to a depth of about 10 m
below the cutting edge of the well situated in
the river Ganga in a major project when the well
became stationary in a very stiff clay layer. This
particular well was partly in the water and partly
in the bank. One day the well suddenly sank to
a depth of nearly 10 m leading to a major
catastrophe. This was a very unwise decision,
which should never have been taken.
IRC 78 : 2000 specifies that sumps made by
dredging below cutting edge shall preferably not
be more then half the internal diameter.
(ii) Dewatering well as a device to sink a well
The purpose of dewatering is to reduce the
buoyancy. Thus the buoyant weight of the well
is increased which increases the sinking effort
of the well. But the major problem is the chance
of occurring sand blow.
If the sand blow occurs and if the sand blow is
eccentric and the lateral force exerted on the
well is high, the well may break into 4 segments
along its height, which was noticed in many
projects in this country. The author has developed
a method for the design of a well foundation for
resisting excessive sand blow forces, which was
published in IRC Journal¹ in 1993. This method
was used in a major bridge across river Ganga
where the well foundations of 13 m diameter up
to 67 m depth, which was the deepest well for a
road bridge in India at that time was used. There
is no literature available which specifies the
evaluation of horizontal force for the design of
a well foundation for the condition during
construction when the well is like a hollow pipe
and is in a most vulnerable condition. For such a
large and deep well, IRC method of design was
not used. Instead a rational and conceptual
method developed by the author was used. The
quantities of the well were nearly half even for
such a deep well. It may be noted that all the
wells were sunk to the designed founding level
without any appreciable difficulty.
According to the author for a major bridge with
large and deep well foundations, the wells must
be designed three dimensionally with a realistic
lateral load during construction condition to
avoid disastrous situation due to which the well
steining may crack transversely. The cost of
such an analysis and design is negligible
compared with the unpleasant situation, which
may become very expensive and delay the
project badly.
(iii) Remove soil in contact with the outside surface
of the well
If the top soil layers are soft, this does not help
much. If the stiff clay layer exists at a shallow
depth then it may help to some extent.
(iv) Flushing with jet of water on the outside face of
well
In this process holes are kept in the well steining
with outlets on the outside surface of the well.
Two types of orientation of the outlets are shown
in Fig. 1 (a) & (b). In Fig. 1 (a) the outlets are
perpendicular to the vertical whereas in Fig. 1
(b), the outlets are inclined with the tip upwards.
Experience shows that the outlet hole of the pipe
gets blocked with the entry of the clay more
easily than the inclined one. A plug was provided
to prevent entry of sand or other softer material.
This plug moves out with the force of water jet.
When the well gets stuck in a very stiff clay
layer, water is pumped from the top of the
steining. Water coming out on the outer surface
of the well is supposed to lubricate the surface
and reduce the adherence of the clay on the
surface of the well which consequently reduces
the upward resistance against sinking down of
the well.
(v) By thumping on the water inside the dredge hole
by dropping grab
This also has been tried to overcome the
resistance.
(vi) By Kentledge loading on the well :
The Kentledge loading is placed on the top of
well either by sand bags or by concrete blocks
leaving adequate space in the central zone of
the dredge hole for grabbing. This weight helps
126 SAHA ON
increase the sinking effort of the well.
In case of tilt of a well, eccentric Kentledge
load is placed for the correction of tilt.
(b) The method which is different from the methods
listed above had been tried by the author and briefly
described below :-
In one project when the well became stationary in a
stiff clay layer, this method was used. In those wells the
outside projection of the well kerb was 75 mm. In the
upper region the strata was of softer variety. Pipes were
not kept in the well steining to inject water on the outside
surface of the well.
It has been stated earlier that the resistance to sinking
comes from the outside surface of the well and also
from the bearing on the stiff clay below the well kerb. In
a large diameter well, the thickness of the steining is
large and hence the resistance due to bearing on the
stiff clay layer is quite substantial. To overcome this
resistance veteran well sinking engineers continued
grabbing inside the dredge hole much below the cutting
edge level so that the soil below the well kerb fell off and
this resistance was eliminated. The well of course used to
sink down suddenly. In the design, designers used to design
the well considering half the permissible tensile stress as
specified in the IRC-78 to meet these eventualities . As
stated earlier the method specified by the author for the
design of a well three dimensionally can meet such a
situation of sudden sinking down of a well.
However, due to sudden sinking down of a well there
may be catastrophic consequences, hence such method
of continuous grabbing is not recommended. Instead the
method which will directly break the clay layer and
remove the bearing below the – kerb was adopted. This
was done directly by cutting the stiff clay layer by a jet
of water through a pipe using a high pressure pump.
This pipe was supported on a circular frame. Actually 4
vertical pipes were fixed at 4 quadrants as shown in Fig.
2. The central area was kept free in order to facilitate
grabbing.
The water was pumped through pipes using one high
pressure pump for one pipe. Two high pressure pumps
were used at one time and water was injected at two
diagonally opposite points at a time. After some time,
the other two perpendicularly placed pipes were used
for pumping water. After some time the frame was
lowered and water was injected in order to cut the stiff
clay over the entire inside area at the bottom of the well
kerb. The well was observed to sink down when the
inside clay soil was cut and removed.
After the removal of the bearing still clay strata, the
wells started moving down.
Thus this method was found to be quite effective,
safe and efficient method.
3. BOULDERY STRATA
The bouldery strata can be dealt with 3 ways.
(i) When the boulders are lying loose, they will come
Fig. 2. Showing clayey strata below well kerb and
layout of pipe lines
ELEVATION OF WELL AND PIPE LINES
out with normal grabbing.
(ii) When they are cemented but not very firmly then
underwater blasting may be effective.
(iii) When the boulders are very firmly cemented and
the thickness of the steining of the well is quite large
then pneumatic sinking may have to be resorted to.
In case of bouldery strata, the proper soil
investigation should be done and what method of
sinking is to be adopted must be decided. The design
of the well must be done for such a condition. At
least provision for limited blasting must be made and
a three dimensional finite element analysis should
be done for eccentric blasting force. The steining of
the well must be designed not only in the vertical
direction but also in the transverse direction providing
appropriate design reinforcement. Steel strakes must
be provided in such condition. It should be noted
that in the past many well steining cracked due to
blasting. The wells of Varanasi Bridge of 13 m dia,
2.5 m thick steining and up to 67 m deep were
analysed for eccentric sand below condition by using
3-D Finite Element analysis by the author1. This
became helpful to take care of adverse situation
during sinking of wells.
Formation of Heaves in the Dredge Hole even after
the well reaches the Designed Founding Level.
When a well passes through soft strata over a
considerable depth, the upward resistance acting on
the outside surface of the well is less than the weight
of the well. In that situation the well sinks down and
quite often a heap is formed inside the dredge hole
as shown in Fig 3. When the formation of heaves
takes place after the well reaches the designed
foundation level, then the engineers face the problem
of laying the bottom plug. If the bottom plug is laid
inside the dredge hole then the very purpose of laying
the bottom plug is defeated, since the load from the
well is transmitted to the foundation through the well
steining and the bottom plug which lies just below
the well steining.
The author had developed a method² to overcome
this problem. In a number of well foundations where
large heaves were formed inside the well, the author
used this method and the formation of heaves was
stopped. Thereafter the bottom plug was laid within
the well kerb region. For the benefit of readers this
method is stated briefly here below :-
How to achieve the condition that the weight
of the well will be resisted through outside frictional
force only.
Fig. 3. Showing the formation of heave
It is reckoned that no further concreting of the well
steining should be done and sinking should be continued.
In that case, the weight of the well will remain nearly
same and the frictional force outside the well will increase
very fast, the founding strata being in good soil. It is
thought that the equilibrium of the well will reach with
shorter depth of sinking below the designed founding
level.
The following method is used to evaluate the
approximate depth of further sinking and also the height
of water to be considered for the design of the cofferdam
along the outer perimeter of the well at top.
When the heave develops in the dredge hole, the
equilibrium of the well takes place as per the following
equation :
W = F+qa Eqn. ... (1)
F = frictional force in the vertical direction along the
outside surface of the well.
128 SAHA ON
q = bearing pressure of soil.
a = area of the well supported over the heave i.e.
over the distance X, Fig. 4.
X = tan A.
h = height of heave.
A = angle at the tip of well curb.
The component qa is required to be balanced by the
additional frictional force over the outside surface of the
well, which will develop by sinking the well deeper.
Thus fl al = qa Eqn. … (2)
Where fl = the frictional force acting on the outside
surface of the well over depth of further sinking of the
well per unit area which is evaluated below.
al = area of the outside surface of the well over
depth of further sinking.
Referring to Fig. 4
fl = p x (coefficient of friction)
p = (pl + p2)/2
pl = active earth pressure at a depth H below the
existing water level or ground level whichever is higher.
p2 = active earth pressure at a depth H + h1
h1 = depth of further sinking.
Substituting p in fl and fl in Eqn. 2 as shown in Fig. 4,
hl can be evaluated.
4. FEW OTHER MEASURES WHICH CAN HELP
RELATIVELY TROUBLE FREE SINKING OF WELLS
(i) Appropriate choice of cutting edge and adoption of
Fig. 4. Showing additional sinking without any further concreting of steining
(a) POSITION OF WELL AT DESIGNED FOUNDING LEVEL
WITH HEAVES IN DREDGE HOLE
(b) POSITION OF WELL AFTEER ADDITIONAL FURTHER
SINKING WITH NO HEAVE IN DREDGE HOLE
proper detailing
Two types of cutting edges are of use for well
foundations as shown in Fig. 5 (a) & (b) of IRC –
78 : 2000. The angle iron cutting edge works well
when the well passes through alluvial soil strata
without any hard obstruction. There are instances
when the cutting edge met some hard obstruction, it
became dislodged and caused obstruction to the well.
Compared with the angle iron cutting edge a V type
cutting edge is more appropriate in meeting various
obstructive situation provided correct detailing is
adopted. The inclined plate should be stopped about
25 mm above the bottom tip of vertical plate and the
welding of the joint between the vertical plate and
the inclined plate must be done as shown in Fig.
No.5(b). The vertical and the inclined plates must
not meet at the bottom most point and consequently
the welding must not be done at the bottom tip. The
author is aware that in many bridges in the Himalayan
region where the strata are full of boulders the
welding at tip came off and the plates were bent out
and caused lots of obstruction to sinking leading to
various problems including delay in progress of
construction. Hence it is advised to adopt detailing
as shown in Fig. 5(b).
(ii) Adequate no. of Borelogs must be taken in the
location of each well
As per the present practice only one Borehole is
taken at each foundation location. The soil properties
of various strata are available along the depth. To
obtain the complete information of the existence of
type of soil/rock or large boulders if any covering a
part of well foundation at least 3 boreholes should
be taken. If the diameter of well is large, then at
least 4 bore holes should be taken. With this
knowledge the span arrangements be made so that
wells can be sunk smoothly. Soil properties should
be taken of one borehole for the design of
foundations whereas the other boreholes will present
information on the type of strata, locations and their
depths. Presence of very large boulder covering a
part of the well at some depth in the bridge over
third Brahmaputra at Jogighopa and similar type of
problems including sudden change of bed profile are
encountered in various rivers in India for which a
very expensive time consuming measures were
adopted. This can be avoided if enough information
of the soil strata is available at the time of design.
(iii) Floating Caisson Sinking
When the depth of water at the location of a well is
more than about 5 m then construction of well on
temporary sand island is not only difficult but also
uneconomical. In this situation steel caisson is
fabricated on the bank and floated in water either
by tilting platform or by a gantry. If the caisson is
very large and very heavy then tilting platform is
more convenient. In other cases normally the caisson
Fig. 5 (b) :Typical details of V-shaped cutting edge
Fig. 5 (a) :Typical details of angle iron cutting edge
130 SAHA ON
is brought to the water using a gantry. However, the
choice of tilting platform or a gantry or by some
other means should be made as per the locally
available resources and convenience.
After the floating caisson is brought to the designed
location of the well, further building up of caisson is
done. This work together with concreting inside the
caisson to the designed depth is done till the cutting
edge reaches the bed level of the river. This is a very
critical stage. There is every possibility of tilt and shift
occurring, since the caisson is subjected to
unidirectional flow of water. In several projects, large
tilt and shift occurred which subsequently created a
lot of problem with that project. The tilt and shift must
be checked very thoroughly before grounding and
suitable corrective measures must be taken if any tilt
or shift occurred. Some measures are suggested here
below which if adopted judiciously should minimize
the tilt and shift of the caisson.
(a) For large diameter caissons
After taking the caisson to the designed location
the caisson should be anchored to the already
installed dead anchors at least at 6 locations as
shown in Fig.6 with ropes with adjustable device.
Each anchoring should also be done at 2
locations in elevation. By pulling or releasing the
anchor rope the tilt and shift can be eliminated.
Steel piles may be driven inside the dredge hole
at 4 corners after ensuring the correct position
of the well.
(b) For caissons with sinking sets
The barges should be located towards upstream and
downstream of the river and anchored at least at
the locations as shown in Fig.7 with the device for
adjustment so that the well can be positioned at the
designed locations. The caisson is placed between
the barges with very small clearance between any
two barges and the caisson so that with the water
current force acting on the caisson below the barges,
tilting of the caisson is restrained. However, in case
of any tilt or shift occurring the same is controlled
by pulling or releasing the anchor ropes appropriately.
WATER LEVEL WATER LEVEL
WINCH
ELEVATION
RIVER BED LEVEL
WINCH
PLAN
Fig. 6
DIRECTION OF
RIVER FLOW
ELEVATION
WATER LEVEL
WINCH
WATER LEVEL
WINCH
RIVER BED LEVEL
PLAN
Fig. 7
5. CONCLUSION
On this paper a list of difficult situations, which bridge
engineers normally encounter during sinking of well
foundations, is presented. In some cases the author
himself devised some solutions to some perennial
problems, which have been described in this paper. The
problems like the formation of hump inside the dredge
hole of a well foundation or wells cracking due to sand
blow, or in a stiff clay layer wells becoming stationary
and not sinking down are quite common situations. In
several major projects where such situations developed
the author as the Technical Head of that organization,
developed methods and adopted them to overcome those
problems and these methods are presented in this paper.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author is indebted to Dr. T N Subba Rao for
making many valuable suggestions by sparing his valuable
time, to make this Paper more complete.
REFERENCES
1. Saha G.P. “Analysis and Design of Varanasi Bridge
Well Foundations – A Conceptual Approach” Journal
of Indian Roads Congress Vol. 54-2. Paper
presented in the Annual Session of IRC in November
1993.
2. Saha G.P. “Method of Stopping the Formation of
Heaves Inside the Dredge Hole of a Well
CE 1203 CONSTRUCTION
Foundation” Indian Highways,
TECHNIQUES, EQUIPMENT
AND PRACTICES
(Two Mark Question and Answers)
NAME: K.J.JEGIDHA, M.E.
Lecturer, Civil Department
NICE.
UNIT-I
CONSTRUCTION PRACTICES
1. What are the general specifications for first class building?
Foundation and plinth.
superstructure.
damp-proof course.
lintels.
roofing.
plastering.
doors and windows.
distempering and colour wasting.
painting.
2. What are monolithic wall? write its classifications?
Monolithic walls:-Walls built of a material requiring some kind of
shuttering in the initial stages.
Masonry can be classified into the following types
stone masonry.
brick masonry.
hollow block concrete masonry.
reinforced masonry.
composite masonry.
3. Define plinth.
Plinth:- It is the horizontal course of stone or brick provided at the base of the
wall above ground level. It indicates the height of the ground floor level above the
natural ground level. It protects the building from dampness.
4. What are classifications of stone masonry
There are two types ,they are
rubber masonry.
ashlar masonry.
5. What is rubber masonry and ashlar masonry?
Rubber masonry:-
Stones of irregular sizes are used. stones may be undressed or roughly
dressed. using hammer having wider joints.
Ashlar masonry:-
This is a costlier, high grade and superior quality of masonry. The work
built from accurately dressed stones with uniform and very fine joints of about
3mm. thickness is termed as ashlar masonry.
6. Compare English bond and Double Flemish bond.
English bond double Flemish bond.
More compact and stronger for walls
having thickness more than 1(1/2)
bricks.
Not pleasing appearance of the facing.
No strict supervision and skill required
for its construction.
More in cost than Double Flemish
bond.
Less compact and stronger.
Better appearance in the facing.
Good workmanship and careful
supervision is required.
Cheaper in cost-because number of
bricks bats are used.
7. What are the defects in brick masonry.
Defects in brick masonry:-
Sulphate attack.
Crystallization of salts from bricks.
Corrosion of embedded iron or steel.
Shrinkage on drying.
8. Mention the common sizes of building blocks.
The common sizes of building blocks are
390x190x300 mm- standard size hollow block.
390x190x200 mm- hollow building tiles.
390x190x100 mm- hollow concrete blocks for partition.
9. What the types of flooring commonly used.
mud flooring
muram flooring
cement concrete flooring
mosaic flooring
tiled flooring
marble flooring
10. Define damp proof course., what are its causes of dampness.
Definition :-The courses which are laid to check the entry of water or moisture
into the building are called damp proof courses.
Causes:-
faulty design of structure
faulty construction or poor workmanship
use of poor quality materials in construction.
11. Define roofs.
Roof:-A roof is defined as the uppermost part of the building which is
constructed in the form of a frame work to give protection to the building
against rain , heat wind etc..
12. What are the uses of water proofing compounds.
Uses:- When water proofing compounds is added to cement during construction it
prevents leakage. It is available in powder form. It is mixed with cement by hand before
cement is mixed with aggregate.
13. what are the condition for filters.
Condition for filter:-
It should remove harmful particles from air.
It should be workable under different velocity.
It should have very low frictional resistance.
It should not cause contamination of incoming air.
it should be easy to clean.
14. Define fire resistance
Fire Resistance:- It is the time during which an element of structure fulfils
its function in building safely in the event of fire of known intensity. Fire
resistance is also defined as an index of fire safety of buildings.
15. Define acoustics
Acoustics:-The term acoustics is defined as the science of sound, and it describes
the origin ,propagation and sensation of sound.
16. What are the conditions for good acoustics of an auditorium:-
Conditions for good acoustics of an auditorium:-
The initial sound should be of adequate intensity or loudness.
It is important for a speaker to be heard over a long distance.
The sound produced should be evenly spread over the whole area covered by
audience. If the sound is not evenly distributed echoes will be established.
the initial sound should be clear and distinct.
For music hall ,the initial sound should reach the audience with same frequency
and intensity.
All undesired sound should be reduced.
17. Define scaffolding:-
Scaffolding:-It is defined as the temporary structure employed in the building
construction for supporting workers, materials and tools etc., during its
construction alteration, demolition, painting and repair etc.,
18. Write the types of scaffolding.
Types of scaffolding:-
Single scaffolding or Brick layer scaffolding.
Double scaffolding or Masons scaffolding.
Ladder scaffolding.
Cantilever or Needle scaffolding.
19. Write any some materials used for joints.
bituminous felt
Metal strips
Fibre board
these are some of the materials used for joints.
20. Define flooring
Flooring:- The properly supported horizontal surfaces which divide the building into
different levels for providing accommodation one above the other within space are
called floors.
UNIT-II
SUB STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION
1) What is a cofferdam? When it used ?
Cofferdam is a temporary structure constructed to exclude water from the
site to construct a permanent sub-structure, without the interface of water.
It is used when the well foundation is to be carried in running water.
2) What is a caisson? What are the types of caisson?
It is a special type of foundation used for the construction of bridge piers
in v prevent ery deep water, where it is either difficult to construct a cofferdam or
to prevent its leakage.
Types:
a) Box caisson
b) Open caisson
c) Pneumatic caisson
3) What are the components of well foundation?
The components of the well foundations are,
a) Well curb
b) Cutting edge
d) Steining
4) What are the operations involved in open caisson method of foundation?
The open caisson method of foundation consists of the following
operations:
a) constructing or fabricating the caisson and preparing site to receive it.
b) placing the caisson over the site of the pier.
c) excavating the soil from the interior of the caisson and advancing the
d) caisson so that its cutting edge is at or below the bottom of the
excavation and continuing this process until the foundation in the hard
stratum is reached.
d) sealing the bottom of the caisson to exclude water and soil.
5) What are the uses of sheet piles?
The uses of sheet piles are,
a) For preventing leakage of pile material and water.
b) For preventing the structure from shocks ,vibrations, etc,.
c) For deep excavations to enclose soils to prevent lateral crust or
pressure.
6) What is a shoring?
Shoring is a temporary structure used to support tilted or endangered
walls .The walls might have been endangered due to unequal settlement of
foundation, removal of adjoining structures or making large opening in the walls.
7) What is meant by pipe jacking?
Pipe jacking is a method of installing a pipe under roadway , railway or
highways without using an open cut trench .The pipe jacking procedure uses a
casing pipe of sheet or reinforced concrete ie, jacked through the soil.
8) What is dewatering? Where it is used?
Dewatering means removal of excess water from the saturated soil.
It is used where the water table is very high or in the case of deep excavations the
foundation trenches for buildings and other structures, are filled with seeped
water.
9) What is a under-ream pile?
It is a pile with one or more bulbs in its vertical shaft .These bulbs are
known as under-reams and it increases the bearing capacity of the soil.
10) Write about spacing of piles?
For piles to be driven on hard stratum the minimum center to center
spacing is 2.5 times the pile diameter. In case of friction piles minimum spacing
of 3 times the diameter of the pile shaft is provided. In case of loose soil filled up
area or sand the minimum center to center spacing is twice the pile diameter.
11) Explain about suspended scaffolding.
During repair cleaning and painting various types of working
platforms are required at various levels which can be easily provided and
removed. Such types of platforms can be suspended by ropes or chains from
parapet wall of buildings or cantilever beams placed at the top of the structure.
This types of working are called suspended scaffolding.
12) Write about centering and shuttering?
Centering is a temporary structure used for the construction of
arches , whereas shuttering is a temporary structure used for the construction of
R.B. or R.C.C. structures such as beam ,slab ,balcony ,porch ,etc ,. Centering are
wooden shaped frames and shuttering are known as mould.
13) What is a Kent ledge?
In well sinking ,to overcome the increased skin friction and the in
weight of the well due to buoyancy, additional loading is applied on the well . It is
called Kent ledge.
14) What are the methods used for tunnel driving?
Following are the methods generally used for driving a tunnel,
a) Full face heading
b) Heading and bench method
c) Drifts method
d) Pilot tunneling
15) What is mucking?
The operation of removal of excavated material in tunneling
operation is called mucking.
16) hat are the advantages of drift method?
Drift method of tunnel excavation has the following advantages:
a) It helps to determine the region of bad rock or excessive
ground water before actually taking up the full excavation, so as to enable to
take up the corrective measures.
b) The drift provides ventilation while driving the main tunnel.
c) It reduces the consumption of explosives.
17) Explain about cement grouting .Uses .
In this method, cement grout which is a mixture of cement , sand
and water is used. The process consists of making a number of holes in ground
and then filling these holes by cement grout under pressure. This process is
continued till no grout is coming up through the hole.
Uses:
a) The grouting procedure can be used in stopping leakages from rock.
b) It can also be used to fill the voids in soil so as to strengthen the soil and
to make the rock or soil water tight.
18) Write the situations under which pile foundation is recommended.
The pile foundation is recommended for the following situations:
a) When spread footing ,raft and grillage foundations are
uneconomical.
b) When heavy concentrated loads are to be transmitted by the
foundations.
c) Where there is scouring in the soil near the foundations.
c) Where the soil is made up and of a compressible nature.
19) Write the essential features of a pump to be used for dewatering.
The pump to be used for dewatering process should have the
following features:
a)The pump should be portable so that it can be easily moved as and when
required.
b)The pump should be capable of handling water mixed with impurities
such as sand, earth, etc,.
c)The pump should be of strong make.
d)The performance of pump should be reliable.
20) What is the equipment used for driving a pre-cast pile in a sandy soil?
The equipment used for driving a pre-cast pile in a sandy soil is
a hammer. Hence maximum stresses are developed at the top due to direct strokes
and at the point in overcoming the resistance to penetration. Therefore additional
reinforcement is provided.
UNIT-III
SUPER STRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION
1. What are launching girders?
For erection of large beams in buildings or bridges, temporary girders are
used. Such girders are called launching girders. Launching girders are usually of steel
as it would be light compared to concrete girders.
2. What are bridge decks?
In bridges, the structure supporting the carriageway is called decks. The
bride deck transfers the load to the piers or abutments. The bride decks can be
classified as slabs, T-beam and slab, or composite decks. In composite decks, beams
are pre-stressed or of steel and the slabs would be concrete cast in situ.
3. What are offshore platforms?
Offshore platforms are structures constructed in the ocean to explore or to
produce oil and gas from the sources found below the sea. Offshore platforms are
in steel or in concrete.
4. What are Jacket platforms?
The steel offshore platforms are called Jacket platforms. They are vertical
towers constructed with steel tubular members supporting the deck, where the
machinery for drilling or processing oil or gas is located. They are connected to the
ocean floor by means of piles.
5. What are gravity towers?
In concrete construction, the offshore platforms are called Gravity towers
which consist of concrete circular shafts supporting the processing platforms. The
offshore platforms are subjected to loads from ocean waves.
6. What is a bow-string bridge?
In this type of bridge, the horizontal thrust is resisted by the horizontal
ties. The supports take up only the vertical reaction. They, therefore require thinner
sections. Bow-string girdes of R.C.C are commonly adopted for arch bridges having
span of 30m to 45m. At various points along the length of a tie beam, vertical posts or
suspenders connecting the tie beam to the arched rib are provided. The flooring is
resting on the tie beam and transfers its load to the arch through the suspenders. Thwe
flooring may be of simple slab or beam and slab construction.
7. What are cable-stayed bridges?
These bridges provide a larger width for purposes of navigation by
eliminating intermediate piers. They consist of cables provided above the deck and
are connected to the towers. The deck in case of cable stayed bridges is either
supported by a number of cables meeting in a bunch at the tower (fan form) or by
joining at different levels on the tower (harp form).
8. What are chimneys?
Chimneys are structures used to escape the gases to such a height that the
gases donot contaminate the surrounding atmosphere. The cross sectional area of the
chimneyis kept large enough to allow the passage of burnt gases.
9. State the dimension of flue hole opening in chimney.
40 x 40 cm
10. What are the various loads acting on a chimney?
1. Self weight of masonry chimney
2. Weight of lining
3. Wind pressure
4. Seismic forces
11. How is lining made in chimney?
The mareial used for lining should be capable of withstanding high
temperature upto 2000 F. The fire bicks are used for lining in brick masonry
chimneys. The fire brick lining must be free to expand and contract independently of
the main chimney. Yhe height of lining depends on the purpose of chimney.
12. What are the various types of chimneys?
R.C.C chimney
Brick chimney
Self supporting stacks
Guyed steel stack
13. What are the forms used in the construction of chimney?
Jump forms, Slip forms
14. What are cooling towers?
Cooling Towers are used to cool the water that is used to recondense the
steam that is used to generate electricity.
15. What are the methods of prestressing?
1. Pre tensioned Metod
2. Post tensioned Method
16. What are the systems of prestressing?
1. Freyssinet System
2. Magnel-blaton System
3. Lee-Mc. Call or stress steel system
17. What are the advantages of prestressed cement concrete?
1. It is possible to take the full advantage of compressive strength of concrete
and high tensile strength of the steel used.
2. 15 to 30% of the concrete is saved.
3. 60 to 80% of the steel is saved.
4. Presressed concrete members are thinner in section and hence there is
greater reduction of the self weight of the member.
18. How are domes erected?
Domes are usually erected with a central temporary support on which the
supporting ring rests. If the span is greater than 40 – 50m, the tower of an erecting
frame serves a sthe support.
19. What are shells?
Shalls are three dimensional structures constructed as storage tanks or roof
for large column free areas, such as exhibition halls, sports complex or theatres.
20. How are shells classified ?
1. Singly curved shells like cylindrical shells
2. Doubly curved or spherical shells
UNIT-IV
REPAIR AND REHABILITATION
1. What are the causes of stresses in a building component?
Stress in a building component can be caused by external forces such as
dead, live, wind or seismic loads or foundation settlement or can be induced
internally due to thermal movement, moisture changes, chemical action etc.
2. What is an Active and Dormant crack?
Active:
A crack is said to be active if it is still in progress, that is, the crack is still
developing. This may be ascertained by filling the crack with mortar and
observing. If the crack reappears, it is considered live, that is, it will further.
Dormant:
A dormant crack is the one which once formed remains static and doesn’t
get altered due to passage of time.
3. What are the classifications of crack based on width?
Fine : Width less than 0.1 mm
Thin : Width 0.1 to 0.3 mm
Medium : Width 0.3 to 0.7 mm
Wide : Width 0.7 to 2.0 mm
Very Wide: Width greater than 2 mm
4. What are the basic symptoms of distress in concrete?
The three basic symptoms of distress in concrete are:
Cracking
Spalling
Disintegration
5. What are the Defects in Masonry Structures?
The Defects in Masonry Structures are:
i. Dampness ii. Condensation iii. Efflorescence
iv. Structural and Surface cracks v. Stains
6. What are the Defects in Masonry Structures?
i. Rusting ii.Excessive deflections iii. Buckling and bending
iv. Twisting v. Lateral Bending vi . Pitting
vii Defects in welds such as shearing, bearing failure and tearing
failure.
7. What are the types of Distress in structures?
The following are the types of Distress in Structures:
i. Local settlement of sub-grade
ii. Movement of form work
iii. Vibrations
iv. Internal settlement of concrete shrinkage
v. Setting shrinkage
8. What are the causes of Dampness?
Dampness are attributed to the following
i. Leakage from defective roofing system
ii. Porous bricks
iii. Vegetation Growth
iv. Earth backi9ng against masonry construction
9. What is Condensation?
The saturated air enters the building and coming in contact with cooler
surfaces of windows glass panes, iron works, painted or varnished surfaces, losses
temperature and is deposited on the impervious surfaces. This phenomenon is
termed as condensation. Condensation causes dampness and affects brick wall.
10. What is Efflorescence?
Efflorescence is purely the result of natural laws and is the direct outcome
of the situation of the brick work which causes large irregular shaped patches of
whitish mould formed on the surface of the and thus disfigure its appearance, which
usually contains various soluble salts.
11. What is meant by maintenance of Structure?
Maintenance is a continuous cycle which involves e3very element of
building science, namely,
i. Structural
ii. Electrical wiring
iii. Plumbing- Water supply –Sanitation
iv. Finishing on floors and walls
v. Roof terrace
vi. Service perform/verandah
vii. Lifts
viii. Doors windows and other elements
12. What are the Corrosion Prevention methods for Reinforcing Bars?
Corrosion Prevention methods for Reinforcing Bars are,
a) Cathodic Protection
b) Application of a carbonation resistant polymer film on the
surface of the concrete
c) Application of the galvanizing coat on steel
d) Application of poly coating like epoxy, polyurethane fusion
bonded epoxy etc. on steel
e) Application of specially formulated alkaline polymer
emulsion
13. What are the preventive measures to be taken in the construction of new water
tank?
i.The mix of concrete ii.Blended cement
iii.Aggregates iv.Sand
v.Water vi.Curing
vii.Cover ixSurface coatings
x.Coating on Reinforcement
14. List any four factors which influence corrosion in a structure/
i. pH value ii. Moisture
iii. Oxygen iv.Carbonation of Concrete
15. List out the various Damages that occur due to Corrosion.
1.Formation of white patches 2.Brown patches along reinforcement
3.Occurrence of cracks 4.Formation of multiple cracks
5.Spalling of cover concrete 6.Snapping of bars
7.Buckling of bars and bulging of concrete
16. What are the various non- destructive tests on Concrete?
1)Rebound hammer test 2)Ultrasonic pulse- velocity test
3)Potential measurement
17. What is the purpose of conducting Rebound hammer test?
Rebound hammer test is conducted to evaluate the compressive
strength of the affected portion and the same could be correlated with the desired
strength of the element of structure.
18. Name the three electrodes used for potential measurement.
i.Saturated calomel electrode ii.Silver/Silver Chloride electrodes
iii.Copper/Copper Sulphate electrodes.
19. What is meant by Epoxy Grouting?
Epoxy grouting is a technique which has been used in recent past
with a high degree of success especially in treating deep routed and subcutaneous
cracks.
20. What is Polymer Concreting?
Polymer Concreting is a method in which polymer such as modified
latex, neoprene, polyvinyl acetate, styrenebutadience, and acrylic polymers are
used as polymer additives in conjunction with cement concrete. This results in
very high impermeability and high acid resistance thereby making polymer
concrete as a very suitable material fore use as original concrete to counteract
corrosive forces. This can also be used as a repair material to replace the affected
concrete.
UNIT-V
CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT
1. What are the advantages of using trenchers?
The advantages of using trenchers are
_ It is a faster and cheaper method of trenching
_ It digs only as much as is necessary
_ It is a continuous process and is not like that of back hoe excavator
2. Define dredging.
Dredging is the process of excavating from river bed, lake or sea for the purpose
of deepening them. It is an important operation in navigation canals, harbours, dams
etc.
Dredgers are of three types namely
3. Mention the various operations involved in grading?
The various operations involved in grading are
_ grading
_ spreading
_ finishing and leveling
_ Ditch digging
_ cutting
_ bank cutting
_ earthen road maintenance
_ earthen road construction and
_ repairing gravel road
4. What are the factors affecting the selection of drilling equipment?
The factors affecting the selection of drilling equipment are
_ the nature of terrain
_ required depth of holes
_ rock hardness
_ the size of the project and
_ the purpose for which holes are required.
5. Define hardness. Which is the hardest known substance?
Hardness is defined as the resistance of a smooth plane surface to abrasion. It is
the hardest known substance with hardness 10.
6. Define texture. What are its classification.
Texture is defined as the grain size of the rock. It is classified into 5 categories
such as
_ porous rock
_ Loose grained rock
_ Granitoid rock
_ Fine grained rock and
_ Dense rock
7. What are the types of drilling equipment?
The types of drilling equipment are
Percussion drills and Rotary drills
Rotary drills are further classified as
Pressure drilling and Abrasion drilling
8. Define blasting?
Blasting is the process of discharging of an explosive to loosen the rock.
9. What are the parameters to be examined while blasting for quarrying?
While blasting for quarrying or excavation, the following parameters are to be
examined.
_ Spacing of the drill holes
_ Diameter of the drill holes
_ Depth of the drill holes
_ Burden of the rock at the toe
_ Burden of the rock at the crest
_ Degree of fragmentation desired and
_ Strength of the explosives to be used
10. What are the types of dredgers?
Dipper dredger,
Ladder dredger and
Suction dredger
11. Mention the sequence of operations involved in driving the tunnel through rock?
The sequence of operations involved in driving the tunnel through rocks are
_ Setting up and drilling
_ Loading the holes with explosives and firing
_ Ventilating and removing the dust resulted by explosion
_ Loading and hauling the muck
_ Removing ground water from the tunnel
_ Erection of supports for the roof and sides
_ Placing reinforcement
_ Placing the concrete lining
_ Curing and shuttering removal
12. What are the objectives of ventilation system in a tunnel?
The main objects of ventilation system in a tunnel are
_ to provide fresh air for workers
_ to remove poisonous gases and fumes produced by explosion
_ to remove the dust caused by drilling, blasting mucking and other
operations performed in the tunnel.
13. Define mucking?
Mucking is the operation of loading the broken rock or earth for removal from a
tunnel. Mucking is done by hand in small tunnels, drifts and pilot tunnels.
14. What is a tractor? Mention its types?
Tractor is an earthmoving equipment which converts engine energy into tractive
energy. The two types of tractors are
_ crawler or tract type and
_ wheel or pneumatic type
15. Define compaction?
Compaction is defined as the process of densifying or increasing the unit weight
of a soil mass through the application of static or dynamic force, with the resulting
expulsion of air.
16. Define surface load?
Surface load is defined as the ration of total applied load and the total contact area
of the minimum number of feet which come simultaneously in contact with even ground
without penetration.
axle load kg
(ie) Surface load =
Contact area of feet cm2
17. What are the factors influencing compaction?
The factors which influence compaction are
_ static weight
_ number of vibratory drums
_ roller speed
_ drum diameter
_ frequency and amplitude
_ relationship between frame and drum weight
_ driven or non driven drum
_ centrifugal force and
_ total applied force
18. Name the equipments used for volume batching?
The equipments used for volume batching are
_ aggregate feeders
_ cement silo
_ water measuring device and
_ mixing unit
19. What are the various types of conveyors?
The various types of conveyors are
_ belt conveyor
_ roller conveyor
_ chain or cable conveyor
_ pipe line conveyor
_ screw conveyor and
_ elevating conveyor
20. What are the advantages of using belt conveyors?
The advantages of using belt conveyors are
_ It is capable of handling light or heavy, fine or coarse, wet or dry
material.
_ It can handle, thousands of tons of material per hour for several
kilometers.
_ It can handle not materials up to 1600c.
_ It operates without noise. June 2002.
Well Foundations
1200
Well Foundations
2
Section 1200 Well Foundations
1201 DESCRIPTION
This work shall consist of construction of well foundation, taking it down to the founding
level through all kinds of sub-strata, plugging the bottom, filling the inside of the well,
plugging
the top and providing a well cap in accordance with the details shown on the drawings
and
as per these Specifications, or as directed by the Engineer.
In case of well foundations of size larger than 12 m diameter, supplemental construction
specifications will be necessary.
1202 GENERAL
1202.1 Wells may have a circular, rectangular or D-shape in plan and may consist
of one, two or more compartments in plan. The outer wall of the well, known as well
steining
may be cellular.
The process of taking down the well to the founding level is known as well sinking. After
reaching the founding level, the hollow inside the well, (“dredge hole”) is plugged at the
bottom by concrete (“bottom plug”). The dredge hole is then filled with approved filling
upto the level indicated on the drawings and provided with a concrete plug (“top plug”).
To facilitate sinking of well, steel cutting edge is fabricated and connected to a concrete
well curb of required shape. On top of the well curb, adequate height of well steining is
cast and the process of sinking is carried out. After a portion of the well has been sunk,
another height of well steining is cast on top of the previous section and further sinking
carried out. This process is continued till the bottom level of the well reaches the
founding
level.
At the top of the well steining, well cap” is laid which transmits the loads and forces from
the sub-structure (piers or abutments) to the foundations.
1202.2 At least one bore-hole must be available/carried out in accordance with these
specifications at each well foundation location, prior to commencement of work. The
depth
of bore-holes should extend upto a depth equal to one and a half times the outer
diameter/
least dimension of the well below the anticipated founding level. The results of soil
exploration should be presented in accordance with Clause 704.3 of IRC:78. In case the
well foundation is to rest on a rocky strata, it may be necessary to undertake additional
borings/probings prior to commencement of work to ascertain the actual profile and the
quality of the rocky strata, at the level at which the well has to be seated, etc.
1202.3 Blasting may have to be resorted to in order to facilitate sinking through
difficult strata, such as boulders and rocks etc. In case blasting is anticipated,
protective/
strengthening measures specified in Sub-Clause 6 of Appendix 4 of IRC:78 shall be
3
Well Foundations Section 1200
taken. The grade of concrete in bottom 3 m of steining shall not be leaner than M 20 or
as
shown on the drawings.
1202.4 In case the bore hole data shows the presence of steeply dipping rock,
chiseling may have to be resorted to so as to obtain proper seating of the foundation.
For
this purpose, the well may require to be dewatered completely under high air pressure
inside the well. This process is known as pneumatic sinking. Pneumatic sinking may
also
have to be resorted to in cases where obstacles such as tree trunks, large sized
boulders
or hard strata etc. cannot be removed by open dredging. The necessity of adopting
pneumatic sinking shall be decided by the Engineer.
The curb and steining have to be specifically designed for special loadings when
pneumatic
sinking is adopted.
1203 SETTING OUT AND PREPARATIONS FOR SINKING
1203.1 Necessary reference points shall be fixed, away from the zone of blow-ups
or possible settlements resulting from well sinking operations. Such reference points
shall
be connected to the permanent theodolite stations with the base line on the banks. The
center of the individual wells shall be marked with reference to these stations. The
distance,
wherever practicable, shall be checked with the help of accurate tapes and precision
distomat.
Reference points shall also be fixed to mark X-X axis (usually traffic direction) and Y-Y
axis
(normal to X-X axis) accurately.
A temporary bench mark shall also be established near the well foundation, away from
the
zones of blow-ups or possible settlement. The bench mark shall be checked regularly
with
respect to the permanent bench mark established at the bridge site.
1203.2 For wells which are to be located in water, an earthen or sand island shall
be constructed. Sand islands are practicable for water depths of about 5 m under stable
bed soil conditions. For greater depths or in fast flowing rivers or for locations where soil
is too weak to sustain sand island, floating caissons may have to be adopted.
The plan dimensions of sand islands shall be such as to have a working space of at
least
2 m all around the steining. The dimension of the sand islands shall however be not less
than twice the dimension in plan of the well or caisson. Sand islands shall be
maintained
to perform their functions, until the well is sunk to a depth below the bed level at least
equal
to the depth of water.
Sand island shall be protected against scour and the top level shall be sufficiently above
the prevailing water level to be decided by the Engineer so that it is safe against wave
action.
4
While sand islands are constructed at well location, floating caissons are generally
fabricated at or near the banks on dry land or dry docks. Floating caissons are towed
into
position in floating condition.
Floating caissons may be of steel, reinforced concrete or a combination of the two. They
should have at least 1.5 m free board above water level and increased, if considered
necessary, in case there is a possibility of caissons sinking suddenly due to reasons
such
as scour likely to result from the lowering of caissons, effect of waves, sinking in very
soft
strata etc.
Stability of floating caissons shall be ensured against overturning and capsizing while
being
towed and during sinking for the action of water current, wave pressure, wind etc.
For floating caissons, a detailed method statement for fabrication, floating and sinking of
caissons shall be prepared and furnished to the Engineer. Such statement shall include
the total tonnage of steel involved, fabrication and welding specifications, list of
materials
and plant and a description of operations and manpower required for the work. The
caisson
shall be tested for leakages before being towed to site.
For well placed in the banks of the river or in the dry area, the bed may be prepared by
excavating the soil up to 1.5 m followed by leveling and dressing before placing the
cutting
edge.
1203.3 Equipment
Equipment shall be deployed for construction of well foundation as required and as
directed
by the Engineer. Generally, the following equipments may be required for the work:
a) Crane with grab buckets – capacity 0.5 to 2.0 cu.m
b) Submersible pumps
c) Air compressors, air locks and other accessories where pneumatic
sinking of well is anticipated
d) Chisels of appropriate sizes
e) Aqua-header for cutting rocky strata
f) Diving helmets and accessories
g) Equipments for concrete production, transportation and compaction
5
1204 CUTTING EDGE
1204.1 The mild steel cutting edge shall be made from structural steel sections and
shall be strong enough to facilitate sinking of the well through the type of strata
expected to
be encountered. The weight of the cutting edge shall not be less than 40 kg per metre
length and be properly anchored into the well curb, as shown in the drawing.
When there are two or more compartments in a well, the bottom end of the cutting edge
of
the inner walls of such wells shall be kept at about 300 mm above that of outer walls.
In V shaped cutting edge, the inclined plate should meet the vertical plate in such a way
that full strength connection by welding is feasible.
1204.2 The parts of cutting edge shall be erected on level firm ground. Temporary
supports shall be provided to facilitate erection and maintaining the assembly in true
shape.
The fabrication may be carried out in the shop or at site. Steel sections shall not be
heated
and forced into shape. However, “V” cuts may be made in the horizontal portion,
uniformly
throughout the length, to facilitate cold bending. After bending, such “V” cuts should be
closed by welding. Joints in the lengths of structural sections, unless otherwise specified
shall be filler welded using single cover plate to ensure the requisite strength of the
original
section.
1204.3 The cutting edge shall be laid about 300 mm above prevalent water level.
1205 WELL CURB
1205.1 The well curb shall be such that it shall offer minimum resistance while
sinking, but shall be strong enough to be able to transmit superimposed loads from the
steining to the bottom plug. The shape and the outline dimension of the curb as given in
Appendix -3 (Fig. 2) of IRC:78 may be referred for guidance. The internal angle of the
curb
as shown in Appendix 3 shall be about 30o to 37o. depending upon geotechnical data.
The well curb may be pre-cast or cast-in-situ. The well curb shall be reinforced concrete
of
mix not leaner than M 25 with minimum reinforcement of 72 kg/cu.m excluding bond
rod.
The steel shall be suitably arranged to prevent spreading and splitting of curb during
sinking.
Steel formwork for well curb shall be fabricated strictly in conformity with the drawing.
The
outer face of the curb shall be vertical. The bottom ends of vertical bond rods of steining
shall be fixed securely to the cutting edge with check nuts or by welds.
The formwork on outer face of curb may be removed within 24 hours after concreting.
The
formwork on inner face shall be removed after 72 hours. All concreting in the well curb
shall be done in one continuous operation.
6
1205.2 In case blasting is anticipated, the inner faces of the well curb shall be
protected with the steel plates of thickness not less than 10 mm up to the top of the well
curb. If it is desired to increase the steel lining above the well curb then the thickness in
the
extended portion can be reduced to 6 mm. This extra height of the steel shall not
exceed
3 m, unless specific requirement exists, as decided by the Engineer. The curb in cases
involving blasting, shall be provided with additional hoop reinforcement consisting of
10 mm dia mild steel or deformed bars at 150 mm spacing which shall also extend up to
a height of liner.
1206 WELL STEINING
1206.1 The dimensions, shape, concrete strength and reinforcements of the well shall
strictly conform to those shown on the drawings. The formwork shall preferably be of
M.S.
sheets shaped and stiffened suitably. In case timber forms are used, they shall be lined
with plywood or M.S. sheets.
1206.2 Steining built in the first lift above the well curb shall not be more than
2 m and in subsequent lifts it shall not exceed the diameter of the well or the depth of
well
sunk below the adjoining bed level at any time. For stability, the first lift of steining shall
be
cast only after sinking the curb at least partially for stability. Concreting of steining may
be
carried out in subsequent lifts of about 2 to 2.5 m. Attempts should be made to minimize
the number of construction joints. The concreting layers shall be limited to 450 mm
restricting
the free fall of concrete to not more than 1.5 m. Laitance formed at the top surface of a
lift
shall be removed to expose coarse aggregates before setting of concrete at the
proposed
construction joint. As far as possible, construction joints shall not be kept at the location
of
laps in the vertical steining bars.
1206.3 The steining of the well shall be built in one straight line from bottom to top
such that if the well is titled, the next lift of steining will be aligned in the direction of the
tilt.
The work will be checked carefully with the aid of straight edges of lengths approved by
the Engineer. Plumb bob or spirit level shall not be used for alignment. After sinking of a
stage is complete, damaged portions if any, of steining at top of the previous stage shall
be properly repaired before constructing the next stage.
1206.4 The height of steining shall be calibrated by making at least 4 gauges
(preferably in traffic direction and in a direction normal to traffic direction) distributed
equally
on the outer periphery of the well each in the form of a 100 mm wide strip painted on the
well, with every metre mark shown in black paint. The gauges shall start with zero at the
bottom of the cutting edge. Marking of the gauges shall be done carefully with a steel
tape.
1206.5 After reaching the founding level, the well steining shall be inspected to
check for any damage or cracks. The Engineer will direct and the Contractor shall
execute
7
the remedial measures before acceptance of the well steining. In case the well cannot
be
accepted even with any remedial measure, then the well shall stand rejected.
1207 WELL SINKING
1207.1 General
The well shall as far as possible be sunk true and vertical through all types of strata.
Sinking or loading of the well with kentledge shall be commenced only after the steining
has been cured for at least 48 hours or as specified in the drawings.
No well shall be permitted to be placed in a pre-dredged hole.
The well shall be sunk by excavating material uniformly from inside the dredge hole.
Use
of water jetting, explosives and divers may be adopted for sinking of wells through
difficult
strata with prior approval of the Engineer.
Normally dewatering of well should not be permitted as a means for sinking the well.
It shall never be resorted to if there is any danger of sand blowing under the well.
Dewatering
shall however be done when well is to be founded into rock. Pneumatic sinking may
have
to be resorted to where obstacles such as tree trunks, large size boulders, etc. are met
at
the bottom or when there is hard strata which cannot be removed by open dredging.
The
necessity for pneumatic sinking shall be decided by the Engineer.
Sinking history of well shall be maintained in the format given in Appendix 1200/I.
1207.1.1 Sand blows in wells
Dewatering shall be avoided, if sand blows are expected. Any equipment or men
working
inside the well shall be brought outside the well as soon as there are any indications of
sand blow. Sand blow often can be minimized by keeping the level of water inside the
well
higher than the water table and also by adding heavy kentledge.
1207.2 Use of Kentledge as Sinking Load
Kentledge shall be placed in an orderly and safe manner on the loading platform and in
such a way that it does not interfere with the excavation of the material from inside the
dredge hole and also does not in any way damage the steining of the well.
Where tilts are present or there is a danger of well developing a tilt, the position of the
load
shall be regulated in such a manner as to provide greater sinking effort on the higher
side
of the well.
8
1207.3 Use of Water Jetting
Water jetting and jack down method may be employed for well sinking as per
requirement.
1207.4 Use of Explosives
Mild explosive charges may be used as an aid for sinking of the well only with prior
permission of the Engineer. Blasting of any sort shall only be done in the presence of
the
Engineer and not before the concrete in the steining has hardened sufficiently and is
more
than 7 days old. When likelihood of blasting is predicted in advance, protection of the
bottom portion of the well shall be done as per these Specifications.
After blasting operations are completed, the well curb and steining should be examined
for any cracks and remedial measures taken.
If blasting has been used after the well has reached the design foundation level,
normally
24 hours shall be allowed to lapse before the bottom plug is laid.
The charges shall be exploded well below the cutting edge by making a sump so as to
avoid chances of any damage to the curb or to the steining of the well. A minimum
sump of
1 m depth should be made before resorting to blasting. Use of large charges, 0.7 kg or
above, may not be allowed except under expert direction and with the permissions from
the Engineer. Suitable pattern of charges may be arranged with delay detonators to
reduce
the number of charges fired at a time. The burden of the charge may be limited to 1 m
and
the spacing of holes may normally be kept as 0.5 to 0.6 m.
All prevalent laws concerning handling, storing and using of explosives shall be strictly
followed.
All safety precautions shall be taken as per IS:4081 “Safety Code for Blasting and
related
Drilling Operations”, to the extent applicable, whenever blasting is resorted to.
There should be no equipment inside the well nor shall there be any worker in the
closed
vicinity of the well at the time of exploding the charges.
If rock blasting is to be done for seating of the well, the damage caused by flying debris
should be minimised by covering blasting holes by rubber mats before blasting.
1207.5 Use of Divers
Use of divers may be made both for the sinking purpose like removal of obstructions,
rock
blasting and for inspection. All safety precautions shall be taken as per any acceptable
safety code for sinking with divers or any statutory regulations in force.
9
Only persons trained in the diving operation shall be employed and shall be certified to
be
fit for diving by an approved doctor.
They shall work under expert supervision. The diving and other equipments shall be of
acceptable standard and certified to this effect by an approved independent agency. It
shall be well maintained for safe use.
Arrangement for ample supply of low pressure clean cool air shall be ensured through
an
armoured flexible hose pipe. Standby compressor plant shall be provided in case of
breakdown.
Separate high pressure connection for use of pneumatic tools shall be made. Electric
lights where provided shall be at 50 volts (maximum). The raising of the diver from the
bottom of wells shall be controlled so that decompression rate conforms to the rate as
laid
down in appropriate regulations.
1207.6 Use of Pneumatic Sinking
1207.6.1 General
The Engineer shall familiarize himself with particular reference to caisson diseases and
working of the medical air-lock. A doctor competent to deal with cases of “Caisson
Diseases” or other complications arising as a result of working under high pressure,
shall
be stationed at the construction site when pneumatic sinking is under progress.
The contractor shall provide complete facilities including the issuing of orders to ensure
strict enforcement of the requirements outlined in these Specifications.
Safely provisions as contained in IS:4138 and in these Specifications shall be strictly
followed.
Pneumatic sinking shall be restricted to a depth of 30.0 m.
1207.6.2 Man-Locks and Shafts
Locks, reducers, and shaft used in connection with caissons shall be of riveted
construction
throughout. The material used in their manufacture shall be steel plate with thickness
not
less than 6 mm.
Shafts shall be subjected to hydrostatic or air pressure test of at least 0.5 MPa, at which
pressure they shall be tight. The pressure at which testing has been done shall be
clearly
and visibly displayed.
10
Shaft shall be provided, with a safe, proper and suitable staircase for its entire length
including landing platforms which are not more than 6 m apart. Where this is
impracticable
due to space constraint, suitable ladders along with landing platforms shall be installed.
These shall be kept clear and in good condition at all times and shall be constructed,
inspected and maintained to the entire satisfaction of the Engineer.
A 1.0 m wide platform with 1.0 m high railing shall be provided all round the caisson air
locks.
Where 15 or more men are employed, caissons shall have two locks, one of which shall
be
used as a man lock.
Locks shall be located so that the lowest part of the bottom door shall not be less than
1 m above high water level.
The supply of fresh air to the working chamber shall at all times be sufficient to permit
work
to be done without any danger or excessive discomfort. All air supply lines shall be
supplied
with check valves and carried as near to the face as practicable.
A man-lock shall be used solely for the compression or de-compression of persons, and
not for the passage of plant and material and shall be maintained in a reasonably clean
and sufficiently warm state. However, any hand tool or hand instruments used for the
purpose of the work may be carried into the man-lock.
Where is it not reasonably practicable to provide a separate man-lock for use by
persons
only, the lock when it is in actual use for compression or decompression of a person or
persons shall not be put, simultaneously, to any other use and shall be in a reasonably
clean and sufficiently warm state.
1207.6.3 Valves
Exhaust valves shall be provided, having risers extending to the upper part of the
chamber.
These shall be operated, whenever necessary specially after a blast. Precautions shall
be
taken that men are not allowed to resume work after a blast until the gas and smoke are
cleared.
1207.6.4 Medical supervision and certification
Every employee absent from work for 10 or more consecutive days due to illness or any
other disability shall be required to pass the regular physical examination by the doctor
before being permitted to return to work.
After a person has been employed continuously in compressed air for a period of 2
months,
11
he shall be re-examined by the doctor and shall not be permitted to work until such
reexamination
has been made and the repot is satisfactory.
No person known to be addicted to the excessive use of intoxicants shall be permitted
to
work in compressed air.
The doctor shall, at all times, keep a complete and full record of examination made by
him,
which shall contain dates of examinations, a clear and full description of the persons
examined, his age and physical condition at the time of examination and a statement as
to
the period such a person has been engaged in such employment. Records shall be kept
at the place where the work is in progress and shall be subject to inspection by
authorized
officers.
Every man lock shall always have a doctor or a responsible person in attendance. In
case
the person in charge is not a doctor, he must have positive means of promptly
communicating with and securing the services of a competent doctor in case of
emergency.
Such arrangements shall invariably be subject to the approval of the Engineer.
If the air pressure exceeds 0.2 MPa gauge or if 50 or more men are employed, it is
obligatory for the person in charge of medical lock to be a doctor experienced in this
type
of work.
All cases of compressed-air illness shall be reported and copies of all such reports shall
be kept in file at the place of work.
1207.6.5 Lighting
All lighting in compressed air chambers shall be operated only by electricity. Two
independent electric lighting systems with independent sources of supply shall be used.
These shall be so arranged that the emergency source shall become automatically
operative
in case of failure of the regularly used source.
The minimum intensity of light on any walkway ladder, stairway, or lower working level
shall
be one-quarter (1/4) candlepower. In all work places, the lighting shall always be such
as
to enable workmen to see their way about clearly. All external parts of lighting fixtures
and
electrical equipment lying with in 2.5 m above the floor shall be constructed of
noncombustible,
non-absorbing insulating materials. If metal is used it must be effectively
earthed. Portable lamp shall have non-combustible, non-absorbing insulating sockets,
approved handles, basket guards and approved cables. The use of worn out or
defective
portable and pendant conductors, shall be prohibited.
12
1207.6.6 Safety against fire hazard
No oil, gasoline, or other combustible material shall be stored within 30 m of any shaft,
caisson, or tunnel opening. However, oil may be stored in suitable tanks in isolated
fireproof
buildings, provided such buildings are not less than 15 m from any shaft, caisson, or
tunnel
opening or any building directly connected thereto.
Positive means shall be taken to prevent leaking flammable liquids from flowing into
areas
specifically mentioned in the preceding paragraph.
Where feasible, a fire hose connected to a suitable source of water shall be provided at
the top of every caisson. Where fire mains are not accessible, water shall be stored in
tanks near the top of every caisson, provided fire pails or suitable pumps are kept
available.
Approved fire extinguishers shall also be provided.
1207.6.7 Sanitation
Properly heated, lighted and ventilated dressing rooms shall be provided for all
employees
engaged in compressed air work. Such rooms shall contain lockers and benches and be
open and accessible to person during intermissions between shifts. Adequate toilet
accommodation of one for every twenty five employees shall be provided.
Care shall be taken to keep all parts of the caissons and other working compartments,
including locker rooms, dry rooms, rest rooms, and other equipments in a good sanitary
condition and free from refuse, decaying or other objectionable matter.
No nuisance shall be tolerated in the air chamber. Smoking shall be strictly prohibited
and
all matches and smoking materials shall be left out of the locker rooms.
A separate dry-room shall be provided where working clothes may be dried in a
reasonable
time.
1207.6.8 Protection against gases
In all cases where gas is expected including alluvium impregnated with decayed
vegetable
matter, the use of Davy Safety Lamp shall be compulsory.
1207.6.9 Additional safety provisions
a) The weight of the pneumatic platform and that of steining and kentlege,
if any, shall be sufficient to resist the uplift from air inside, skin friction
being neglected in this case, If, at any section the total weight acting
downwards is less than the uplift pressure of air inside, additional
kentledge shall be placed on the well.
13
If it is not possible to make the well heavy enough during excavation,
“blowing down” may be used. The men should be withdrawn and air
pressure reduced. The well should then begin to move with small
reduction in air pressure. “Blowing down” should only be used when
the ground is such that it will not heave up inside the chamber when
the pressure is reduced. When the well does not move with the
reduction in air pressure, kentledge should be added. “Blowing down”
should be in short stages and the drop should not exceed, 0.5 m at
any stage. To control sinking during blowing down use of packing
are recommended.
b) The pneumatic sinking plant and other allied machinery shall not only
be of proper design and make, but also shall be operated by
competent and well trained personnel. Every part of the machinery
and its fixtures shall be minutely examined before installation and
use. Availability of appropriate spares, standbys, safety of personnel
as recommended in IS:4138 for working in compressed air must be
ensured at site. Codes for safety and for working in compressed air
and other labour laws and practices prevalent in the country, as
specified to provide safe, efficient and expeditious sinking shall be
followed.
c) Inflammable materials shall not be taken into air locks and smoking
shall be prohibited. Wherever gases are suspected to be issuing
out of dredge hole, the same shall be analysed by trained personnel
and necessary precautions adopted to avoid hazard to life and
equipment.
d) Where blasting is resorted to, it shall be carefully controlled and all
precautions regarding blasting shall be observed. Workers shall be
allowed inside after blasting only when a competent and qualified
person has examined the chamber and steining thoroughly, and found
the same to be safe.
1207.7 Precautions during sinking
a) When the wells have to be sunk close to each other and clear distance
between them is not greater than the diameter of wells, sinking shall
be taken up on all wells and they shall be sunk alternately so that
sinking of wells proceeds uniformly. Simultaneous and even dredging
shall be carried out in the wells in such a manner that the difference in
the levels of the sump and cutting edge in the adjacent wells does not
exceed half the clear gap between them. Plugging of all the wells
shall be done together.
14
b) During sinking of dumb-bell or double D-shaped wells, the excavation
in both the dredge holes should be carried out simultaneously and
equally.
c) Bore chart shall be referred to constantly during sinking for taking
adequate care while piercing different types of strata. The type of
soil as obtained during the well sinking should be compared with
bore chart so as to take prompt decisions.
d) Before seasonal floods, all wells on which sinking is in progress shall
be sunk to sufficient depths below the designed scour level. Further,
they shall be temporarily filled and plugged so that they do not suffer
any tilt or shift during the floods.
e) All necessary precautions shall be taken against any possible
damage to the foundations of existing structures in the vicinity of the
wells, prior to commencement of dredging from inside the well.
f) The dredged material shall not be allowed to accumulate over the
well. It shall be dumped and spread, as far away as possible, and
then continuously and simultaneously removed, as directed by the
Engineer. In case the river stream flows along one edge of the well
being sunk, the dredged material shall not be dumped on the dry
side of the bank but on the side on which the river current flows.
g) Very deep sump shall not be made below the well curb, as it entails
risk of jumping (sudden sinking) of the well. The depth of sump shall
be generally limited to one-sixth of the outer diameter/least lateral
dimension of the well in plan. Normally the depth of sump shall not
exceed 3.0 m below the level of the cutting edge unless otherwise
specially permitted by the Engineer.
h) In case a well sinks suddenly with a jerk, the steining of the well shall
be examined to the satisfaction of the Engineer to see that no damage
has occurred to it.
i) In pneumatic sinking, the well shall not, at any time, be dropped to a
depth greater than 500 mm by the method of “blowing down”.
j) Dewatering shall be avoided if sand blows are expected. Any
equipment and men working inside the well shall be brought out of
the well as soon as there are any indications of a sand-blow.
k) Sand blowing in wells can often be minimised by keeping the level of
water inside the well higher than the water table and also by adding
heavy kentledge.
15
l) In soft strata prone to settlement/creep, the construction of the
abutment wells shall be taken up only after the approach embankment
for a sufficient distance near the abutment has been completed.
1207.8 Tilts and Shifts
The inclination of the well from the vertical is known as tilt and the horizontal
displacement
of the center of the well at the founding level from its theoretical position is known as
shift.
Unless otherwise specified, the tilt of any well shall not exceed 1 (horizontal) in 80
(vertical),
and the shift at the well base shall not be more than 150 mm in any resultant direction.
Tilts and shifts shall be carefully checked and recorded in the format vide
Appendix 1200/II regularly during sinking operations. For the purpose of measuring the
tilts along the two axes of the bridge, reduced level of the marks painted on the surface
of
the steining of the well shall be taken. For determination of shift, locations of the ends of
the two diameters shall be precisely measured along the two axes, with reference to
fixed
reference points.
Whenever any tilt is noticed, adequate preventive measures like placing eccentric
kentledge,
pulling, strutting, anchoring or dredging unevenly and depositing dredge material
unequally,
putting obstacles below cutting edge. Water jetting etc., shall be adopted before any
further
sinking. After correction, the dredged material shall be spread out uniformly.
A pair of wells close to each other have a tendency to come closer while sinking. Timber
struts may be introduced in between the steining of these wells to prevent tilting.
Tilts occurring in a well during sinking in dipping rocky strata can be safeguarded by
suitably
supporting the curb.
In the event of a well developing tilt or shift beyond the specified permissible values, the
Contractor shall have to carry out, at his own cost, suitable remedial measures to the
satisfaction of the Engineer, to bring the tilt and shift within permissible values.
If the resultant tilt and / or shift of any well exceeds the specified permissible values,
generally
it should not exceed 1 in 50 and 300 mm respectively. The well so sunk shall be
regarded
as not conforming to specifications and a sub-standard work. The Engineer in his sole
discretion, may consider accepting such a well, provided:
i) Calculations for foundation pressures and steining stresses,
accounting for the actual tilt and shift furnished by the Contractor show
that the well is safe. Remedial measures required to bring the stresses
within permissible values (such as increase in the dimension of the
16
well cap, provision of dummy weights on the well cap etc.), shall be
carried out by the Contractor at his own cost.
ii) The Contractor shall be subjected to reduction in rates as a penalty
in accordance with Clause 1215(g).
In case the Engineer, in his discretion, rejects the well, the Contractor shall dismantle
the
rejected well to the extent directed by the Engineer and remove the debris. Further, the
Contractor shall, at his own risk and cost complete the bridge with modified span
arrangement acceptable to the Engineer.
1207.9 Floating caissons
Floating caissons may be of steel, reinforced concrete or any suitable material. They
shall
have at least 1.5 m free board above the water level and increased, if considered
necessary,
in case there is a possibility of caissons sinking suddenly owing to reasons, such as
scour
likely to result from lowering of caissons, effect of waves, sinking in very soft strata, etc.
Well caissons should be checked for stability against over-turning and capsizing while
being towed and during sinking, due to the action of water current, wave pressure, wind
etc.
The floating caisson shall not be considered as part of foundation unless proper shear
transfer at the interface is ensured.
1207.10 Seating of Wells
The well shall be uniformly seated at the founding strata. It shall be ensured by test
borings
that the properties of the soil encountered at the founding strata and upto a depth of one
and a half times the well diameter is identical to that adopted in the design. The
procedure
for test borings shall satisfy the provisions of these specifications. In case the soil
encountered is inferior to that adopted in design, the well shall be re-designed by the
Engineer adopting the soil properties actually encountered and the founding level
intimated
to the Contractor, who shall carry out the work accordingly.
In case of seating of wells in hard rocky strata, where the rock profile is steeply sloping,
pneumatic methods of sinking may be adopted to seat the well evenly as directed by the
Engineer. The decision of adopting pneumatic sinking shall be taken by the Engineer.
The cutting edge may also be embedded for a suitable depth in the rocky strata, as
decided
by the Engineer keeping in view the quality of rock. As an additional measure of safety,
the
well shall be anchored to the rocky strata by anchor bars provided in the steining of the
well, as shown on the drawing irrespective of the fact that tension develops or not at the
base of the well under design loads. After the well has been evenly seated on good
hard
rock, arrangements shall be made to facilitate proper inspection in dry and visible
conditions
before the bottom plug is laid.
17
1208 BOTTOM PLUG
The bottom plug shall be provided in all wells and the top shall be kept not lower than
300
mm in the centre above the top of the curb, as shown in Appendix-3 of IRC:78. A
suitable
sump shall be below the level of the cutting edge. Before concreting the bottom plug, it
shall be ensured that its inside faces have been cleaned thoroughly.
The concrete mix used in bottom plug shall have a minimum cement content of 330 kg
per
cu.m with a slump about 150 mm to permit easy flow of concrete through tremie to fill-
up all
cavities. Concrete shall be laid in one continuous operation till the dredge hole is filled to
the required height. For under water concrete, the concrete shall be placed by tremie
under still water condition and the cement content of the mix be increased by 10
percent.
Admixtures, if required may be added to the concrete to achieve the required
characteristics.
In case of grouted concrete, the grout mix shall not be leaner than 1:2. It shall be
ensured
that the grout fills up all interstices upto the top of the bottom plug by suitable means
such
as, controlling the rate of pumping etc.
Any dewatering required, shall be done 14 days after concreting of bottom plug.
The concrete production equipment and placement equipment should be sufficient to
enable
under water concreting within stipulated time. Necessary standby equipment should be
available for emergency situation.
Before commencing plugging, all loose material from the bottom of the well shall be
removed.
Concreting shall be done in one continuous operation till the dredge hole is filled upto
the
required height and thereafter sounding shall be taken up to ensure that the concrete
has
been laid to the required height.
Least disturbance shall be caused to the water inside the well while laying concrete in
the
bottom plug.
Concrete shall not be disturbed in any way for at least 14 days.
In order to check any rise in the level of the bottom plug soundings should be taken at
the
close of concreting and once every day for the subsequent 3 days.
The soundness of the bottom plug may be tested by dewatering the well by 5 m below
the
surrounding water level and checking the rise of water. The rate of rise shall preferably
be
less than 10 cm per hour. In case the rate is higher, suitable remedial measures as
directed
by the Engineer, shall be taken by the Contractor at his own cost.
18
1209 SAND FILLING
Sand filling shall commence after a period of 14 days of laying of bottom plug. Also, the
height of the bottom plug shall be verified before starting sand filling.
Sand shall be clean and free from earth, clay clods, roots, boulders, shingles, etc. and
shall be compacted as directed. Sand filling shall be carried out upto the level shown on
the drawing or as directed by the Engineer.
1210 TOP PLUG
After filling sand upto the required level a plug of 300 mm thick concrete shall be
provided
over it as shown on the drawing or as directed by the Engineer.
1211 WELL CAP
A reinforced cement concrete well cap will be provided over the top of the steining in
accordance with the drawing. Formwork will be prepared conforming to the shape of
well
cap. Concreting shall be carried out in dry condition. A properly designed false steining
may be provided where possible to ensure that the well cap is laid in dry condition.
The bottom of the well cap shall be laid preferably as low as possible but not below the
LWL, taking in to account for this purpose, the water level prevalent at the time of
casting
Where the bed level is higher than the LWL, the bottom of the well cap may be suitably
raised.
Bond rods of steining shall be anchored into the well cap.
1212 TOLERANCES
The permissible tilt and shift shall not exceed 1 (horizontal) in 80 (vertical) and the shift
at
the well base shall not be more than 150 mm in any resultant direction.
For the well steining and well cap, the permissible tolerances shall be as follows:
a) Variation in dimension : +50 mm, –10 mm
b) Misplacement from specified position in plan : 15 mm
c) Surface irregularities measured with 3 m
straight edge : 5 mm
d) Variation of level at the top : + 25 mm
19
1213 TESTS AND STANDARDS OF ACCEPTANCE
The materials shall be tested in accordance with these Specifications and shall meet the
prescribed criteria.
The work shall conform to these Specifications and shall meet the prescribed standards
of
acceptance.
1214 MEASUREMENTS FOR PAYMENT
All quantities shall be measured from the drawing, or as ordered by the Engineer,
excepting
those required to be provided by the Contractor at his cost.
a) The cutting edge shall be measured in tonnes based on the net weight
of metal used in it, as per Section 1900.
b) The concrete in curb, well steining and well cap shall be measured in
cubic metres in each of the items as per Section 1700. The
reinforcements shall be measured in tonnes separately in each of
the items, as per Section 1600.
c) The measurement for well sinking shall be made in running metres
for different depths and in different types of strata (for example,
predominantly sand/clay soil, soft rock, hard rock, etc.) as specified
in the Contract. The depth of sinking shall be measured from the
level specified in the Contract. If no level has been specified in the
Contract, sinking shall be measured from the low water level or from
the level at which the cutting edge was laid, whichever is higher.
d) The quantity of concrete in bottom and top plug shall be measured in
cubic metres as per Section 1700.
e) The quantity of sand filling shall be measured in cubic metres.
f) Pneumatic sinking, where required shall be paid as a separate item
and shall be measured in cubic metres of material to be excavated.
20
1215 RATE
All quantities shall be measured from the drawing or as ordered by the Engineer,
excepting
those required to be provided by the Contractor at his cost.
a) The Contract unit rates of cutting edge shall cover all costs of labour,
material, tools, plant and equipment, including placing in position,
sampling and testing, and, supervision, all as per respective Section
of Structural Steel Work and as described in this section.
b) The Contract unit rates for concrete in curb, steining, bottom plug,
top plug and well cap, shall cover all costs of labour, material, tools,
plant and equipment, formwork and staging including placing in
position, sampling and testing, and, supervision, all as per respective
Section of Structural Concrete and as described in this section.
c) The Contract unit rates for reinforcement in curb, steining, and well
cap, shall cover all costs of labour, material, tools, plant and
equipment, including bending to shape, placing in position, sampling,
testing and supervision, all as per respective Section of Steel
Reinforcement and as described in this section.
d) The Contract unit rates for sand filling shall cover all costs of labour,
material, tools, plant and equipment, including placing in position,
sampling testing and supervision, all as described in this section.
e) The Concrete unit rates for sinking shall cover the costs of labour,
tools, and equipment and plant and for all operations and other
incidentals for sinking of well including seating excepting provisions
of pneumatic sinking as described in this Section. The unit rates
shall specify the strata such as types of soil, rock, etc. The rate shall
cover all testing and supervision required for the work.
f) The Contract unit rate of material to be excavated by pneumatic
sinking shall cover all costs of labour, material, tools, plant and other
equipment and other incidentals and safety provisions and
supervision required for pneumatic sinking as per this Section.
g) Reduction in contract unit rates for sinking as a penalty, in pursuance
of Clause 1207.8
21
If any well with tilt and/or shift exceeding the permissible values is accepted by the
Engineer,
the Contractor shall be subjected to a reduction in the rates as follows:
-
S.No. Amount of tilt and/or shift Per cent deduction
on the rate (s) for
sinking of whole
well
1. Tilt exceeding the specified permissible value but 5 percent
equal to or within 1 in 60
2. Tilt exceeding 1 in 60 10 percent
but equal to or within 1 in 50
3. Tilt exceeding 1 in 50 20 percent
4. Shift exceeding the specified permissible 2 percent
value but equal to or within 200 mm
5. Shift exceeding 200 mm but equal 5 percent
to or within 300 mm
6. Shift exceeding 300 mm 10 percent
Rates for excessive tilt and shift shall be reduced separately.

Well Foundation

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Well Foundation:

LOGIN CREATE AN ACCOUNT

Well Foundations for Bridges are Obsolete!!!

S.A.Reddi, Fellow Indian National Academy of Engineering

Well Foundation Problems at Brahmaputra Bridge at

Well foundations on sloping rock: Brahmaputra Bridge at

Figure 3: Completed view of the Jamuna bridge

Damages During Construction - Ganga Bridge at Bhagalpur

Tilts and Shifts in Well Foundations - Vasai Creek Bridges

Sudden Jumping of Wells During Sinking

Artesian Conditions During Construction of Well

 Upstream and downstream aprons

An Expensive Solution Indeed !!

Ganga Bridge, Patna

Cracking of Well Steining During Construction

Figure 4: Pasighat Bridge, AP

Extraordinary Delays in Construction of Well Foundations

Major Bridges (Worldwide) on Pile Foundations

Analysis by the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA),

Chenab River Bridge at Akhnoor Near Jammu

Figure 7: Chenab Bridge, Giant Bearings

NBMCW September 2010

 TERMS & CONDITIONS

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