TUNNELS

Terminology

Tunnel: An underground passage for vehicles or pedestrians, especially one which is created by digging
into earth.

Axis: The lengthwise course of a tunnel, especially along the center line.

Cross section : The shape of a tunnel for eg: horseshoe, round or square.

Excavation: The process of digging or the hole which results.

Muck: Debris removed during excavation.

Grouting: Unstable rock and soil is strengthened by the injection of chemicals, cementious materials .

Lining: Materials used to finish the inside surface of the tunnel.

Overburden : The soil and rock supported by the roof of a tunnel.

Portal: The open end of a tunnel. Usually includes a wall to retain the soil around the opening.

Adit: Main entrance location of a tunnel

Profile: A side view of the tunnel.

Shaft: A vertical, underground passage from the top to the bottom where there is initially no access
to the bottom.

Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM): A tunneling machine which has cutting teeth at its front. It creates the
tunnel opening while passing the waste material through the rear.

Ventilation: Circulation of fresh air is called as ventilation.

Tunnels are underground passages through hills or mountains used for several operations. Tunnels
are made by excavation of rocks below the surface or through the hills.

Like other engineering structures, tunnels too need favourable geological conditions at their sites
for achieving success. In case of tunnels also, success means safety, stability and economy.

To achieve these objectives, careful geological examinations should be made with reference to the
rock types occurring at the site ( lithology of rock-formations ), structures associated with them and
the prevailing ground water conditions.

1 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

The construction of underground tunnels, shafts and passageways are of course essential but these are
dangerous activities. Working under reduced light conditions, limited access; the exposure to air
contaminants and the hazards of fire and explosion, underground construction workers face many dangers.

GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATIONS: A tunnel project must start with a comprehensive investigation

of ground conditions by collecting samples from boreholes and by other geophysical techniques.
Involvement of machinery and methods for excavation and ground support, which will reduce the risk of
encountering unforeseen ground conditions.

PURPOSES OF TUNNELLING: Tunnels are constructed for several operations:

• In mining practice: Adits and shafts for reaching the work spots and for the transport of
workers and materials.

• In certain mines: tunnels are made to extract coal from coal seams

• In hydroelectric projects: Diversion tunnels for channel diversion ( by diverting the normal
flow of river water through the tunnels ) and for power generation.

• For water supply and sewage disposal: For supply of drinking water or sewage disposal
purposes, tunnels are made.

• Transportation: to lay roads or railway tracks to regularize the traffic and transportation
of goods.

• For laying cables and service lines: These are utility tunnels for laying cables and for
transport of oil/gas through pipelines.

• To reduce the distance: To reduce the distance between places of interest across natural obstacles
like hills, to save time and to provide conveyance.

Eg (1) In Bihar, between Hazaribagh and Gaya the eastern railway passes through a number
of tunnels across the hills of the Chota Nagapur Plateau.

Eg (2) A number of tunnels of 1 km in length or less were driven in the Deccan Traps
between Bombay and Pune railway line.

Eg (3) In Jammu and Kashmir, 2 parallel tunnels of 2440 mts long were made between
Jammu and Srinagar in the Pir Panjal mountain range.

Eg (4): the under sea tunnels made between France and England and between some islands
of Japan.

2 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

CLASSIFICATION OF TUNNELS:

Depending on the nature & competency of the ground, tunnels are classified as:

Hard rock tunnels: The tunnel alignment is essentially through competent rock mass with little or
no ground water seepage.

Soft rock tunnels: The tunnel alignment is through unconsolidated or highly weathered material
which always encounter the groundwater problems.

EFFECTS OF TUNNELLING: When tunnels are made through weak or unconsolidated

formations, they are provided with suitable lining for safety and stability. Lining may be in the
form of steel structures or concrete.

• Due to heavy and repeated blasting during excavation of a tunnel, numerous cracks and
fractures develop which reduces the compactness in rocks. In addition, rock become loose/more
fractured which allow water movement .
• Lining of the tunnel helps in checking the leakage of groundwater into the tunnel.
• Fault zones and shear zones are naturally weak and tunneling through them further
deteriorates and cause stability problem.
• Fall of rocks takes place even in hard rocks like granite though devoid of bedding or foliation
and this process is known as Popping.
• Roof may collapse due to stress and strain of the region due to overburden.
• Poisonous gases encountered during the excavation of tunnels, sometimes.

ROAD TUNNELS IN INDIA:

Tunnel Length State Notes

Rohtang 8 820 m HP Under the 3978 above msl high Rohtang pass on Manali - Leh road
Banihal 2 576 m JK Jammu - Kashmir road. 2209 m above sea level
Jawarhar 2 500 m JK Srinagar – Jammu
Kamshet-I 1 843 m MH Mumbai - Pune Expressway.
Bhatan 1 658 m MH Mumbai - Pune Expressway
Gokhale Nagar 1 000 m MH
Khambatki - Ghat 890 m MH
Madap 646 m MH Mumbai - Pune Expressway
Kamshet-II 359 m MH Mumbai - Pune Expressway
Khandala 330 m MH Mumbai - Pune Expressway.
Aodoshi ?m MH Mumbai - Pune Expressway. Only for Mumbai bound traffic

3 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

LINING OF TUNNELS: When tunnels are made through weak or loose or unconsolidated
formations, they are provided with suitable lining for safety and stability. Lining may be in the
form of steel structures or concrete.

The main purposes of lining are to resist the pressures from the surroundings (from the roof or
the sides or the floor) and to protect the shape of the tunnel. Lining also helps in the leakage of
ground water into the tunnel . Thus lining is a an effective remedial measure to overcome the various
drawbacks resulting from underground tunneling either geologically or non-geologically.

Lining provides a regular shape to the tunnel as the excessive excavated portions ( ie over break )
are filled by concrete. Lining being a very expensive treatment, needs to be provided only at such
places where the rocks are not capable of supporting themselves,., where the rocks are weak and
likely to collapse.

Lining is also provided in such places where the seepage of water into the tunnel occurs and
creates problems. The zones of faulting or shearing also need suitable lining to impart strength to
them. Strong and complete lining is required in hydropower tunnels which carry water under great
pressure and even minor leakages can prove hazardous.

GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS: Geological considerations of tunneling depend

on various geological factors prevailing at the site. The geological considerations in a civil engineering
project (ie tunneling) include

Lithology of rock formations;

Geological Structures and

Groundwater conditions.

1. LITHOLOGY OF ROCK FORMATIONS : Massive Igneous rocks ( ie plutonic and hypabyssal

rocks ) are in general compact and competent and no lining is required for the tunnels designed.
Volcanic igneous rocks being often vesicular, porous and permeable posses a threat of water seepage
in the tunnel. However, sometimes, the vesicular character is also competent and suitable for
tunneling.

Eg: 20 tunnels were excavated for Bombay–Delhi railway line through amygdaloidal / vesicular basalts.

Sedimentary rocks are less competent. However, sandstones with siliceous matrix may be considered
. If the sandstones have carbonate or iron oxide as cementing material ( poorly cemented ), the
tunnel lining needs reinforcement otherwise they are undesirable.

Eg: In the Himalayan Ramganga diversion tunnel, a poorly cemented sandstone formation, had
caused a roof fall.

4 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

Limestones may expect seepage problems. Among limestones, dolomitic limestones are harder and
more durable. On the other hand, calcareous limestones or porous limestones are naturally weaker,
softer and are unsuitable for tunneling by virtue of their tendency to corrode. Shales are the lest
competent because of the clay content. The presence of Clay layers are troublesome as they have
low strength.

Among the metamorphic rocks, Quartzites and gneisses are massive and competent. Phyllites and
Schists are problematic due to the presence of foliation and presence of susceptible minerals like
mica and clay. Depending the orientation of cleavage of minerals in case of slates may be
considered. Marbles are reasonably competent by virtue of their high compactness and granulose
structure.. But their susceptibility to corrosion and softness necessitates lining.

GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR EFFECTIVE TUNNELLING

Importance of Rock Types

SUITABILITY OF IGNEOUS ROCKS: Massive igneous rocks, i.e., the plutonic and hypabyssal
varieties, are very competent but difficult to work. They do not need any lining or any special maintenance.
This is so because they are very strong, tough, hard, rigid, durable, impervious and, after tunneling, do not
succumb to collapse, or to any other deformation.

SUITABILITY OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS: Thick bedded, well-cemented and siliceous or

ferruginous sandstones are more competent and better suited for tunneling. They will be strong, easily
workable and, moreover, do not require any lining. Thus they possess all the desirable qualities for

5 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

tunneling, provided they are not affected adversely by any geological structures and ground water
conditions.

Poorly cemented or argillaceous sandstones, however, are weak and undesirable, particularly if they get
saturated with water or are thin bedded. Shales, by virtue of their inherent weakness and lamination, may
get badly shattered during blasting. Mudstones are weaker than shales as they are less compacted.

Among limestones, dolomitic limestones are harder and more durable. They are better than other varieties.
On the other hand, calcareous limestones or porous limestones are naturally weaker and softer.
Conglomerates need not be considered seriously due to the presence of pebbles and unconsolidation.

SUITABILITY OF METAMORPHICROCKS: Metamorphic rocks such as gneisses are nearly similar

to granites in terms of their competence, durability and workability. Schists, Phyllites, etc., which are highly
foliated and generally soft, are easily workable but necessarily require good lining.

Quartzites are very hard and hence very difficult to work. Marbles are reasonably competent by virtue of
their high compactness and granulose structure. Slates are rather soft and possess slaty cleavage. Hence
they are weak and require lining.

(1) GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES :

Strike and Dip orientation; Joints, Faults, Folds etc are the most common structural features associated
with rocks.

If the tunnel alignment coincides with the strike of the formations, is acceptable if the formations
are competent but in the case of less competent formations, the tunnel alignment should be a short
span.

(A) Joints at the tunnel site: Closely spaced joints in all kinds of rocks are harmful ( eg Koyna
third stage tail tunnel has been excavated through a closely jointed basalt causing roof fall with
heavy copious leakage of water ). Joints which strike parallel to the tunnel axis for long distances
are undesirable whereas the joints which are perpendicular to the tunnel axis have a limited effect.

In sedimentary rocks, the presence of joints may be due to folding ( occur along crests and troughs
) or faulting is undesirable.

In metamorphic rocks, such as granite gneisses and quartzites are competent even if the joints present
due to their competent nature. Schists and Slates with joints will become very incompetent and
require lining.

(B) Tunnels in Faulted Strata: Faults are harmful and undesirable because of the following
problems:

Fault zones are places where the displacement of rocks occur and lead to discontinuity in the
tunnel alignment. The fault zones are places of intense fracturing which means physical weakness

6 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

in rock masses. Fault zones allow percolation of groundwater which may cause for collapse of walls.
Eg: Koyna (Maharashtra state) third stage tunnel collapsed about 15 mts along a fault zone.

Fault zones are normally avoided along tunnel alignments. However, if they cannot be avoided,
the fault zone has to be extensively treated with concrete grout and a strong lining has to be
provided.

Problems are severe if the tunnel alignment coincides with the strike of the fault. If the tunnel is
located in the foot wall of a fault, the roof portion of the tunnel becomes instability and needs
reinforcement. In case of Hanging wall, less effect can be observed.

(C) Tunnels in Folded Strata: Folded rocks are always under considerable strain. When
excavation for tunnels are made in folded rocks, such rocks get the opportunity to release the strain
( stored energy ). Such energy cause the rock falls or bulging. In folded regions, the tunnel
alignment may be advisable to have the tunnel located on the limbs than at the core if possible.

Tunnel alignment parallel to the axis of a fold: This is desirable when tunneling along limbs is
considered. Rock masses may be in a highly fractured condition along crests, hence there may be
frequent fall of rocks from the roof. Tunnels along troughs encounter harder formations and difficult
to excavate. If bedding planes are inclined, groundwater percolates and these aquifers are punctured
during the process of tunneling.

Tunnel alignment perpendicular to the axis of a fold: This is undesirable because different rock
formations are encountered along the length of the tunnel due to heterogeneity in physical properties
of rock.

In anticlinal fold, the central region will be under lesser pressure when compared to synclinal fold
where the central region will be under higher pressure in addition to the occurrence of ground water.

However, anticlinal fold is to be considered for tunneling with proper precautions.

TUNNELS PERPENDICULAR TO THE AXIS OF FOLD

L
Lesser Higher

pressure pressure

7 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

(2) GROUNDWATER CONDITIONS: Ground water problem in the tunneling is the most
serious one. If ground water encountered in case of tunneling, the entire water is to be pumped out
to keep the working area dry and adds the expenditure on tunneling project.

If the water table lies below the level of the tunnel, no severe ground water problem can be
anticipated. But if the tunnel lies below the position of the water table , then the ground water
problem is inevitable. .

TUNNEL SUPPORTS : Supports are used for keeping the tunnel walls and the roof in safety
condition. Several support alternatives are available for use in tunnels. Following are the types of
supports:

Shotcrete : Shotcrete is mortar or concrete pneumatically sprayed at high velocity through a hose.
The process can be a dry process ( Guniting ) or a wet process.

Rock Bolts: These are steel bolts designed for holding weak formations together. The bolts are
driven into the formations without causing any disturbance. These are used in tunneling for anchoring
the tunnel walls to sold rock.

Wire mesh; Concrete lining; Pre-stressed anchor cables; Steel ribs etc are also used wherever is
necessary.

Some of these types are used in combination also.

OVERBREAK: Excavations through hard rocks involves the removal of some of the rocks
outside the proposed perimeter of the tunnel.

The quantity of rock removed, in excess of what is required by the perimeter of the proposed tunnel,
is known as the over break.

The geological factors which govern the amount of over break are:

The nature of the rocks

The orientation and spacing of joints or weak zones

The orientation of the bedding planes in case sedimentary rocks.

In general, tunnels which pass through a single homogeneous formation without structural defects
produce little over break, whereas tunnels which pass through a variety of rocks with structural
defects ( like fault zones ) have more over break.

The factor of over break is important because it adds to the cost of tunneling, particularly if lining
is required. Hence, it is desirable that over break should be as minimum as possible.

Bumping ground Rock displacement and dislodging in tunneling rocks

Circular shape tunnel Is adopted in case of diversion of water at dam site
Discharge tunnels Tunnels are those which are meant for conveying water from one
point to another under gravity force.

8 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

 Diversion tunnels By diverting the normal flow of river water through the tunnels dug
along the valley sides
Fan cut blasting means To get more face for the excavation of rocks
Hokoriku railway tunnel in Japan Is 13.87 km through sandstones and granites.
Horse shoe shape tunnel; Is adopted for old tunnel excavations
Joints oblique or perpen-dicular to Are obviously have a limited effect
the tunnel axis
Joints which are parallel to the Are undesirable in all kinds of rocks.
tunnel axis
OVER BREAK The qty of rock broken and removed in excess of what is required by
the perimeter of the proposed tunnel.
Parallel hole cut blasting means Blast holes are placed parallel to each other with a RELIEF HOLE of
a larger dimension
Popping effect in tunneling It refers to the phenomenon of fall of rocks which takes place in hard
rocks like granite devoid of bedding or foliation.
Pressure tunnels Tunnels are those which are used to allow water to pass through them
under force. Used for power generation
Purpose of lining Lining refers to the support for the tunnel.
Rock Bursts means These occur at great depths with enormous overburden pressure
Smooth blasting means Small holes are placed along the circumference of blasting area
Suitability of shales Faster progress but proper lining is necessary
Suitability of gneisses & Good in all aspects for tunneling
quartzites
Suitability of Limestone & Durable for tunneling purpose
dolomitic limestones
Suitability of Mudstones Weaker than shales and undesirable for tunneling.
Suitability of schists & Phyllites In competent but require lining for tunneling
Suitability of Conglomerates for Undesirable rocks
tunneling
Suitability of igneous rocks Very competent and lining is required
Suitability of well-cemented Better suited for tunneling
siliceous sandstone
RQD means Rock Quality Designation means the ratio of cumulative length of rock
pieces expressed as a percentage of total length of the rock
RSR RSR means the rating of the quality of a rock for tunnel support
recommendations.

9 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

 GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS: EARTHQUAKES, LANDSLIDES, AND
TSUNAMIS
Summary

Natural hazards can be categorized under two main sections: weather induced hazards and
geological hazards.

Geological hazards are covered in this under the following paragraph headings:
earthquakes, tsunamis, and landslides. The first one presents the worldwide distribution of
earthquakes and volcanoes, together with a presentation of the scales for measuring earthquake
magnitude and intensity. This is followed by a description of the presence of earthquake hazards.
One of the major phenomena generated by earthquakes is the tsunami; together with a presentation
of major, worldwide tsunami disasters. The prediction of tsunami incidence in the Pacific region
is then discussed. The last paragraph discusses landslides, opening with a description of soil
strengths, pore-water pressure, and rigid, elastic, and plastic solids. Land instability is then
classified and described under the headings: factors influencing landslides; triggering of
landslides; and preventive measure.

Earthquakes
Of all the natural hazards, earthquakes release the most energy in the shortest possible time.
On average, each year earthquakes kill 10 000 people and cause US$20 billion property damage.
Earthquakes can be regarded as one of the most destructive forces for human beings.

1. Introduction

Earthquakes demonstrate that the Earth continues to be a dynamic planet, changing each day
through internal tectonic forces. The crust of the Earth consists of various elastic rocks in which
energy is stored during crustal deformation caused by the tectonic forces. When the strain
builds to a level that exceeds the strength of a weak part of the Earth’s crust, such as along a
geological fault, then opposite sides of the fault suddenly slip and an earthquake occurs. The
common parameters for describing the characteristics of an earthquake source are the location
of the hypocenter or the epicenter (the point on the Earth’s surface immediately above the
hypocenter). Measures of the strength of shaking and the total energy release in the earthquake
are also needed. We know that the Earth’s crust is not a continuous skin; instead it is like a
completed jigsaw puzzle with the actual pieces of crust termed “plates.” Most earthquakes
occur along the plate boundaries, which are called inter-plate earthquakes, other earthquakes
occur in the inner parts of continents; these are called intra-plate earthquakes. The intra-plate
earthquakes are more dangerous to human beings because most people live in continental
regions.

10 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

 In most cases, the empirical relation between magnitude m and seismic wave energy released
E (unit: ergs) can be written as:

log E(in erg) = 11.8 + 1.5 m (1)

This equation indicates an about thirty-fold (101.5) increase in seismic wave energy when the
magnitude m increases by one unit. For example, the seismic energy released by an earthquake
of magnitude m=6.5 is about 30 times greater than that of an event of magnitude m=5.5 (which
is the same as that released by the explosion of the atomic bomb in Hiroshima in 1945), and
the seismic energy release of an event of m=7.5 is about 30 × 30 ≈ 1000 times greater than that
of m=5.5 (equivalent to about 1000 Hiroshima atomic bombs).

Earthquakes are generally regarded as the most destructive of all the various natural forces.
Figure 1 shows the comparison of energy released by earthquakes and other kinds of energy in
nature.

Modern seismographic networks record millions of earthquakes every year; over 99% of these
events pose no danger because they are small. An important scaling relationship is the relation
between earthquake size and frequency of occurrence. Gutenberg and Richter first proposed
that in a given region and over a given period of time, the frequency of occurrence could be
represented by:

log N(≥ m) = A - b m (2)

Where the N (≥ m) is the number of earthquakes with magnitude m or above, A and b are
empirical constants determined through statistical study, and m is the magnitude of
earthquakes.

Description Magnitude Average annual Energy released

frequency (ergs)
Great >8.0 1 > 5.8×1023
Major 7.0~7.9 18 2~42×1022
Strong 6.0~6.9 120 8~150×1020
Moderate 5.0~5.9 800 3~55×1019
Light 4.0~4.9 6200 1~20×1018
Minor 3.0~3.9 49000 1~26×1015

Table 1. Frequency of earthquakes since 1900

11 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

 Figure 1. Comparison between the energy released by earthquakes and other kinds of energy
release in nature

2. Earthquake Hazards

Strangely, the release of all energy from earthquakes beneath the surface of the Earth poses
little direct danger to the individual person. Humans are not “shaken to death” by earthquakes.
The greatest danger comes from the interaction between the ground motion caused by
earthquakes and man’s own structures. The dangers of being crushed in a falling building,
getting burned by fire, being swept away and drowned in a flood from a burst reservoir, or
getting buried beneath earthquake-induced landslides are very real.

Earthquake-caused damages include the following four aspects:

• Ground shaking is generally the most severe direct cause of damage. Crowded buildings that
cannot be evacuated quickly may collapse during ground-shaking and result in a major loss of
life as well as property.

• Surface rupture is the horizontal or vertical displacement of the ground surface along the
narrow fault zone. While affecting a much smaller area compared to ground shaking, it can
severely damage structures located adjacent to faults

12 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

 . • Ground failure is an indirect cause of damage, but it may be widespread and produce some
of the most devastating loss of life.

• Tsunamis are ocean waves produced by earthquakes, which may sweep ashore, causing
damage at points thousands of kilometers from the earthquake epicenter. Damage can be severe
where the waves move forward up the shoreline or over dams, allowing downstream areas to
be inundated.

2.1 Ground Shaking

Traditionally, engineers have been interested in acceleration, particularly Peak
Ground Acceleration (PGA), which is related to the dynamic force and can be reliably
measured. The unit of PGA is g, which is the gravitational acceleration at Earth’s surface
(1 g is approximately 9.8 m/sec2).
The most powerful vibrations from an earthquake are in frequency range 0.5–5 Hz
and are at near and regional distance. A typical building of ten stories has a natural period
of about 1 s. Each story adds about 0.1 s and a 20-storey building has a period near 2 s.
Taller buildings have the advantage of flexing more than short, stiff buildings, and are
usually designed to bend with the wind. Thus, those over 20 stories may fare relatively
well. But, with their longer periods, they are sensitive to distant earthquakes, such as that
in Mexico City in 1985. Therefore, anti-seismic design may include estimates of the
buildings’ responses and the frequencies of various vibration modes.

2.2 Surface Rupture and Other Related Hazards

Surface rupture and movement along the fault are obvious hazards. The offset
between rocks on the surface rupture, or on the opposite sides of the fault, can break power
lines, pipelines, buildings, roads, bridges, and other structures that actually cross the fault.
Surface rupture sometimes closely relates to shaking. Ground shaking may cause a
further problem in areas where it is relatively wet. The process by which poorly
consolidated mud and other fine-grained sediments become fluid during shaking is called
“liquefaction,” and it affects what appears to be solid, compact mud or silts. When wet soil
is shaken by an earthquake, the soil particles may be jarred apart, allowing water to seep
in between them, reducing the friction between soil particles that gives the soil strength,
and causing the ground to become somewhat like quicksand. When this happens, buildings
can just topple over or partially sink into the liquefied soil; the soil has no strength to
support them.
Solid bedrock is the most stable foundation, and buildings on it have a good chance
of riding out all but the most severe earthquakes. Where the underlying soils or sediments
are weak and poorly consolidated, however, the story is different. The risk factor from
ground displacement is often exacerbated in urban areas where land is at a premium, and
many cities have expanded into wetlands and shallow coastal regions by using artificial fill
to increase the land area.

13 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

 2.3. Indirect Hazards
An indirect hazard of earthquakes in cities is fire, which may be more devastating
than ground movement. Prior to the modern electrical service, most city dwellers used
woodor coal-burning stoves for heat and cooking and open flames or lanterns for light, all
of which were often toppled by the shaking during earthquakes. Even today, the
combination of electrical short-circuits caused by destruction of service poles and
transformers and the presence of broken gas mains can produce enormous risk from fire.
In Kobe, about 10% of the fatalities were fire-related, about two-thirds apparently caused
by leaking gas or electrical problems. The problem of fire is exacerbated by broken water
mains, loss of water pressure, and the inability of fire companies to negotiate the rubble-
strewn streets of an earthquake-damaged city.
As with fire, the collapse of the social infrastructure—municipal water supplies,
sewage treatment facilities, burial of the dead, isolation of outlying areas from food and
medical care—contributes to a general decline of social services. Cholera and other
epidemics are common in more remote areas of the less-developed world in the aftermath
of earthquake destruction. In 1993, an earthquake centered on Khillari, 300 miles southeast
of Bombay, killed perhaps as many as 22 000 people. In the aftermath, shortages of water
and proper sanitation resulted in epidemics of gastro-enteritis and malaria, although the far
more dangerous spread of cholera and diphtheria was prevented by the rapid response of
public health officials.

3. Earthquake Hazard Assessment

In earthquake hazards assessment, the first question we should make clear is where
the danger is and, therefore, who is in danger and to what degree the loss will be. The
answer to these questions is critical to earthquake disaster mitigation and can be broken
down into two main aspects: seismic hazard analysis, which involves the identification and
quantitative description of strong ground motion caused by future earthquakes; and seismic
risk analysis, which involves the vulnerability analysis of buildings and other man-made
facilities to earthquake damage, and the losses that may result from this damage.
Earthquake hazard is the probability that a certain value of a macroscopic intensity
or of a ground motion parameter (i.e. particle acceleration, velocity and displacement) will
not be exceeded at a specific site in a specific period of time.
Today, many maps have been developed to help public officials prepare for
earthquakes. Such maps are based on mapping active faults, studies of geologic features
that allow dating of earthquake-produced scarps, landslides, offsets and liquefaction
features, and the historical record of seismic activity. Figure 3 is a global seismic hazard
map compiled the Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program (GSHAP). GSHAP was
launched in 1992 by the International Lithosphere Program (ILP) with the support of the
International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), and endorsed as a demonstration

14 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

 program in the framework of the United Nations International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction (UN/IDNDR). The GSHAP project terminated in 1999.

Figure 3. Global seismic hazard Assessment map by GSHAP

Seismic risk is the expected degree of losses caused by earthquakes and therefore the
product of seismic hazard and vulnerability. Vulnerability is the expected degree of loss within a
defined area resulting from the occurrence of earthquakes. Vulnerability is expressed on a scale of
zero (no damage) to one (full damage). Thus, an equation could be used like this:

Risk = Hazard × Vulnerability (3)

Seismic hazard describes the potential for dangerous, earthquake-related natural

phenomena such as ground shaking, fault rupture, or soil liquefaction. These phenomena could
result in adverse consequences to society, such as the destruction of buildings or the loss of life.
Seismic risk is the probability of occurrence of these consequences. The output of a seismic hazard
analysis could be a description of the intensity of shaking of a nearby magnitude eight earthquake
or a map which shows levels of ground shaking in various parts of the country that have an equal
chance of being exceeded.

TSUNAMI

15 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

A tsunami is a series of ocean waves that sends surges of water, sometimes reaching heights of
over 100 feet (30.5 meters), onto land. These walls of water can cause
widespread destruction when they crash ashore.

What Causes a Tsunami?

These awe-inspiring waves are typically caused by large, undersea earthquakes at tectonic
plate boundaries. When the ocean floor at a plate boundary rises or falls suddenly, it displaces
the water above it and launches the rolling waves that will become a tsunami.

Most tsunamis–about 80 percent–happen within the Pacific Ocean’s “Ring of Fire,” a

geologically active area where tectonic shifts make volcanoes and earthquakes common.

Tsunamis may also be caused by underwater landslides or volcanic eruptions. They may even
be launched, as they frequently were in Earth’s ancient past, by the impact of a large meteorite
plunging into an ocean.

Tsunamis race across the sea at up to 500 miles (805 kilometers) an hour—about as fast as a jet
airplane. At that pace, they can cross the entire expanse of the Pacific Ocean in less than a day.
And their long wavelengths mean they lose very little energy along the way

.More than 1,500 people died in Rikuzentakata, one of several towns eradicated by a tsunami that
hit Japan

16 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

TAMON SUZUKI

In deep ocean, tsunami waves may appear only a foot or so high. But as they approach
shoreline and enter shallower water they slow down and begin to grow in energy and height.
The tops of the waves move faster than their bottoms do, which causes them to rise
precipitously.

What Happens When It Hits Land

A tsunami’s trough, the low point beneath the wave’s crest, often reaches shore first. When it
does, it produces a vacuum effect that sucks coastal water seaward and exposes harbor and sea
floors. This retreating of sea water is an important warning sign of a tsunami, because the
wave’s crest and its enormous volume of water typically hit shore five minutes or so
later. Recognizing this phenomenon can save lives.

A tsunami is usually composed of a series of waves, called a wave train, so its destructive force
may be compounded as successive waves reach shore. People experiencing a tsunami should
remember that the danger may not have passed with the first wave and should await official
word that it is safe to return to vulnerable locations.

Some tsunamis do not appear on shore as massive breaking waves but instead resemble a
quickly surging tide that inundates coastal areas.

The best defense against any tsunami is early warning that allows people to seek higher
ground. The Pacific Tsunami Warning System, a coalition of 26 nations headquartered in
Hawaii, maintains a web of seismic equipment and water level gauges to identify tsunamis at
sea. Similar systems are proposed to protect coastal areas worldwide.

17 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

 Landslide
Landslide, also called landslip, the movement downslope of a mass of rock,
debris, earth, or soil (soil being a mixture of earth and debris). Landslides occur when
gravitational and other types of shear stresses within a slope exceed the shear
strength (resistance to shearing) of the materials that form the slope.
Shear stresses can be built up within a slope by a number of processes. These include
oversteepening of the base of the slope, such as by natural erosion or excavation, and
loading of the slope, such as by an inflow of water, a rise in the groundwater table, or
the accumulation of debris on the slope’s surface. Short-term stresses, such as those
imposed by earthquakes and rainstorms, can likewise contribute to the activation of
landslides. Landslides can also be activated by processes that weaken the shear
strength of a slope’s material. Shear strength is dependent mainly on two factors:
frictional strength, which is the resistance to movement between the slope material’s
interacting constituent particles, and cohesive strength, which is the bonding between
the particles. Coarse particles such as sand grains have high frictional strength but
low cohesive strength, whereas the opposite is true for clays, which are composed of
fine particles. Another factor that affects the shear strength of a slope-forming
material is the spatial disposition of its constituent particles, referred to as
the sediment fabric. Some materials with a loose, open sediment fabric will weaken if
they are mechanically disturbed or flooded with water. An increase in water content,
resulting from either natural causes or human activity, typically weakens sandy
materials through the reduction of interparticle friction and weakens clays through the
dissolution of interparticle cements, the hydration of clay minerals, and the
elimination of interparticle (capillary) tension.

Types Of Landslides
Landslides are generally classified by type of movement (slides, flows, spreads,
topples, or falls) and type of material (rock, debris, or earth). Sometimes more than
one type of movement occurs within a single landslide, and, because the temporal and
spatial relationships of these movements are often complex, their analysis often
requires detailed interpretation of both landforms and geological sections, or cores.

Rockslides and other types of slides involve the displacement of material along one or
more discrete shearing surfaces. The sliding can extend downward and outward along
a broadly planar surface (a translational slide), or it can be rotational along a concave-

18 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

upward set of shear surfaces (a slump). A translational slide typically takes place
along structural features, such as a bedding plane or the interface between resistant
bedrock and weaker overlying material. If the overlying material moves as a single,
little-deformed mass, it is called a block slide. A translational slide is sometimes
called a mud slide when it occurs along gently sloping, discrete shear planes in fine-
grained rocks (such as fissured clays) and the displaced mass is fluidized by an
increase in pore water pressure. In a rotational slide the axis of rotation is roughly
parallel to the contours of the slope. The movement near the head of the slide is
largely downward, exposing a steep head scarp, and movement within the displaced
mass takes place along internal slip planes, each tending to tilt backward. Over time,
upslope ponding of water by such back-tilted blocks can enlarge the area of
instability, so that a stable condition is reached only when the slope is reduced to a
very low gradient.

A type of landslide in which the distribution of particle velocities resembles that of a

viscous fluid is called a flow. The most important fluidizing agent is water, but
trapped air is sometimes involved. Contact between the flowing mass and the
underlying material can be distinct, or the contact can be one of diffuse shear. The
difference between slides and flows is gradational, with variations in fluid content,
mobility, and type of movement, and composite slide movement and flow movement
are common.
A spread is the complex lateral movement of relatively coherent earth materials
resting on a weaker substrate that is subject to liquefaction or plastic flow. Coherent
blocks of material subside into the weaker substrate, and the slow downslope
movement frequently extends long distances as a result of the retrogressive extension
from the zone of origin, such as an eroding riverbank or coastline. Spreads occur as
the result of liquefaction caused by water saturation or earthquake shock in such
substrates as loess, a weakly cemented wind-lain silt.
Rotation of a mass of rock, debris, or earth outward from a steep slope face is
called toppling. This type of movement can subsequently cause the mass to fall or
slide.
Earth materials can become detached from a steep slope without significant shearing,
fall freely under gravity, and land on a surface from which they bounce and fall
farther. Falls of large volume can trap enough air to facilitate the very rapid flow of
rock or debris, forming rock avalanches and debris avalanches, respectively.
Entrapped snow and ice may also help mobilize such flows, but the unqualified
term avalanche is generally used to refer only to an avalanche of snow.
(See avalanche.) Triggered by earthquake shock or torrential rain in mountainous
relief with steep gradients, a huge volume of avalanching rock or debris (of up to

19 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE

millions of metric tons) can reach a velocity of more than 50 metres (160 feet) per
second and leave a long trail of destruction.

Landslide
QUICK FACTS

Landslide Mitigation And Prevention

Landslides pose a recurrent hazard to human life and livelihood in most parts of
the world, especially in some regions that have experienced
rapid population and economic growth. Hazards are mitigated mainly through
precautionary means—for instance, by restricting or even removing populations from
areas with a history of landslides, by restricting certain types of land use where slope
stability is in question, and by installing early warning systems based on the
monitoring of ground conditions such as strain in rocks and soils, slope displacement,
and groundwater levels. There are also various direct methods of preventing
landslides; these include modifying slope geometry, using chemical agents to
reinforce slope material, installing structures such as piles and retaining walls,
grouting rock joints and fissures, diverting debris pathways, and rerouting surface and
underwater drainage. Such direct methods are constrained by cost, landslide
magnitude and frequency, and the size of human settlements at risk.

20 BY K SRICHARAN ASST PROF. ISL ENGINRING COLLGEGE