COMMUNICATION SYSTEM M1 VISHNU CLEAGO

1.1.1 To explain the concept of microwave communication

1.1.2 To explain the working of reflex klystron, magnetron and TWT
1.1.3 To explain the working of Gunn diode and tunnel diode
1.1.4 To describe the function of wave guides and horn antenna
1.2.0 To understand the function of microwave transmission system
1.2.1 To explain the function of microwave transmitter
1.2.2 To explain microwave repeater
1.2.3 To explain microwave receiver
TO EXPLAIN THE CONEPT OF MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION
Microwaves are electromagnetic radio waves having frequency range of 0.3 GHz to 300GHz
with wave lengths ranging from 1mm to 1m. The figure below shows the frequency spectrum
of microwaves in the electromagnetic spectrum.

LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF IR

The microwave portion of the radio spectrum can be subdivided into 3 ranges
1. Ultra high frequency (UHF): radio frequency ranges from 300MHz are in UHF range
of microwaves. They are used for TV broadcasting, cordless phones, satellite
communications etc.
2. Super high frequency (VHF): the SHF range of microwaves are from 3 GHz to 30
GHz. This band of frequency is also known as centimetre band, because the
wavelength ranges from 10 to 1 c.m. they are also used for radar transmitters,
microwave ovens, wireless LAN, cell phones.
3. Extremely high frequency (EHF): it is the highest microwave frequency range. It
ranges from 30 to 300GHz and wavelengths from 10 to 1mm. it also called millimetre
band. This band is commonly used for radio astronomy and remote sensing.
Characteristics of microwaves
 Greater bandwidth capability
 Improved directive properties
 Relatively low cost
 Less fading effect
 Low power requirements
 Ionosphere reflection
 Line of sight communication
 Minimum sky noise
Transit time effect
In vacuum tubes the time required for the electrons to travel from cathode to the
anode plate is called transit time.
τ=d/Ve

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Where d- distance between anode plate and cathode plate

Ve- velocity of electron
At low frequencies, the transit time is very small, so it is insignificant.
But at high frequencies, transit time become an appreciable portion of a signal cycle and start
reducing the tube efficiency.
So the transit time effect reduces the efficiency of the circuit and also causes a phase shift
between and output signal.
TO EXPLAIN THE WORKING OF REFLEX KLYSTRON, MAGNETRON AND
TWT
REFLEX KLYSTRON
Reflex klystron is one of the most commonly used single cavity variable frequency
microwave generator. It converts DC power into microwave power. Its working is based on
velocity modulation.
Construction and working

It consists of a heater, cathode, focusing electrode and repeller plate. All these
components. All the components are enclosed in a glass enveloper after the focusing
electrodes there is a cavity resonator which enriches the glass envelop. A loop coupling is
used inside the cavity to get the output.
The electron beam is modulated as it passes through an oscillating resonant cavity.
The feedback required to maintain oscillations with in the cavity is obtained by returning the
beam and sending it back through the cavity. The electrons in the beam are velocity
modulated before the beam passes through the cavity and will give up the energy required to
maintain oscillations.
The electron beam is tuned around by negatively charged electron that repels the
beam. This negative element is called repeller. This type of klystron oscillator is called reflex
klystron because of the reflex action of the electron beam.

MAGNETRON
It is a cross field oscillator (direction of electric field that accelerates the electron beam is
perpendicular to the axis of magnetic field). Magnetrons are characterised by high peak
power small size efficient operations, low operating voltage.
Types: negative resistance magnetron, cyclotron frequency magnetron and traveling
wave or cavity magnetron.
Microwave cavity: a closed metal structure that confines the electromagnetic fields in
the microwave spectrum and acts as special type of resonator. Structure is either hollow or
field with dielectric material.
Travelling wave/cavity magnetron works on the principle of interaction of electron
with rotating electromagnetic field of constant velocity.

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Parts: cathode, anode cavities, permanent magnets producing magnetic field, RF out
using coupling probe.
Cathode is surrounded by anode cavities. Space between cathode and anode in the
interaction space. Anode to cathode voltage is applied by a filament. To this structure a
perpendicular magnetic field is applied.
2 modes of operation: 0 mode
Л mode
0 mode: only magnetic field and electric field. No radio frequency. With no magnetic field,
R=0 electrons emitted from cathode moves in straight path to anode.
 With B<Bc (critical magnetic flux density) electron takes a curved path.
 With B=Bc electron emitted from cathode touches the anode and returns to cathode
(oscillations) taking longer path in interaction space.
 With B>Bc electron emitted from cathode returns at an early state (not useful for
oscillations)
Л mode: some sustained oscillations (small RF) are available in the magnetron. The RF at the
adjacent cavities are 180˚ out of phase in the interaction space interaction takes place between
electron and RF. The electron which are emitted when RF is positive interacts with RF in
such a way that the electron takes energy from RF and returns back to cathode at an early
stage because the electron gained energy is an unfavourable electron.

Electron emitted when RF is negative, gives their energy to RF, electron reduces its
velocity to remains in the interaction space for longer time. Electron keep on giving their
energy to RF field and returns to the cathode at a later stage, the electron causes oscillations
in magnetron (favourable electron).
The favourable electron forms the electron bunch and these bunches rotates in the
interaction space-phase focusing effect. This results in oscillations.
Applications
 Pulse work in radar and linear particle accelerators
 Swap oscillators in telemetry and missile applications
 Industrial heating and microwave ovens

Study well with video: click link

TRAVELLING WAVE TUBE

It is an amplifier which makes use of interaction of electron beam and a travelling
wave (RF signal). To prolong the interaction between electron beam and RF field they should
travel in same direction and same velocity. Use helix which is a slow wave structure. Slow
wave structures are used to reduce the wave velocity in certain direction so that the electron
beam to signal can interact. Heated cathode at one end of the tube produces beam of electron

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which is attracted to the collector at the other end of tube. The output signal is fed at one end
of the tube and an amplified version of the input signal is takes from the other end.
Construction: helix, electron gun to produce narrow beam of electrons, magnetic
focusing to prevent beam from spreading and to guide it through the centre of helix.

Working: the cathode starts emitting electron once the circuit is switched ON.
Focusing electrodes focuses the electron into a narrow beam at the centre of the tube. These
electron travel towards the anode and if no signal is applied at the helix, electron will be
collected by the anode without any obstruction. When the RF signal is applied at the input
end of helix, positive half cycle will accelerate the electron and negative half cycle will
decelerate the electron. As a result, electron forms bunches and will travels towards anode.
Volume of bunch becomes stronger and stronger as they will approaches to the anode end. At
the output of the helix, there will be strong electric field created by its bunches that results in
the amplified output signal.
Applications
 TWTs are used in space borne power output amplifiers
 CW TWTs are used in radar forming
 Pulsed tubes are used in airborne, ship borne and in high power based radars.
 Medium and high power CW TWT, are used for communication and radar including
electronic counter measures.
 Broadband microwave links use TWTs below 100W range.

GUNN DIODES
It is a microwave oscillator. Materials used for construction are GaAs, InP. It works
on the basis of Gunn Effect. When GaAs slice is applied a potential greater than a critical
value, microwave oscillations are produced. (3900V/cm)
This diode is made of a single piece of N-type semiconductor such as Gallium
Arsenide and InP (Indium Phosphide). GaAs and some other semiconductor materials have
one extra-energy band in their electronic band structure instead of having only two energy
bands, viz. valence band and conduction band like normal semiconductor materials. These
GaAs and some other semiconductor materials consist of three energy bands, and this extra
third band is empty at initial stage.

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If a voltage is applied to this device, then most of the applied voltage appears across the
active region. The electrons from the conduction band having negligible electrical resistivity
are transferred into the third band because these electrons are scattered by the applied
voltage. The third band of GaAs has mobility which is less than that of the conduction band.
Because of this, an increase in the forward voltage increases the field strength (for field
strengths where applied voltage is greater than the threshold voltage value), then the number
of electrons reaching the state at which the effective mass increases by decreasing their
velocity, and thus, the current will decrease.
Thus, if the field strength is increased, then the drift velocity will decrease; this creates a
negative incremental resistance region in V-I relationship. Thus, increase in the voltage will
increase the resistance by creating a slice at the cathode and reaches the anode. But, to
maintain a constant voltage, a new slice is created at the cathode. Similarly, if the voltage
decreases, then the resistance will decrease by extinguishing any existing slice.

TUNNEL DIODE
WORKING: based on the classical mechanics’ theory, a particle must acquire energy which is
equal to the potential energy barrier height, if it has to move from one side of the barrier to
the other. Otherwise, energy has to be supplied from some external source, so the N-sided
electrons of the junction can jump over the junction barrier to reach the P-side of the junction.
If the barrier is thin such as in tunnel diode, according to the Schrodinger equation implies
that there is a large amount of probability and then an electron will penetrate through the
barrier. This process will happen without any energy loss on the part of the electron. The
behaviour of the quantum mechanical indicates tunnelling. The high-impurity P-N junction
devices are called as tunnel-diodes. The tunnelling phenomenon provides a majority carrier
effect.

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Under the forward bias condition, as voltage increases, then-current decreases and thus
become increasingly misaligned, known as negative resistance. An increase in voltage will
lead to operating as a normal diode where the conduction of electrons travels across the P-N
junction diode. The negative resistance region is the most important operating region for a
Tunnel diode. The Tunnel diode and normal P-N junction diode characteristics are different
from each other.

OA- Tunnelling effect

AB- negative resistance region

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TO DESCRIBE THE FUNCTION OF WAVE GUIDES AND HORN ANTENNA

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TO EXPLAIN THE FUNCTION OF MICROWAVE TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER

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TO DESCRIBE THE FUNCTION OF MICROWAVE REPEATER

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Thanks to Ms. SRUTHI.V (lecturer in electronics engg. GPTC KANNUR

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