MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION

Microwaves are radio signals with a very short wavelength. Point-to-point

communications are usually carried out microwave frequencies between 1 GHz
and 100 GHz along line-of-sight (LOS) paths called links.These frequencies and
their propagation characteristics allow the transmission of vast amounts of data
between remote communication sites without the need to lay cables between them.
They are used in point-to-point wireless communications networks, satellite
communications, radar systems and even radio astronomy.. Microwavesare also
emitted by natural objects, as well as from space.
Advantages of Microwaves
 Supports larger bandwidth and hence more information is transmitted. For this
reason, microwaves are used for point-to-point communications.
 More antenna gain is possible.
 Higher data rates are transmitted as the bandwidth is more.
 Antenna size gets reduced, as the frequencies are higher.
 Low power consumption as the signals are of higher frequencies.
 Effect of fading gets reduced by using line of sight propagation.
 Provides effective reflection area in the radar systems.
 Satellite and terrestrial communications with high capacities are possible.
 Low-cost miniature microwave components can be developed.
 Effective spectrum usage with wide variety of applications in all available
frequency ranges of operation.
Disadvantages of Microwaves
1. Cost of equipment or installation cost is high.
2. They are large and heavy and occupy more space.
3. Electromagnetic interference may occur.
4. Variations in dielectric properties with temperatures may occur.
5. Inherent inefficiency of electric power.

.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum consists of entire range of electromagnetic radiation.
Radiation is the energy that travels and spreads out as it propagates
Microwave (MW) is a part of this spectrum, comprising the bands between 1
GHz and 300 GHz.
Properties of Microwaves
Microwaves are the waves that radiate electromagnetic energy with shorter
wavelength.
Microwaves are not reflected by Ionosphere.
Microwaves travel in a straight line and are reflected by the conducting surfaces.
Microwaves are easily attenuated within shorter distances.
Microwave currents can flow through a thin layer of a cable.
Applications of Microwaves
Wireless Communications
Electronics
Commercial Uses
Global navigation satellite systems
Global Positioning System
Military and Radar
Radars to detect the range and speed of the target.
SONAR applications
Air traffic control
Weather forecasting
Microwave Frequencies
Microwaves are electromagnetic waves (EM) with wavelengths ranging
from 10cm to 1mm. The corresponding frequency range is 30Ghz (=109 Hz) to
300Ghz (=1011 Hz) . This means microwave frequencies are upto infrared and
visible-light regions.

 The microwaves frequencies span the following three major bands at the highest
end of RF spectrum.
i) Ultra high frequency (UHF) 0.3 to 3 Ghz
ii) ii) Super high frequency (SHF) 3 to 30 Ghz
iii) iii) Extra high frequency (EHF) 30 to 300 Ghz
 Most application of microwave technology make use of frequencies in the
1 to 40 Ghz range.The common characteristics of microwave device are the
negative resistance that can be used for microwave oscillation and amplification.
Transit Time Effect

It is important to note that No Signal can travel with infinite velocity. That is to say
that if a voltage or current changes at some location, its effect cannot be felt
instantaneously at some other location. There is a finite delay between the ' cause '
and the effect. This is called the ' Transit Time' effect. Consider the two-
conductor line which is connected to a sinusoidal signal generator of frequency at
one end and a load impedance at the other end. Due to the transit time effect the
voltage applied at AA' will not appear instantaneously at BB'.
Let the signal travel with velocity ‘v ’ along the line. Then the Transit time
tr = l/v
Where l = length of the line
 MICROWAVE DEVICE
Any device capable of generating, amplifying, modifying, detecting, or mea
suring microwaves, or voltages having microwave frequencies. The Microwave systems
consists of many Microwave components, mainly with source at one end and load at the
other, which are all connected with waveguides or coaxial cable or transmission line
systems.

Reflex Klystron
This microwave generator, is a Klystron that works on reflections and oscillations
in a single cavity,which has a variable frequency. Reflex Klystron contains of an
electron gun, a cathode filament, an anode cavity, and an electrode at the cathode
potential. It offers low power and has low competence.

Construction of Reflex Klystron

The electron gun produces the electron beam, which permits through the gap in the
anode cavity. These electrons traverse towards the Repeller electrode, which is at high
negative potential. The electrons repel back to the anode cavity, due to the high negative
field. In their coming back journey, the electrons give more energy to the gap and these
oscillations are sustained.

Operation of Reflex Klystron

The electron beam is enhanced towards the anode cavity. Let a reference electron er
crosses the anode cavity but has no extra speed and it resists back after reaching the
Repeller electrode, with the same velocity. Another electron, let's say ee which has
started previous than this reference electron, extents the Repeller first, but returns
gradually, reaching at the same time as the reference electron. We have extra electron,
the late electron el , which starts later than both er and ee, though, it moves with better
speed while returning back, reaching at the same time as er and ee. Currently, these three
electrons, namely er, ee and el reach the gap at the similar time, forming an electron
bunch. This travel time is called as transit time, which should have the best value.
 The anode cavity accelerates the electrons while going and gains their energy
by retarding them during the return journey. When the gap voltage is at maximum
positive, this lets the maximum negative electrons to retard.
The optimum transit time is represented as
T = n + 3/4
where n is an integer
This transit time depends upon the Repeller and anode voltages.

Applications of Reflex KlystronRadio receivers

 Portable microwave links
 Parametric amplifiers
 Local oscillators of microwave receivers
 As a signal source where variable frequency is desirable in microwave
generators.

MAGNETRON
The magnetron tube. This device forms the heart of every microwave oven,
generating several hundred watts of microwave RF energy used to heat food
andbeverages powered on and off at random times and for random durations. The
magnetron directs its electron beam in a circular pattern by means of a strong magnetic
field.
The magnetron is a high-powered vacuum tube that works as a self-excited
microwave oscillator. Crossed electron and magnetic fields are used in the magnetron to
produce the high-power output required in radar equipment. Magnetron, diode vacuum
tube consisting of a cylindrical (straight wire) cathode and a coaxial anode, between
which a dc (direct current) potential creates an electric field. A magnetic field is applied
longitudinally by an external magnet. Connected to a resonant line, it can act as an
oscillator. Magnetrons are capable of generating extremely high frequencies and also
short bursts of very high power. They are an important source of power in radar systems
and in microwave ovens.
Working of Magnetron

1. There's a heated cathode (a solid metal rod) at the center of the magnetron.
2. A ring-shaped anode surrounds the cathode (colored red).
3. If switched on , electrons would boil off from the cathode and zip
across to the anode in straight lines But there are two added extra bits
in a magnetron that change things completely.
4. First, the anode has holes or slots cut into it called cavities or resonant cavities.
Second, a powerful magnet is placed underneath the anode to generate a
magnetic field along the length of the tube.
5. Now when the electrons try to zip from cathode to anode, they are traveling through
an electric field and a magnetic field at the same time. So, like any electrically charged
particles moving in a magnetic field, they feel a force and follow a curved path instead
of a straight one, whizzing around the space between the anode and the cathode.
6. As the electrons nip past the cavities, the cavities resonate and emit microwave
radiation.
7. The microwave radiation that the cavities produce is collected up and channeled
by a kind of funnel called a waveguide, either into the cooking compartment of a
microwave oven or beamed out into the air by an antenna or satellite dish in radar
equipment.
Applications of TWT
1. Travelling wave tubes are highly used in continuous wave radar systems.
2. These amplifying tubes also find application in broadband receivers for RF
amplification.
3. TWT’s are also used to get high power output in satellite transponders.
Advantages of waveguides
 In waveguides, the power loss during propagation is almost negligible.
 Waveguides have the ability to manage large-signal power.
 As waveguides possess a simple structure thus their installation is somewhat
easy.
Disadvantages of waveguides
 Its installation and manufacturing cost is high.
 Waveguides are generally rigid in nature and hence sometimes causes
difficulty in applications where tube flexibility is required.
 It is somewhat large in size and bulkier as compared to other transmission lines.

HORN ANTENNA
 Waveguide Horn Antennas are directional antennas that have high gains and can
operate at high frequencies with a large bandwidth. Horn antennas consists of a flared
waveguide which is shaped like a horn and is ideally used in the transmission and
reception of RF microwave signals. It is normally used in conjunction with waveguide
feeds. It directs radio waves in a beam. The flared portion can be square, rectangular, or
conical. For proper functioning, a horn antenna must be a certain minimum size relative
to the wavelength of the incoming or outgoing electromagnetic fields. If the horn is too
small or the wavelength is too large (the frequency is too low), the antenna will not work
efficiently. The horn antenna may be considered as an RF transformer or impedance
match between the waveguide feeder and free space To improve the radiation efficiency
and directivity of the beam, the wave guide should be provided with an extended
aperture . So that all the energy in the forward direction gets radiated. This can be
termed as Flaring. Now, this can be done using a horn antenna.

Frequency Range

The operational frequency range of a horn antenna is around 300MHz to 30GHz.

This antenna works in UHF and SHF frequency ranges. A Horn antenna may be
considered as a flared out wave guide, by which the directivity is improved and the
diffraction is reduced. To improve the radiation efficiency and directivity of the beam,
the wave guide should be provided with an extended aperture .So that all the energy in
the forward direction gets radiated. This can be termed as Flaring. Now, this can be done
using a horn antenna.

The main advantages

 It provides a significant level of directivity and gain.
 Wide bandwidth.
 Easy interface to waveguide.
 Simple construction.
 MICROWAVE REPEATER

GUNN DIODE
A Gunn diode is a passive semiconductor device with two terminals, which
composes of only an n-doped semiconductor material. Among these three layers the top
most and the bottom most are heavily doped while the middle layer is lightly doped in
comparison to the extreme layers.
Gunn diode is a transferred electronic device, which is composed of only one
type of semiconductor i.e.N-type and utilizes the negative resistance characteristics to
generate current at high frequencies. It is used to generate RF and microwave
frequencies.
 The Gunn diode is not actually a P-N junction diode. When biasing is applied to
Gunn diode, the entire voltage appears across the active region. The active region is the
middle layer of the device. Due to which the current pulses start traversing the active
region. The potential gradient will fall when current pulse traverses in the active region
which blocks another pulse to form. This is a transferred electronic device so it deals
with the movement of electrons only.
In Gunn diode, there is valence band, conduction band and one more band near
conduction band. Thus, on initial DC bias the current through the device increases
because electrons move from valence band to conduction band. After moving in
conduction band the current through the device starts decreasing because the electrons in
conduction band move to band above the conduction band. Due to this the effective mass
of electrons starts increasing and thus mobility starts decreasing due to which the current
starts decreasing. This creates the negative resistance region in the diode. Due to this
negative resistance region, the diode acts as amplifier and oscillator. In this negative
resistance region, the Gunn diode is able to amplify the signals.

Applications of Gunn Diode

1. Gunn Diodes are used as oscillators and Amplifiers.
2. They are used in radio communication, military and commercial radar sources.
3. Gunn diodes are used as fast controlling equipment in microelectronics for
modulation of laser beams.
4. It is used in tachometers.
5. Gunn diode is used in sensors for detection in trespass detecting system, in-door
opening system, pedestrian safety systems etc.
6. It is also used extensively in microwave relay data link transmitters.
Tunnel Diode
A Tunnel Diode is a heavily doped p-n junction diode. The tunnel diode shows
negative resistance. When voltage value increases, current flow decreases. Tunnel diode
works based on Tunnel Effect.

Symbol of tunnel diode

Tunneling Effect
In electronics, Tunneling is known as a direct flow of electrons across the small
depletion region from n-side conduction band into the p-side valence band. In a p-n
junction diode, both positive and negative ions form the depletion region. Due to these
ions, in-built electric potential or electric field is present in the depletion region. This
electric field gives an electric force to the opposite direction of externally applied
voltage.

As the width of the depletion layer reduces, charge carriers can easily cross the
junction. Charge carriers do not need any form of kinetic energy to move across the
junction. Instead, carriers punch through junction. This effect is called Tunneling and
hence the diode is called Tunnel Diode.

V-I Characteristics of Tunnel Diode

Due to forward biasing, because of heavy doping conduction happens in the diode.
The maximum current that a diode reaches is Ip and voltage applied is Vp. The
current value decreases, when more amount of voltage is applied. Current keeps
decreasing until it reaches a minimal value.
MICROWAVE TRANSMITTER

The signal to be transmitter must be at uplink frequency. The converter

multiply the signal frequency to uplink frequency after it is encoded and modulated
properly. After upconverting the frequency, it is applied to power dividers. The output of
power divider goes to high power amplifier. Normally travelling wave tube amplifiers or
multicavity klystron amplifiers are used. Here the modulation is performed at 70 MHz
intermediate frequency and is then upconverted to a uplink frequency of 6 GHz.

The output of several high power amplifiers are combined in a power combining
amplifier and the output then passes through band pass filter and circulators. Frequency
stability and power control are necessary to avoid interferences. The manufacturing is
high and it increases as transmitted power increases.
 MICROWAVE RECEIVER

Operation
The first stage of the terminal station receiver is the front end converter.
It is usually a double converter to convert the down link frequency signal of the
order of GHz into an intermediate frequency of 70 MHz. Now this intermediate
frequency signal is first passed through a chain of bandpass filters and amplifier
combinations to improve signal strength. Thus the IF signal is demodulated to get
the original baseband signal. The FM used here is a phase-locked loop (PLL) type
of FM demodulator. Now the signal is amplified after it is given to de-emphasis
network. A 5.5 MHz sound trap is provided in the circuit to get the sound IF.