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 Contents
Part One
4 Cold-formed Steel Design Standards
By Robert J. Wills, PE

Part Two
10 Cold-formed Steel Framing Gets Complicated
by Chuck Mears, FAIA, Ryan Rademacher, AIA, Sheri Carter, AIA, and Michael Chusid, RA, FCSI, CCS

18 Part Three
Navigating Non-structural Metal Framing
by Larry Nordin, CSI, CDT, AIA

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STEEL FRAMING | the construction specifier E-BOOK 3

 Steel Framing

Part One
Cold-formed Steel Design Standards

BY ROBERT J. WILLS, PE

4 the construction specifier E-BOOK | STEEL FRAMING

 Cold-formed Steel
Design Standards
Fostering efficient and innovative building systems
through simplification and consolidation
By Robert J. Wills, PE
Photos courtesy CEMCO Steel

SINCE THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FIRST
SPECIFICATIONS FOR COLD-FORMED
STEEL (CFS) BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
IN 1946, THE AMERICAN IRON AND STEEL
INSTITUTE (AISI) HAS BEEN WORKING TO
DEVELOP DESIGN STANDARDS TO IMPROVE
PERFORMANCE AND ACCESSIBILITY FOR
DESIGNERS AND STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS.
THESE STANDARDS HAVE PROGRESSED
OVER THE YEARS TO INCORPORATE THE
LATEST TECHNOLOGIES IN MATERIALS
AND DESIGN. CONTINUALLY, AISI IS
WORKING WITH ENGINEERS, DESIGNERS,
RESEARCHERS, AND OTHER STAKEHOLDERS
TO UPDATE ITS SUITE OF DESIGN
STANDARDS TO REFLECT RESEARCH
ADVANCEMENTS AND INNOVATIONS IN
COLD-FORMED STEEL DESIGN.

STEEL FRAMING | the construction specifier E-BOOK 5


Located in Honolulu, Hawaii, the Plaza at Pearl City is a
9940-m2 (107,000-sf) assisted living facility constructed
of four levels of load-bearing cold-formed steel (CFS)
wall framing on a single level of concrete podium.
Cold-formed steel is strong and versatile with the
potential to deliver numerous benefits to designers,
allowing structures that are thinner with complex
geometries. In the manufacturing process, a metallic-
coated sheet steel is roll-formed into products such
as studs, joists, track, headers, angles, truss members,
and other components. By reducing the amount of
steel needed to create a durable, resilient, and code-
compliant building, CFS contributes greatly to the
steel industry’s efforts to improve sustainability
throughout a building’s lifecycle and simplify
natural resource management.
Cold-formed steel structures have the potential to
deliver high-efficiency building designs by utilizing
minimal material and advanced geometric shapes
in structural members. Until recently, standards
focused on design of the individual cold-formed
steel structural members—making it difficult for
designers and engineers to take full advantage of
the capabilities and benefits of cold-formed steel
members working together as a system.
6 the construction specifier E-BOOK | STEEL FRAMING
Addressing this issue, AISI standards improve
on their previous editions by introducing a more
comprehensive and useful suite of standards for
professionals. These standards are intended to be
adopted into the 2018 model codes, including the
International Building Code (IBC) and National
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 5000, Building
Construction and Safety Code.
AISI standards development
Standards development efforts in the CFS construction
industry are led by AISI, which is accredited by the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI). To
ensure the standards represent and encompass the
needs of all stakeholders, AISI utilizes the combined
experience of experts from construction industry
associations, designers, academics, and others formed
into committees and task groups to develop them.
A core value of the AISI standards development
process is transparency—open, balanced, and
consensus-driven. This process ensures standards
are founded in the current body of knowledge and
incorporate the most recent research results and data.
As the construction and steel industries evolved,
so did the standards process. Since 1966, AISI has
represented members from across North America;
in 2001, it worked with partners and standards
organizations in Canada and Mexico to develop
and publish the North American Specification for
the Design of Cold-formed Steel Structural Members.
Approved as an American National Standard by ANSI
in the United States, this ‘harmonized’ standard
allowed building professionals across North America
to work from a common source, ensuring considerable
time and cost efficiencies.
In addition to routine updates to the suite of AISI
standards, the group’s standards committees has
or will address the following documents:
• AISI S100-16, North American Specification for the
Design of Cold-formed Steel Structural Members;
• AISI S220-15, North American Standard for Cold-
formed Steel Framing–Nonstructural Members;
• AISI S230-15, Standard for Cold-formed Steel
Framing–Prescriptive Method for One- and Two-
Family Dwellings;
• AISI S240-15, North American Standard for Cold-
formed Steel Structural Framing;
• AISI S310-16, North American Standard for the
Design of Profiled Steel Diaphragm Panels; and
• AISI S400-15, North American Standard for Seismic
Design of Cold-formed Steel.
Expanding the scope of the North American the nonstructural definition and limitations. AISI S220
specification for CFS brought the design and manufacturing requirements
The 2016 edition of AISI S100, is currently being for cold-formed steel nonstructural members into
updated with provisions that enable CFS design in one standard, making it easier for design professionals
various applications such as steel framing, deck, and and building officials to specify and approve cold-
roof systems. This edition aligns closely with AISC formed steel for building projects.
360, Specification for Structural Steel Buildings. By
aligning the provisions for cold-formed steel with
those for hot-rolled structural steel that are already
in widespread use, AISI and other stakeholders hope
to foster an increase in the use of cold-formed steel
systems in buildings. While some variation is required
to incorporate the material’s unique provisions,
the 2016 standard will shorten the learning curve
for designers and engineers who are not familiar
with CFS.
Additionally, AISI S100-16 will now include the
Direct Strength Method (DSM), originally developed
as an alternative to the Effective Width Method
(EWM) and previously relegated to an appendix in
the main body of the standard. DSM provides a more
robust and flexible design procedure.
Under previous methodologies, empirical-based
designs and testing methods were not optimized
to take full advantage of cold-formed steel design
potential. DSM is a powerful analysis-based tool,
allowing product development and avoidance of
costly, time-consuming, ‘make-it-and-break-it’
testing iterations. This capability greatly increases This photo shows workers placing the cold-formed steel wall frame in place
efficiency in product development and design in the Plaza at Pearl City in Hawaii.
processes, reducing cycle time and eliminating
delays in product and project development.
Engineers have used DSM for individual product COLD-FORMED STEEL RESOURCES
In addition to cold-formed steel standards, American Iron and Steel
development, but its inclusion in AISI S100-16
Institute (AISI) offers several other resources that support the design
will encourage its use for mainstream design. It is
and use of cold-formed steel. These resources include a suite of
anticipated that increased use of the DSM will foster standards covering the testing of individual connections, members,
innovation in cold-formed steel design. and complete systems. AISI also offers design manuals and guides
AISI S310-16, the profiled steel diaphragm panels that illustrate the practical application of the standards as well as
standard, is also being revised to incorporate the other design considerations. Most AISI standards are available in
changes made in AISI S100-16. It will have changes downloadable format—free of charge—as a service to the design
to the safety and resistance factors in Table B1.1 so and construction community.* AISI S100 and other design support
they are consistent with the theory and calibration resources are available for purchase.**
method presented in the standard. Designers can also look to the Cold-formed Steel Engineers Institute
(CFSEI) for technical notes, case studies, webinars/seminars, and other
technology transfer tools covering various important topics beyond
Major revisions to AISI S220-15
structural design such as fire, acoustic, and thermal performance.† cs
AISI S220 was developed in 2011 by a consensus
committee, subjected to an independent review Notes
process, and approved by ANSI in less than six months. * For the free download, visit www.aisistandards.org.
The standard applies to commonly recognized ** More notes are available for purchase at the AISI Steel Store, visit
nonstructural members such as wall studs used in www.steel.org.
interior partition walls and to other members meeting † CFSEI resources are available at www.CFSei.org.

STEEL FRAMING | the construction specifier E-BOOK 7

 This project includes
six stories of load-
bearing cold-formed
steel framing on top of
two levels of concrete
parking structure.
The design of the Elan Westside Apartments in Atlanta, Georgia, demonstrates
the efficiencies and constructability of cold-formed steel construction.
Photos courtesy DSi Engineering LLC
This updated version will include the addition of
performance requirements for screw penetration, the
expansion of testing requirements to reference the
new AISI S915 and AISI S916 test standards, and
testing requirements for screw penetration.
Combining six standards into one document
Six separate cold-formed steel framing standards
have been merged to form a new standard—the
2015 edition of AISI S240. Combining the previous
standards, which each independently addressed an
individual cold-formed steel frame subsystem, it will
allow designers to take a more comprehensive and
systematic approach to the design process.
In addition to the consolidation of the six former
structural standards, AISI S240 will provide new quality
control and quality assurance (QC/QA) requirements
for CFS structural framing. These provisions will be
8 the construction specifier E-BOOK | STEEL FRAMING
coordinated with the model building codes, giving
engineers, architects, and construction specifiers
assurance the cold-formed steel framing designed
under AISI standards are code-compliant and meet
their design expectations. In this regard, CFS framing
is taking its place alongside other traditional structural
materials such as hot-rolled structural steel and
concrete, which already have well-established
QC/QA provisions.
Seismic performance standards
The new AISI S400 represents a joining of two
previous standards on the seismic design of cold-
formed steel into one comprehensive standard. AISI
S400 applies to the design and construction of cold-
formed steel structural members and connections
in seismic force-resisting systems. This standard
will bring together the provisions for existing cold-
formed steel seismic force-resisting systems and
provide a ‘home’ for new CFS design solutions for
buildings in regions where seismic activity is a concern.
Promoting sustainable building
construction with steel
Through ongoing investments in research and
development, the reliability and cost-effectiveness of
cold-formed steel structures continues to increase.
AISI’s standards are updated on a regular basis,
allowing designers and engineers to benefit from
these research advances, producing effective and
efficient designs using cold-formed steel. Additionally,
the steel industry has made significant progress
in increasing the efficiency and lessening the
environmental impact of steel production over the
years—making cold-formed steel a sustainable choice.
 Until recently, standards focused on design of individual cold-formed steel
structural members, making it difficult to take full advantage of a ‘system.’

By encouraging the use of cold-formed steel in
building designs, AISI helps designers develop more
creative designs while using less steel. The increased
strength, durability, and resiliency of cold-formed
steel gives designers the freedom to create structures
using fewer resources while maintaining building
integrity and providing a sustainable solution.
Additionally, steel’s high recyclability in comparison
to other materials allows for steel construction products
and systems to be sustainably managed at the end of a
building’s lifecycle. Where materials such as wood are
often disposed of in landfills or downcycled for fuel or
mulch, the CFS framing material in buildings can be
collected and recycled as any number of steel products,
including new steel-framed buildings.
These standards, which make cold-formed steel
design more accessible to engineers and design
professionals, are another step toward truly sustainable
building design.
Conclusion
While the standards currently in development for
cold-formed steel structures help increase efficiency
and accessibility, future standards continue to evolve
to introduce innovations in products and technology
to the marketplace.
These standards create a path for the industry
to reach the next step in this ongoing process. As
building design, engineering advances, and
system-analysis software are developed, the
industry will be greatly empowered. AISI is
currently working with a special task force to
develop a roadmap for implementing analysis-
based design in a standards environment.
Looking to the future, one can see the new
possibilities and advantages that will be delivered by
the ability to predict system reliability in real time
during the design process. This type of analysis will
allow designers and engineers to design seamlessly,
while testing their models as they are developed.
Cold-formed steel design standards will continue to
develop in the coming years to foster innovation in
the construction industry while allowing engineers
and other design professionals to take full advantage
of the material’s strength, reliability, and sustainability
in building construction. cs

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Author
Robert J. Wills, PE, is vice president of construction market
development with the Steel Market Development Institute, a
business unit of the American Iron and Steel Institute. He is
responsible for overseeing the construction market programs
in commercial buildings, residential construction, and the
transportation/infrastructure markets, as well as the AISI
Construction Technical Program. With more than 30 years of
experience in the construction industry, he has served as a
structural design engineer and in various roles with the AISI
Codes and Standards program. He is a member of ASTM
International, the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE),
the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), and the
International Code Council (ICC).
process where metallic-coated sheet steel is roll-formed into
products such as studs, joists, track, headers, angles, truss
members, and other components. By reducing the amount of
steel needed to create a durable, resilient, and code-compliant
building, cold-formed steel contributes greatly to the steel
industry’s efforts to improve sustainability throughout a building’s
lifecycle and simplify natural resource management.
MasterFormat No.
05 40 00–Cold-Formed Metal Framing
UniFormat No.
B10−Superstructure

Abstract Key Words

Cold-formed steel is strong and versatile with the potential Division 05
to deliver numerous benefits to designers, allowing them to American Iron and Steel Institute
create structures using thinner materials and complex Cold-formed steel
geometries. Cold-formed steel refers to a manufacturing Metal framing

STEEL FRAMING | the construction specifier E-BOOK 9

 Steel Framing

Part Two
Cold-formed Steel Framing Gets Complicated

BY CHUCK MEARS, FAIA, RYAN RADEMACHER, AIA,

SHERI CARTER, AIA, AND MICHAEL CHUSID, RA, FCSI, CCS

10 the construction specifier E-BOOK | STEEL FRAMING

 Cold-formed
Steel Framing
Gets Complicated
Factory-curved, cold-formed steel
(CFS) framing was used to support
interior finishes throughout Walt Disney
Concert Hall, designed by Frank Gehry,
including the BP Hall prefunction area.
11  the construction specifier  | february 2015
BY CHUCK MEARS, FAIA, RYAN RADEMACHER, AIA,
SHERI CARTER, AIA, AND MICHAEL CHUSID, RA,
FCSI, CCS
Photo © Alex Pitt, The Music Center
DURING THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD, COMPLEX
GOTHIC STRUCTURES WERE BUILT FROM
DRAWINGS THAT COMMUNICATED A
DESIGNER’S OVERALL VISION WITHOUT
DETAILING SPECIFIC MEANS OF
CONSTRUCTION. MASTER CRAFTSMEN
TRANSLATED DESIGNS INTO BUILDABLE
STRUCTURES USING SIMPLE TOOLS
AVAILABLE AT THE TIME. NOW, IN
SOME RESPECTS, THE CONSTRUCTION
INDUSTRY HAS COME FULL CIRCLE.
Complex concepts envisioned by contemporary
designers are being translated into buildable
structures by a new generation of master builders.
The differences, however, are today’s building
materials can be considerably lighter weight than
stone masonry of yore, and the craftsman’s tool
kit includes building information modeling
(BIM) capabilities.
Recent advances in cold-formed steel (CFS)
framing illustrate this transition. The American
Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) defines cold-
formed steel as:
shapes manufactured by press-braking blanks
sheared from sheets, cut lengths of coils or plates, or
by roll-forming cold-rolled or hot-rolled coils or sheets;
both forming operations being performed at ambient
room temperature, that is, without manifest addition
of heat such as would be required from hot forming.
STEEL FRAMING | the construction specifier E-BOOK 11

New techniques have simplified bending of cold-formed
steel. These channels, for example, have plications that allow
members to be curved by hand and to retain their shape.
Images courtesy Radius Track
CFS uses thinner materials with different structural
characteristics than hot-rolled sections.1 Thanks to
the efforts of AISI, Cold-formed Steel Engineers
Institute (CFSEI), and other industry organizations,
there are well-established engineering and fabrication
guidelines for orthogonal CFS structures. However,
using CFS for complex curved or faceted surfaces still
relies on master crafters—now called subject matter
experts (SME)—with specialized skills and knowledge.
The relationship between an SME and the project’s
architect/engineer (A/E) and contractor has to be defined
within terms of the project’s contract documents. For
example, a specialist could be a:
• vendor assisting the A/E or contractor on a
promotional basis;
• professional consultant hired by the A/E or contractor
to advise on, or take responsibility for, engineering;
• properly licensed design professional hired by the
contractor;2 or
• s upplier providing framing for a project. (Any
recommendations to improve or simplify framing
would require appropriate change orders or
construction change directives prior to deviating
from construction documents.)
The BIM boom
Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles is a poster
child for complex architectural surfaces. Many of the
curvilinear finishes inside the Frank Gehry-designed
building are shaped and supported by armatures of
CFS members. The project’s contractor hired an SME
12 the construction specifier E-BOOK | STEEL FRAMING
to engineer framing solutions and create BIM files to
drive computer numerical controlled (CNC) fabrication,
communicate with other trades, coordinate dimensions
within tolerances of primary structure, and detect clashes
with other building elements.
While BIM may someday be as well-established
as hammer and chisel are to stone masonry, the
construction industry is still grappling with the best
way to use its digital toolkit. Architects that design
complex surfaces tend to be with the same firms
gravitating toward BIM. Their models assist in
visualizing spaces or establishing overall geometry, yet
often lack information necessary to construct a project.
Even when BIM is available for a project, the
construction contracts are usually based on sets of
drawings and models are issued to builders solely for
reference. Despite this, many construction contracts
stipulate contractors provide digital data that can be
added to the BIM file to show framing and facilitate
clash detection. Amidst all this data, someone still
has to figure out the best way to install framing and
make the translation from virtual to physical. As one
experienced installer explains it, “the model still doesn’t
tell me where I need to put the stud.”
In addition to growing complexity of architectural
shapes and digital practices, the steel framing industry
has also evolved.
“In just the past five years, the steel stud industry
has undergone a fundamental change,” said Steven A.
Etkin, executive vice president/CEO of Association of
the Wall and Ceiling Industry (AWCI). “Where once
the ‘generic’ steel stud reigned as king, it is rapidly
being dethroned by the expanding use of proprietary
products with unique profiles, varying stud thickness,
and even specialized coatings.”3
New tools simplify fabrication of complex shapes.
For example, curving studs or tracks used to require
a time-consuming process of making multiple cuts
in members and then securing them into shape with
straps, screws, or welds. New tools bend framing
members by making origami-like plications (folds or
pleats), and computer numerically controlled (CNC)
lasers cut intricate shapes from light-gage steel such
as tabs or entire CFS shapes that simplify assembly
of components.
Further, codes and standards affecting CFS have
been recently revised.4 There are now three industry
associations with competing certification standards.5
Increased attention also has to be given to sustainability.
A subject matter expert has to stay abreast of advances
like these.
TRACK 1000

Factory installed intumescent on FAS Track 1000 means faster framing for the
contactor and no fire caulk needed. Work faster with FAS Track 1000.

Costs Less Sound Tested Slotted Track

No Sealant Needed Fire Rated Deep Leg Track
Code Compliant Air Leakage Rated J-Track

Dating back to 13th century France, these
reflected ceiling plans by Villard de Honnecourt
required subject matter experts (SMEs) to
translate design intent into stone. Complex
structures still need similar expertise to The projecting apertures on One North complex were designed to boast daylighting
translate building information models (BIMs) and minimize heat transfer through building envelope’s continuous insulation.
into cold-formed steel. Images courtesy Holst Architecture
Alternative to other materials
One North is an urban infill office and retail
development currently being constructed in Portland,
Oregon. Intended to achieve Platinum certification
under the Leadership in Energy and Environmental
Design (LEED) program, the Holst Architecture design
calls for deep apertures—pods—at windows to funnel
daylight into offices yet block direct sun that could
create glare and contribute to excess heat gain in the
building. The building has continuous insulation with
high thermal resistance. To minimize thermal bridging
through insulation, each aperture will attach only by its
four corners to the building.
The project’s structural engineer proposed welded
hot-rolled rectangular steel tubes to create a cage at each
aperture; trusses would hang from attachment points
at sides of apertures and beams would span 6 to 9 m
(20 to 36 ft) between trusses. Hot-rolled steel is
frequently used for structures like this because the
engineering and detailing are well understood.
The architect, however, was willing to push the
envelope and consider alternatives. Working with an
SME, they were able to reduce weight of apertures
14 the construction specifier E-BOOK | STEEL FRAMING
While most cold-formed steel
components are shaped by
roll-forming or breakforming,
computer numerically
controlled (CNC) laser-cutting
enables the fabrication of
complex built-up members,
such as this curved angle.
Precision-cut tabs on the
lower legs were bent up to
facilitate screw connections.
by about 60 percent. LEED v4 uses ‘dematerialization’
to describe reduction in materials required for
construction. This has the direct benefit of reducing
environmental impact of extracting, fabricating, and
transporting building products. It achieves additional
benefits by reducing structural loads, thereby reducing
material requirements throughout superstructure and
foundations. Since raw steel is a significant part of
a steel structure’s cost, switching to lightweight CFS
helped reduce estimated in-place cost of apertures
by about 30 percent.
Had hot-rolled steel been used, cages would have
required infill framing to support finishes. In a CFS
system, structural members also serve as substrate for
finishes, simplifying construction and contributing to
the material’s economy.
Simplified framing logic
The Anderson Collection of 20th Century Art goes on
display this fall in a new building on Stanford University’s
campus in Palo Alto, California. The building, designed
by Ennead Architects, has an interior capped with an
expansive 57 x 24.5 m (187 x 81 ft) ceiling. Referred
to as ‘the Belly,’ it is both convex and complex—no two
portions of its doubly curved surface have the same
shape. Rising from a height of 8.6 m (28 ft) near the
building’s center, it reaches 11.7 m (38 ft) around the
perimeter where it meets a continuous clerestory that
introduces diffused daylight into the hall.
Given the prestige of collection and importance of
ceilings to the gallery’s interior design, the project was
the antithesis of the ‘beat-to-fit, paint-to-match’ attitude
that can lead to forming complex surfaces by brute
force. While the architect built a digital model defining
This mockup shows the cold-formed steel apertures at the One North
ceiling contours, means and methods of construction project (shown as a rendering on page 14). The relatively light weight of the
were not detailed. The contractor initially considered structural members, in comparison to hot-rolled steel, enabled them to be
a conventional tee-bar ceiling suspension grid, but prefabricated and lifted into position as a module.

decided it would be too difficult to maintain dimensional

tolerances working with straight framing elements. The
SME was asked for assistance in determining framing logic
for the ceiling and to develop a method of installing it
to exacting dimensions.
The SME began by building a more precise model of
the space for better control of the ceiling’s geometry.
Its recommendation to use a system of curved light-
gage steel ribs located 1.2 m (4 ft) on center (o.c.), was
accepted; the firm was hired to detail and fabricate a
system to meet California’s rigorous seismic-resistance
criteria and state-approval process.
Cold-formed channels were used to suspend ribs from Cold-formed steel members support the Anderson Collection’s acoustical
plaster ceiling for this new Stanford University building. Lath is fastened to
the roof deck to obtain more stability than would have hat channels spanning between curved ribs. They, in turn, are hung from
been practical with wire hangers usually employed for channels that penetrate the roof deck so the critical connections are in
ceiling suspension. The channels penetrated the roof shear rather than tension.
Photo courtesy J&J Acoustics
deck and were attached to horizontal member on top of
the deck so loads on fasteners were in shear, not tension—
this meant greater seismic reliability. Holes in the
deck were drilled based on dimensions taken from
the SME’s BIM.
Each rib has a unique profile, and the SME established
control points on each one to continuously fit the desired
shape. Especially close tolerances were required, since
deviations in ceiling surface would have been visually
exaggerated by glancing light from clerestories. The ribs
were factory-curved and color-coded to match installation
drawings that, along with shop drawings, were generated This building information model (BIM) of the Anderson Collection’s ceiling
framing suggests the complexity of its compound curvature. Curved in two
with information extracted from BIMs. Pre-curved hat
directions, every portion of ceiling’s ‘belly’ has unique shape.
channels span between ribs at 400 mm (16 in.) o.c. to Image courtesy Radius Track
provide transverse resistance to seismic forces and more
precise control of geometry for finishes. system gave the general contractor more time with
According to ceiling installer, J&J Acoustics, a unrestricted access to work floor.
conventional ceiling suspension grid would have required
scaffolding for a work platform, but the CFS suspension Ruled surfaces or curved framing?
system could be installed from telescoping boom lifts. While the Anderson Collection building’s ceiling
While scaffolding was eventually required to apply an geometry was complex, it had few interfaces with
acoustical plaster finish, use of lifts to install the suspension building elements other than perimeter. The same

STEEL FRAMING | the construction specifier E-BOOK 15

 The curved exterior walls of the
National Center for Civil and
Human Rights (NCCHR) in Atlanta
symbolize arms linked in unity,
and variation in cladding panels
represent diversity of humans.
Photo © Gene Phillips Photography
For the NCCHR in Atlanta, CFS studs lean inward from bottom to top,
and are inclined to various degrees left and right. While the resulting
ruled surface is intuitively elegant, curved framing members might have
simplified installation, connections, and window openings.
Photo courtesy Principle Partners
cannot be said for exterior wall framing of the recently
completed National Center for Civil and Human Rights
(NCCHR) in Atlanta, designed by The Freelon Group
(now part of Perkins+Will) in collaboration with HOK
as architect of record. The museum’s exterior walls have
compound curvatures, lean inward from bottom to top,
and interface with fenestration and curving floor and
roof decks.
The A/E designed the walls as ‘ruled’ surfaces—that is,
one that can be generated by straight lines.6 In theory,
this should have made it simple to build with linear
studs. However, to conform to the complex geometry,
studs had to be installed out of plumb, and the degree
and direction of inclination varied from stud to stud.
Combined with walls’ inward tilt, this meant gravity and
wind loads, along with deflection of superstructure,
had to be resolved as forces acting both axially and
perpendicularly to double-leaning studs. For example,
each connection at intermediate floor levels required a
unique hot-rolled steel bracket for studs to lean against
in addition to normal stand-off clips.
Faced with the complexity, framing contractor
Principle Partners retained the SME to model the
16 the construction specifier E-BOOK | STEEL FRAMING
structure, establish X-Y-Z coordinates, and assist
with installation.
While the project was executed with the straight
framing members the architect envisioned, SME
determined installation could have been simplified by
using curved CFS framing members instead of straight
studs. Curved studs could be installed plumb to
resist gravity loads without the customized brackets.
Eliminating the brackets and simplifying labor would
more than offset the cost of curving the studs.
Window openings would also be simplified because
the hot-rolled steel used to frame openings could be
replaced by conventional CFS headers. The project had
advanced to the point, however, where it was impractical
to accept the proposed redesign.
This demonstrates why subject matter experts are
best brought onto project teams early in the design
process. According to the American Institute of
Architects’ (AIA’s) 2007 Integrated Project Delivery:
A Guide, this:
allows the designer to benefit from the early contribution
of constructors’ expertise during the design phase,
such as accurate budget estimates to inform design
decisions and the pre-construction resolution of design-
related issues resulting in improved project quality and
financial performance.
Panelization
The SME was also able to expedite construction by
panelizing a multi-faceted suspended ceiling that
zigzagged above the NCCHR’s 230-m2 (2500-sf) events
space. The installer initially hired the consultant just
to prepare shop drawings for the complex framing.
However, as the deadline for the museum’s opening
drew nearer, the general contractor determined either
scaffolding to assemble framing in-place or fabricating
the ceiling on the floor would have interfered with
other activities to be performed in the building.
The light weight of light-gage framing made it
simple to transport and handle panelized elements.
Panels as long as 9 m (30 ft) were light enough to be
carried into the building as needed, and then quickly lifted into
place with two or three scissor lifts (depending on configuration).
Conclusion
The success of each of these projects was a team effort that
included an A/E to establish vision, a contractor to execute
that vision, and an SME to provide specialized expertise. This
type of three-way relationship is relatively new in the light-
gage steel industry, but well-established in many other aspects of
construction. With precast concrete, for example, the architect
or engineer of record will specify loads and performance criteria
for structure, but design of actual members is delegated to
specialist consultants and fabricators.
As mentioned, the SME could be one of a number of parties,
ranging from vendors and consultants to suppliers, as defined
in the project documents. However the team is put together,
SMEs can be said to fill the role of the guilds that built the
Gothic structures referenced at beginning of article—applying
the art and science of their trade toward making great
architecture. cs
Notes
1
While steel decking and many other products are cold-formed
steel, this article primarily addresses framing elements such as
C-shaped studs and joists, angles, channels, and other products
also referred to as ‘light-gage’ framing members.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Authors
Chuck Mears, FAIA, is CEO and chief design officer of Radius
Track, a firm specializing in engineering and fabrication of curved
and complex cold-formed steel (CFS) framing tools and systems.
He can be reached at chuck@radiustrack.com.
Ryan Rademacher, AIA, is design director at Radius Track. He
uses building information modeling (BIM) and parametric design
to integrate digital fabrication with artisanal craft. He can be
reached at ryan@radiustrack.com.
Sheri Carter, AIA, is the marketing manager at Radius Track.
She has a master’s degree in architecture from the
University of Buffalo and was in architectural practice before
moving into building product sales and marketing. Carter
leads the firm’s efforts in product development, sustainable
design, and continuing education. She can be reached at
sheri@radiustrack.com.
Michael Chusid, RA, FCSI, CCS, started his career working for
a cold-formed steel framing manufacturer in 1978. He has been
a marketing and technical consultant to many firms in the
industry since then. He can be reached at michael@chusid.com.
Abstract
Light-gage steel framing can satisfy contemporary architectural
needs for curved and complex surfaces. Arcs, splines, ellipses,
free-form 3D ruled surfaces, and compound shapes can be
2
Under American Institute of Architects (AIA) A201-2007,
General Conditions of the Contract for Construction, Section
3.12.10, the contractor can hire a licensed design professional
to provide professional services when “specifically required by
the Contract Documents for a portion of the Work ... or ... to
provide such services in order to carry out the Contractor’s
responsibilities for construction means, methods, techniques,
sequences and procedures.”
3
See the article, “Steel Studs: A Buyers Guide to Certification
Programs,” which appeared in the July 2013 issue of AWCI’s
Construction Dimensions.
4
The 2012 International Building Code (IBC) requirements
include Section 2210–Cold-formed Steel and Section 2211–
Cold-formed Light-frame Construction. These reference the
2012 revisions to AISI S100, North American Cold-formed Steel
Specification for the Design of Cold-formed Steel Structural
Members, and AISI S200, North American Standard for Cold-
formed Steel Framing, series of standards.
5
For more information, visit the websites of the Certified
Steel Stud Association (CSSA), Steel Stud Manufacturers
Association (SSMA), and Steel Framing Industry Association
(SFIA) at www.certifiedsteelstud.com, www.ssma.com, and
www.steelframingassociation.org, respectively.
6
Ruled surfaces include conic sections, hyperbolic paraboloids,
some hyperboloids, and helicoids. Segments from these surfaces
can be combined to create even more complex assemblies.
used for interior and exterior walls, ceilings, and other structures.
This article discusses design of curved and complex surfaces,
use of 3D and building information modeling (BIM), prefabrication
and jobsite fabrication techniques, structural considerations, and
guidelines for coordinating curved and complex surfaces with
finishes and other related work.
MasterFormat No.
05 40 00−Cold-formed Metal Framing
09 22 00−Supports for Plaster and Gypsum Board
09 53 00−Ceiling Suspension Assemblies
09 53 13−Curved Profile Ceiling Suspension Assemblies
UniFormat No.
B1010−Floor Structural Frame
B1020−Roof Structural Frame
B2010−Exterior Wall Construction
C1010−Interior Fixed Partitions
C1070−Suspended Ceiling Construction
Key Words
Divisions 05, 09 Curves
BIM Framing
Ceiling Panelization
Cold-formed steel Walls
STEEL FRAMING | the construction specifier E-BOOK 17
 Steel Framing

Part Three
Navigating Non-structural Metal Framing

BY LARRY NORDIN, CSI, CDT, AIA

18 the construction specifier E-BOOK | STEEL FRAMING

 by Larry Nordin, CSI, CDT, AIA
All photos courtesy Solomon Cordwell Buenz

Navigating
TO DEVISE THE BEST NON-STRUCTURAL
FRAMING SOLUTION, DESIGN
PROFESSIONALS MUST THOROUGHLY

Non-structural
ASSESS PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
AND CHOOSE PROPER MATERIALS.
HOWEVER, NAVIGATING THE PLETHORA

Metal
OF PRODUCTS, SUPPLIERS, AND
REQUIREMENTS IN THE INDUSTRY CAN
BE CHALLENGING.

Framing Defining the components of an interior gypsum

board partition may not be as simple as it seems.
To provide the most cost- and resource-effective
solution for non-structural framing—commonly
referred to as ‘metal studs’—many performance
requirements need to be evaluated for proper material
selection. Given the multitude products currently
available, this article navigates the various performance
requirements that may be required for metal studs.
Smooth, flat sheet metal has traditionally been used
to create non-structural metal framing conforming to
ASTM C 645, Standard Specification for Nonstructural
Steel Framing Members. However, metal framing
suppliers have developed innovative dimpled metal
products. By ‘dimpling’, the metal is work-hardened
to increase the steel’s strength and thus provide better
structural performance with a thinner gage metal.
This thinner metal also uses fewer natural resources
than its traditional counterpart. Major suppliers
have transitioned to only producing dimpled stud
products, but traditional metal framing is still available.

Limiting heights
An initial criterion for non-structural metal framing
selection is limiting height. The gage and width of
the metal stud provide structural properties that
can determine span limits. Generally, 240-Pa (5-psf)
lateral loads with a deflection limit of L/240 (i.e. the
loading requirements) are applied to a typical interior
partition to determine limiting heights.
The gypsum board used to construct the partition
enhances span capabilities through composite action
with the non-structural framing. The gypsum board’s
thickness and number of layers can also affect span.
ASTM C 754, Standard Specification for Installation
of Steel Framing Members to Receive Screw-attached
Gypsum Panel Products, has limiting height charts
for the typical non-structural metal framing sizes.

STEEL FRAMING | the construction specifier E-BOOK 19


Non-structural
metal framing
at chase
wall—note
the temporary
screws at the
top track.
The charts by ASTM, as well as the Steel Stud
Manufacturers Association (SSMA), only list the
limiting spans for one layer of gypsum board on
both sides of the partition. If partitions have more
than one layer—and increased spans are desired—the
metal framing manufacturer must be contacted for the
enhanced spanning capabilities. Design professionals
should not rely on the charts from the gypsum
board manufacturer unless he or she has verified
the information with the metal framing supplier.
Chase-type partitions have two rows of metal
framing. Per ASTM C 754, if the two rows are not
more than 508 mm (20 in.) apart, they can be
connected—in this case, the limiting height would
be based on the ASTM C 754 chart for wider metal
stud in the chase with gypsum board on both sides.
This span is conservative. For comparison, take a
chase partition with 41-mm (1 5⁄8-in.), 25-gage
metal framing at 406 mm (16 in.) on center (oc)—
in this case, ASTM allows a limiting height of 2.5 m
(8 ft, 4 in.), whereas the commonly used gypsum
board supplier’s charts permit 4 m (131⁄4 in.).
One dimpled stud manufacturer stated its product,
in the same conditions, has a limiting height of
3.2 m (10 1⁄2 ft) with 20-gage equivalent studs. When
defining metal framing in a chase-type partition,
coordination is required with the specification
regarding the type of stud (e.g. smooth or dimpled)
and with the manufacturers.
Furring-type partitions typically have gypsum board
on one side only, and can be braced to the structure
20 the construction specifier E-BOOK | STEEL FRAMING
behind them. On some occasions, a freestanding
partition with gypsum board on one side only is needed
for enhanced acoustical separation between two
spaces. ASTM C 754 and the SSMA limiting height
charts do not have information on freestanding walls
with gypsum on one side only. The limiting heights
of these partitions need to be calculated based on the
product to be employed.
Resilient channels (RCs) can enhance the partition’s
acoustical properties. These are installed between the
metal framing and gypsum board. A requirement in
the composite action limiting height tables indicates
fastening of the gypsum board to the metal framing
should occur at a minimum of 305 mm (12 in.) oc.
Installation of the resilient channels interrupts the
composite action between the metal framing and
gypsum sheathing, and reduces the interior partition’s
span capability. For accurate results, non-composite
limiting height tables should be used when including
resilient channels.
If design professionals prefer not to utilize limiting
height charts, a metal framing supplier can provide
information to allow selection of the most cost-
effective and space-saving product. One supplier
offers a software program for checking stud gages
for project conditions. However, as this program is
supplier-specific, others may not agree with the results.
A designer may also have a structural engineer
calculate the limiting heights, although this practice
is costly and still does not consider the variation
among manufacturers’ products and potential
installation efficiencies. Specifications could also be
written as performance-based sizing of members
similar to how cold-formed metal framing specs are
occasionally done—however, the non-structural
framing industry is not accustomed to this practice.
Fire rating
Most projects have interior partitions that require
a fire rating. Traditionally, the Underwriters
Laboratories (UL) rating system for partitions has
been based on the gypsum board supplier working
with an ASTM metal framing product. Since the
introduction of dimpled studs, many UL systems have
been updated to include some of these materials.
New UL systems, based on dimpled metal framing
with multiple gypsum board products, have also
been created.
To document interior partition fire ratings in
Chicago, permit documents are required to provide
laboratory-tested system information for fire-rated
partitions. However, the partition materials may
Marino/Ware designed FrameRite Connectors to significantly reduce time, labor, materials
and costs. FrameRite Connectors facilitate quicker, more cost-effective installation which
make them the best tools for the trade.

Less Cost Bridging Clips Slide Clips

Less Time Rigid Clips Joist Hangers
Load Rated Clip Angles Sound Clips
Framing at tall lobby ceiling. Framing at chase wall in residential kitchen.
have not been finalized through the shop drawing
submittal. Often, the fire-rated system listed in the permit
documents is changed depending on the different
suppliers to be used on the project. The design team
needs to know that these suppliers will provide the
intended fire ratings as required for the particular
project. Consequently, submittals are necessary to
support the revised fire-rated test systems.
Other performance requirements
In addition to limiting heights and fire ratings, other
performance requirements should be considered.
Runner channel
The metal stud framing spans the bottom and upper
tracks. The bottom track is usually a standard product
of U-shaped configuration with the metal thickness
matching that of the stud. The top track can have
multiple configurations to allow the building structure
to deflect without damaging the framing.
Common deflection configurations include double,
slotted, and long-leg deflection tracks. The amount
of deflection varies in each structure. The top track’s
gage depends on the load imposed by the metal framing
(based on its span and spacing). A single long-leg
deflection top track is typically 20 gage, but can require
a greater thickness depending on wall height and
additional imposed lateral loads.1
Openings
Door and framed openings require consideration and
are good locations for control joints. This framing
has to factor opening size and additional lateral
loads. While framed openings have the additional lateral
22 the construction specifier E-BOOK | STEEL FRAMING
load from the wall above, door openings experience
an impact load from the door closing.
At door locations, gypsum board manufacturers
offer differing recommendations that require thicker
gage studs, lateral bracing, or other methods to address
these issues. However, this advice should come from
metal framing suppliers, as their product provides the
structural component. For openings more than 1.2 m
(4 ft) wide, especially in full height walls with large
duct penetrations, design/construction professionals
should ask the supplier to provide calculations for
these conditions.
Finish material
As mentioned, the common deflection performance
criterion is L/240. This works for a typical painted
interior partition. Those with special finishes, such
as tile, may require stiffer criteria—large-format tile
usually has a deflection criterion of L/360. One partition
type and metal framing should be employed in the
large-format tile areas of a wall, while a different type
could potentially be used at other locations.
Acoustical
Another performance criterion is acoustical separation.
Acoustical engineers indicate that the fewer studs in
the wall and the thinner the stud gage, the better the
wall’s acoustical performance. From the non-structural
framing supplier’s viewpoint, for a single row of metal
framing, the least amount of material should be used
(i.e. fewer studs and thinnest gage).
Consulting an acoustical engineer can help determine
the preferred solution regarding size, spacing, and gage
of framing to be used at acoustically sensitive walls.
 The QuickFrame Rough Opening System streamlines installation by reducing the
number of components required to frame windows and doors. QuickFrame allows for
quicker, more cost-effective installation which makes it the best tool for the trade.

Increased Performance Eliminates Built-up Jambs Predrilled Holes

Less Weight Eliminates Built-up Headers Precut Lengths
Fewer Pieces 50% Labor Reduction One Piece Clips

STEEL FRAMING | the construction specifier E-BOOK 23

Framing at a residential unit. Note the manufacturer designations on the studs.
Additional loads
Per ASTM C 645, Section 3.2.2, non-structural
framing is metal framing that supports a vertical load
not greater than 1460 N/m (100 lb/ft) and 90 kg
(200 lb) per stud.
Items such as closet hanging rods, wall cabinets in
kitchens, flat-screen televisions, and grab bars in
restrooms are typically supported by metal framing.
These wall-supported items may be on one side, or
both sides of a wall.
If located on one side, an eccentric load is placed
on the metal framing and top runner channel. If the
additional loads are on both sides of the wall, twice
the load is applied to the metal framing. It should be
noted a wall-mounted flat-screen television should
also be evaluated for the potential acoustical vibrations
passed directly to the partition.
Special conditions
In the Chicago high-rise residential market, branch
lines for fire sprinkler systems are occasionally routed
through metal framing. This routing is accomplished
with prefabricated, U-shaped cutouts at the top of
the metal framing to allow the pipe to pass through
the studs.
Installation begins with the top track, followed by
the branch sprinkler line, and then the prefabricated
metal framing with the cutout around the branch
pipe. In this special condition, the non-structural
metal framing manufacturer needs to engineer and
confirm the framing’s performance requirements
are maintained.
24 the construction specifier E-BOOK | STEEL FRAMING
Conclusion
The industry has many providers of interior partition
components. They are roughly separated into non-
structural framing suppliers and manufacturers of
gypsum and tile backer boards. Each of these two
groups offers different products. Gypsum board
suppliers publish limiting height charts, but some
are outdated. The variation between products from
the gypsum side and the metal framing arena can
unfortunately go on to create some discrepancies
and gaps in the system performance information.
Multiple factors need to be evaluated to select the
appropriate non-structural framing. Elements that
determine the size, spacing, and gage of the non-
structural framing vary from the normal deflection
and loading criteria, to the ancillary loading from
items such as large flat panel televisions and kitchen
wall cabinets. Higher deflection criteria is required
for large-format tile areas. Head runner track gages
must be calculated, especially at locations of tall walls.
In the submittal requirements for projects, this
author’s firm requires a certificate indicating the
manufacturer has reviewed the project documents,
and the framing supplied conforms to the
requirements listed. Additionally, it needs a chart
listing the partition types, manufacturer products
used, the associated UL fire rating system, and the
limiting height. This author’s firm is also starting
to utilize a partial performance specification for
limited areas, such as determining the gage of studs
at kitchens with wall cabinets and wall-reinforcing
locations at grab bars.
 Long-leg
deflection track.
Note the gaps
The above photo shows framing at chase wall; direct- at intersections
attached furring on concrete wall. It is important to note to allow gypsum
the gap at intersection of furring and framing to allow board to pass
the gypsum wallboard to pass. through.

Although most non-structural framing in a project
could be determined by the architect, some areas
require special attention. In large, mixed-use
facilities with multiple floor-to-floor heights and
varying conditions and performance requirements,
employing performance-based specifications should
be evaluated. Architects can define performance
criteria and provide a rough size of the framing,
but the final calculations and requirements should
be developed in a shop drawing so construction
crews can install the most cost-effective material
in the appropriate locations. For any project, the
metal framing supplier is in the best position to
determine the most cost- and resource-effective
solution, and thus, a performance-based specification
could be evaluated for use. cs
Notes
1
For more information, see “Single Deflection Track
Selection,” in Steel Stud Manufacturers Association’s
(SSMA’s) Industry Technical Note Cold Formed Steel
Construction. Visit www.ssma.com/documents/tn01.pdf.

» ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Authors
Larry Nordin, CSI, CDT, AIA, is associate principal at performance requirements—such as limiting heights, fire
Solomon Cordwell Buenz (SCB). He has worked in the ratings, and acoustical separation—need to be assessed
construction industry since 1985, becoming a licensed to choose the proper materials.
architect in 1991. Nordin has been at SCB for more
than a decade, and has worked on multi-use high- MasterFormat No.
rise projects in Chicago, as well as various low-rise 09 22 16–Non-structural Metal Framing
commercial and public facilities. He can be contacted
via e-mail at larry.nordin@scb.com. UniFormat No.
C1010–Partitions
Abstract
Innovative ‘dimpled’ metal products offer increased steel Key Words
strength, enabling better structural performance with Division 09
a thinner gage metal. They also require fewer natural Dimpled studs
resources than the more traditional smooth, flat sheet Gypsum board
metal used for non-structural framing. To determine Limiting height
the optimal solution for non-structural framing, many Non-structural metal framing

STEEL FRAMING | the construction specifier E-BOOK 25