energies

Article
Thermal Analysis of an Industrial Furnace
Mirko Filipponi 1, *, Federico Rossi 1 , Andrea Presciutti 1 , Stefania De Ciantis 1 ,
Beatrice Castellani 1 and Ambro Carpinelli 2
1 CIRIAF (Centro Interuniversitario di Ricerca sull’Inquinamento e sull’Ambiente),
Università degli Studi di Perugia, Via G. Duranti 67, 06125 Perugia, Italy; federico.rossi@unipg.it (F.R.);
andrea.presciutti@unipg.it (A.P.); stefaniadeciantis@gmail.com (S.D.C.); beatrice.castellani@unipg.it (B.C.)
2 Divisione Fucine di Acciai Speciali Terni, V.le B.Brin 218, 05100 Terni, Italy; ambro.carpinelli@acciaiterni.it
* Correspondence: mirko.filipponi@unipg.it; Tel.: +39-0744-492-969

Academic Editor: Francesco Asdrubali

Received: 17 May 2016; Accepted: 10 October 2016; Published: 18 October 2016

Abstract: Industries, which are mainly responsible for high energy consumption, need to invest in
research projects in order to develop new managing systems for rational energy use, and to tackle
the devastating effects of climate change caused by human behavior. The study described in this
paper concerns the forging industry, where the production processes generally start with the heating
of steel in furnaces, and continue with other processes, such as heat treatments and different forms
of machining. One of the most critical operations, in terms of energy loss, is the opening of the
furnace doors for insertion and extraction operations. During this time, the temperature of the
furnaces decreases by hundreds of degrees in a few minutes. Because the dispersed heat needs to
be supplied again through the combustion of fuel, increasing the consumption of energy and the
pollutant emissions, the evaluation of the amount of lost energy is crucial for the development of
systems which can contain this loss. To perform this study, CFD simulation software was used.
Results show that when the door opens, because of temperature and pressure differences between
the furnace and the ambient air, turbulence is created. Results also show that the amount of energy
lost for an opening of 10 min for radiation, convection and conduction is equal to 5606 MJ where
convection is the main contributor, with 5020 MJ. The model created, after being validated, has been
applied to perform other simulations, in order to improve the energy performance of the furnace.
Results show that reducing the opening time of the door saves energy and limits pollutant emissions.

Keywords: CFD simulation; industrial furnace; heat flux; forging industry; thermal analysis

1. Introduction
Global carbon dioxide emissions reduction is becoming a key target for government policies,
which is resulting in a reduction of fossil fuel usage [1]. Global greenhouse gases are produced by
several economic activities, mainly electricity generation, heat production and industry activities [2],
as well as agriculture and breeding [3], transportation [4], buildings [5] and fuel extraction,
processing and transportation [6].
Greenhouse gas emissions from industry primarily involve fossil fuels burned on-site at facilities
for producing energy, and the iron and steel industry is among the top five most energy-intensive
industry sectors, as reported in the Energy Technology Perspectives 2014 [7]. The main challenge for
this sector is lowering energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions and pollutant emissions [8].
Iron and steel industries need to invest resources to limit their environmental footprint. The most
used methods to determine energy consumption and efficiency of the production processes involved,
are numerical thermal simulations and Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) [9,10].
Most of the works reported in the literature refer to walking beam furnaces and have the objective
of predicting the temperature distribution in the slabs, which plays a major role in the quality of the

Energies 2016, 9, 833; doi:10.3390/en9100833 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2016, 9, 833 2 of 13

final product, and the heating efficiency of the furnace [11–17]. Most of these works have relied on
mathematical models, since experiments are quite difficult to perform due to the large size of real
furnaces, limited physical access and the harsh environmental conditions of the furnace [18].
A recent and interesting work about the modeling of a conjugate heat transfer and fluid flows
inside an industrial furnace with a CFD software, has been done [19]. The study presents a model able
to simulate the heat transfer flow of convection, conduction and radiation in a 3D furnace with the
presence of six conducting steel solids [20].
Instead, this paper focuses on the thermal analysis of a forging furnace, and discusses the results
of joint research between the University of Perugia and Divisione Fucine di Acciai Speciali Terni (SdF),
a worldwide leader in the steel forging industry.
At SdF the forged products are obtained through a production process, which involves furnaces
and presses. Generally several cycles of heating and machinery are needed to achieve the right
geometry. However these processes generate internal stresses and defects that compromise the
products’ quality. For this reason, the forged steel is subjected to other thermal and finishing treatments
to release stresses, modify the molecular structure and improve the quality and performance of the
final materials.
From several analyses made in SdF, it has emerged that the overuse of the furnaces throughout
the production processes is one of the main factors responsible for the high energy consumption.
An improvement of their energy efficiency would allow the company to reduce pollutant emissions,
save energy and decrease the cost of the final product.
All the furnaces in SdF are fueled with natural gas but differ from each other in their dimensions,
number of burners, refractory properties and so on. It is, however, possible to classify them into
two main categories. The heat treatment furnaces that are generally turned off when the processing is
finished, and the forging furnaces which are always turned on at maximum temperature, and are used
for the heating of the ingots. The continuous operation of the forging furnaces is the main contributory
reason for the high energy consumption, since a continuous energy supply is required to compensate
the energy loss during the furnace opening and maintain the operating temperature conditions.
A typical insertion/extraction operation starts with the opening of the furnace door,
continues with the movement of an extractable bogie hearth, then the positioning or the picking
up of the products by means of an overhead travelling crane, and finally finishing with the insertion of
the bogie hearth and the door closing. The time necessary to perform these operations depends on
many factors, such as the dimensions of the ingots, the maneuvering time, the presence of faults and
so on. From the analysis of the data available to SdF, it emerged that the time varies from about 10 min
up to 1 h. In this time interval the furnace temperature decreases by hundreds of degrees, from 300 ◦ C
for brief openings, up to 700 ◦ C for longer openings.
To the best of our knowledge, in the literature there are no other studies on the assessment of the
thermal behavior of forging furnaces during transient insertion and extraction periods, even though
the evaluation of energy losses and other parameters, such as the velocity and the directions of the
gases, represents a valid decisional instrument to reduce energy consumption. The complexity of
the phenomena that occur in real conditions makes difficult to analyse the study where conduction,
convection and radiation occur concurrently [21]. For this reason, the present paper discusses the
results of three dimensional transient simulations, done with CFD Software, of a forging furnace,
considering a total opening time of 10 min. The first simulation was done with a lifting time of
the door of 157 s, which represents the real operating condition of the furnace in SdF. The model
created was then validated through an experimental test carried out in SdF with the same operating
condition applied to the model. Successively, in order to improve the energy efficiency of the furnace,
two other simulations with a different door opening speed were conducted and in this paper discussed.
In particular, an opening time of 40 s and 60 s were considered. The results obtained were also used to
determine the carbon footprint of the process.
Energies 2016, 9, 833 3 of 13

Energies 2016, 9, 833 3 of 13

2. Model Settings
2. Model
The modelSettings
creation started with the drawing of the geometry and its discretization through
a meshing process. It continued
The model creation started with thedrawing
with the definition of geometry
of the the simulation
and its setup, and ended
discretization with
through a the
analyses of the
meshing resultsIt[22].
process. continued with the definition of the simulation setup, and ended with the
analyses of the results [22].
2.1. Geometry Creation
2.1. Geometry Creation
The geometry of this case of study is composed only by the fluid domains involved in the heat
fluxes and Thebygeometry of this
the furnace case of
door. study
Since is composed
the furnace isonly by the
under fluid domains
operating involved
conditions whenin the
theheat
door is
fluxes and by the furnace door. Since the furnace is under operating conditions when the door is
lifted up, and all the burners are turned off, the model can be created with a very clean geometry,
lifted up, and all the burners are turned off, the model can be created with a very clean geometry,
without drawing components that do not influence the motion of the fluid and the heat fluxes.
without drawing components that do not influence the motion of the fluid and the heat fluxes. In
In Figure
Figure1 1two
twoparticulars
particulars of
of the
the geometry createdare
geometry created areshown,
shown, specifically
specifically the the position
position offurnace
of the the furnace
geometry is considered from one corner of the entire domain to enable the complete view
geometry is considered from one corner of the entire domain to enable the complete view of the model.of the model.

(a) (b)

Figure 1. Geometry used for the simulation: (a) The entire domain considered for the analysis,
Figure 1. Geometry used for the simulation: (a) The entire domain considered for the analysis,
consisting of a fluid domain of the furnace enclosed in another fluid domain which represents the
consisting of a fluid domain of the furnace enclosed in another fluid domain which represents the
ambient air; (b) Particular of the geometry where the fluid domain of the furnace is shown in grey,
ambient air; (b) Particular of the geometry where the fluid domain of the furnace is shown in grey,
while the door is showed in blue.
while the door is showed in blue.
The furnace is 4.7 m height × 6.9 m width × 18.55 m depth. These dimensions are relative to the
internal spaceisof4.7
The furnace them furnace,
heightwhich
× 6.9ismthe space×occupied
width 18.55 mby the fluid.
depth. These Thedimensions
door has been aredrawn at ato the
relative
distance of 10 cm from the furnace border, since at the moment of opening it slides
internal space of the furnace, which is the space occupied by the fluid. The door has been drawn at in a horizontal
direction before being lifted up. This movement reduces friction between the door and the furnace
a distance of 10 cm from the furnace border, since at the moment of opening it slides in a horizontal
borders. The width and the height of the door are the same as the furnace, while the depth is 50 cm.
direction before being lifted up. This movement reduces friction between the door and the furnace
Finally the enclosure, which represents the ambient air outside the furnace, has been drawn with a
borders. Theof
distance width
20 m and
fromthethe height of the of
upper surface door
the are the same
furnace, as the
1 m from thefurnace,
lower andwhile the depth
back surfaces, is 550 cm.
and
Finally the enclosure,
m from which represents
the lateral surfaces. The followingtheTable
ambient airthe
1 shows outside the furnace,
dimensions has components.
of the model been drawn with
a distance of 20 m from the upper surface of the furnace, 1 m from the lower and back surfaces, and 5 m
Table 1.Table
from the lateral surfaces. The following Model1components
shows thedimensions.
dimensions of the model components.
Component Height (m) Width (m) Depth (m)
Table 1. Model components dimensions.
Furnace 6.9 4.7 18.55
Door 6.9 4.7 0.5
Component
Enclosure Height
25.7 (m) Width
16.9(m) Depth30.06
(m)
Furnace 6.9 4.7 18.55
The representation of Door 6.9
the furnace contained in an4.7 0.5 us to characterize the
enclosure, allows
Enclosure
motion of the fluids between 25.7the environment.
the furnace and 16.9 30.06

2.2. Meshing Process

The representation of the furnace contained in an enclosure, allows us to characterize the motion
To between
of the fluids guaranteethe
thefurnace
continuity
and between the two domains: furnace and the environment, a
the environment.
conformal mesh has been used (Figure 2a). Because the door does not influence significantly the heat
Energies 2016, 9, 833 4 of 13

2.2. Meshing Process

To guarantee the continuity between the two domains: furnace and the environment, a conformal
mesh has been2016,
Energies used (Figure 2a). Because the door does not influence significantly the heat fluxes,
9, 833 4 of 13 it has
not been subject to the meshing process, as it demonstrated by Figure 2b. In addition, being a transient
fluxes, it has not been subject to the meshing process, as it demonstrated by Figure 2b. In addition,
simulation with a dynamic mesh, the entire domain has been meshed with a tetrahedral mesh that
being a transient simulation with a dynamic mesh, the entire domain has been meshed with a
supports the operation
tetrahedral mesh thatof remeshing
supports theat every time
operation step. at every time step.
of remeshing

(a) (b)

Figure 2. Drawings of a meshed domain: (a) Representation of the entire domain meshed with a
Figure 2. Drawings of a meshed domain: (a) Representation of the entire domain meshed with
conformal method; (b) Particular of the meshed domain near the door which is not included in the
a conformal method; (b) Particular of the meshed domain near the door which is not included in the
meshing process.
meshing process.
2.3. Models for Convection and Radiation
2.3. Models for
To Convection and Radiation
model the turbulent flows which occur during the door opening, the Reynolds-Averaged
Navier-Stokes (RANS) approach was used. Recent studies demonstrate that it represents the most
To model the turbulent flows which occur during the door opening, the Reynolds-Averaged
commonly accepted model for turbulence modeling, especially for industrial applications [18]. This
Navier-Stokes
model is(RANS)
derived approach was used.ofRecent
from the formulation studiesk-ε
the standard demonstrate
model proposed that byit represents
Launder and the most
commonly accepted model for turbulence modeling, especially
Spalding which is based on two transport equations which includes the two variables of thefor industrial applications [18].
This model is derived
turbulent from (k),
kinetic energy theand
formulation
the turbulent ofdissipation
the standard k-ε
rate (ε) model
[23]. With theproposed
standardby k-ε Launder
model and
Spaldingit which
is possible to predict
is based on two thetransport
behavior of a flow inwhich
equations presence of turbulences
includes the two with high accuracy.
variables of the turbulent
However,
kinetic energy (k),theand
realizable k-ε model,
the turbulent developedrate
dissipation after(ε)the standard
[23]. With thek-ε model,
standard proposes a different
k-ε model it is possible
formulation giving more accurate results than the first one, for turbulent flows [24]. With the use of
to predict the behavior of a flow in presence of turbulences with high accuracy. However, the realizable
the “enhanced wall treatments” option, simplified formulas for turbulence quantities in the cells
k-ε model,
near developed
the wall are used.after the standard k-ε model, proposes a different formulation giving more
accurate results
For thethan the first
modeling of theone, for heat
radiative turbulent flows [24].
flux a preliminary Withabout
analysis the the
useconcentration
of the “enhanced
of the wall
treatments” option,
flue gases inside simplified
the chamber formulas for turbulence
of the furnace quantities
at the door opening has in thedone.
been cellsResults
near the wallthat
showed are used.
Forthe
theburners
modelingwork with
of the anradiative
excess of air avoiding
heat flux asoot formation. For
preliminary this reason,
analysis about thethe
assumption of an of the
concentration
optical thickness equal to zero was done and the model Surface to Surface has been used [25]. In this
flue gases inside the chamber of the furnace at the door opening has been done. Results showed that
model, the energy exchange between surfaces depends on their size and position with respect to the
the burners work with an excess of air avoiding soot formation. For this reason, the assumption of
others. The model considers these geometric factors through the computation of the view factors [26].
an optical thickness equalalso
The S2S model to zero was that
assumes donetheand the model
surfaces are gray Surface to Surface
and diffuse, and the has been used
emissivity and[25].
the In this
model, absorptivity
the energy do exchange
not depend between
on the surfaces
wavelength. depends
It is well onknown
their that
sizefor and theposition withthe
gray bodies, respect
total to the
energy
others. The incident
model (E) on a surface
considers is partly reflected
these geometric factors(ρE), partly the
through absorbed (αE) and partly
computation of thetransmitted
view factors [26].
The(τE).
S2SSince
model thisalso
model is oftenthat
assumes usedthewith opaqueare
surfaces surfaces
gray andto thermal
diffuse, radiation
and the in emissivity
the infraredand the
spectrum, the fraction of energy transmitted can be not considered. With these assumptions, from
absorptivity do not depend on the wavelength. It is well known that for the gray bodies, the total
the Kirchoff’s law [27] results that α + ρ + ε = 1, but α = ε, therefore ρ = 1 − ε [26].
energy incident (E) on a surface is partly reflected (ρE), partly absorbed (αE) and partly transmitted (τE).
Since this
2.4.model
Boundary isConditions
often used with opaque surfaces to thermal radiation in the infrared spectrum,
the fraction The
of energy
boundary transmitted
conditioncan at be
wallnot considered.
boundaries wasWithgiventhese
using assumptions, from thewall
Fluent’s “enhanced Kirchoff’s
law [27]treatment”
results that α + ρ + ε = 1, but α = ε, therefore ρ = 1 − ε [26].
which allows us to predict the flows in the near-wall region where laminar and turbulent
flows are blended [28]. The boundary and cell conditions given for the initial time were provided by
2.4. Boundary
SdF, in Conditions
particular the temperature of the furnace is at the operating condition of 1500 K, while the
ambient temperature is at 300 K. The pressure is set at 101,325 Pa for the environment and an over
Thepressure
boundary condition at wall boundaries was given using Fluent’s “enhanced wall treatment”
of 40 Pa respect to the ambience, for the furnace.
which allows us to predict the flows in the near-wall region where laminar and turbulent flows are
blended [28]. The boundary and cell conditions given for the initial time were provided by SdF,
Energies 2016, 9, 833 5 of 13

in particular the temperature of the furnace is at the operating condition of 1500 K, while the ambient
temperature is at 300 K. The pressure is set at 101,325 Pa for the environment and an over pressure of
40 Pa respect to the ambience, for the furnace.
Energies 2016, 9, 833 5 of 13
2.5. Dynamic Mesh
2.5. Dynamic Mesh
The use of a dynamic mesh allowed us to do a transient simulation with the movement of the
The use of
door. Through thea use
dynamic
of themesh allowed
first-order us to do difference
backward a transient formula
simulation withpossible
it was the movement of thethe
to calculate
door. Through the use of the first-order backward difference formula it was possible to calculate the
conservative energy equation for each time step, considering two steps concurrently [29]. For the
conservative energy equation for each time step, considering two steps concurrently [29]. For the
motion of the door, a profile has been defined and applied. In particular, the door has been set as
motion of the door, a profile has been defined and applied. In particular, the door has been set as a
a “rigid body” using the profile for motion, while the adjacent cells have been set as “deforming” with
“rigid body” using the profile for motion, while the adjacent cells have been set as “deforming” with
the application of remeshing and smoothing methods.
the application of remeshing and smoothing methods.
2.6. Control Surfaces
2.6. Control Surfaces
In order to monitor and evaluate the fluid motion, and the heat fluxes that occur during the
In order to monitor and evaluate the fluid motion, and the heat fluxes that occur during the
opening of the door, three control surfaces were created. As shown in Figure 3a the first surface A,
opening of the door, three control surfaces were created. As shown in Figure 3a the first surface A,
having
having dimensions
dimensionsequal equaltoto6.9
6.9mm× × 4.7 m, has
4.7 m, has been
beenpositioned
positionedinincorrespondence
correspondence of of
thethe exit
exit of of
thethe
gases from the furnace. This surface allows us to quantify the amount of the total
gases from the furnace. This surface allows us to quantify the amount of the total convective flow convective flow that
leaves
that leaves the furnace during all the transient time considered. As it is intuitive to expect that thehot
the furnace during all the transient time considered. As it is intuitive to expect that the
gases
hot leaving the furnace
gases leaving tend totend
the furnace move upwards,
to move passing
upwards, through
passing the space
through between
the space the door
between the and
doorthe
edge of the furnace formed because the scrolling of the door, a new surface B was
and the edge of the furnace formed because the scrolling of the door, a new surface B was created. created. This surface
with dimensions
This surface with 6.9 m × 0.1ofm6.9
ofdimensions is shown
m × 0.1 in Figure
m is shown 3b.inTo capture
Figure thecapture
3b. To flows deflected
the flows in the other
deflected
directions the last
in the other control the
directions surface
last C was positioned
control surface C behind the door behind
was positioned with a larger dimension
the door than the
with a larger
dimension
others of 6.3 m × the
than 9.2 mothers of 6.3
(Figure m×
3c). 9.2 orientation
The m, (Figure 3c). Thegeometry
of the orientationinofthe
thefigures
geometryhas in the chosen
been figures to
has abeen
show chosen
clear view toof show a clear view
the surfaces of the surfaces created.
created.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure
Figure 3. 3.The three
The three control
control surfaces
surfaces created
created forfor
thethe evaluation
evaluation of the
of the convective
convective flowflow in different
in different zones:
zones: (a) Control surface A positioned in correspondence of the exit of the gases from the furnace;
(a) Control surface A positioned in correspondence of the exit of the gases from the furnace; (b) Control
(b) Control surface B created in the upper section between the door and the furnace edge; (c) Control
surface B created in the upper section between the door and the furnace edge; (c) Control surface C
surface C created outside the door.
created outside the door.

3. Results
3. Results
The period of 10 min from the opening of the door with a time step of 0.1 s was considered. In
The period
particular, of 10
the first min fromrelated
simulation, the opening of operating
to the real the door with a time
condition step
of the of 0.1 in
furnace s was considered.
the plant with
In aparticular, the first simulation, related to the real operating condition of the
complete opening in 157 s, was conducted and validated through an experimental test done in the furnace in the plant
with a complete opening
real furnace in SdF. in 157 s, was conducted and validated through an experimental test done in
the real furnace in SdF.
3.1. Fluids Behavior
3.1. Fluids Behavior
The first parameter monitored with the simulation was the maximum temperature reached on
the twofirst
The parameter
control monitored
surfaces B and C with
duringthethe
simulation
opening.wasThisthe maximum
trend is shown temperature
in Figure 4reached
where itonisthe
two controltosurfaces
possible see that B and
the C during
highest the opening.
temperature This trend
is registered is shown
on surface in Figure
B, which 4 where
reaches it of
values is about
possible
to 1200
see that the ahighest
K after temperature
few seconds is registered
from opening and then ondecreases,
surface B,reaching
which reaches values
values of 800 K.ofInstead,
about 1200the K
maximum
after temperature
a few seconds registered
from opening on then
and surface C starts from
decreases, the ambient
reaching values of value,
800 K.upInstead,
to values ofmaximum
the around
700 K.
temperature registered on surface C starts from the ambient value, up to values of around 700 K.
Energies 2016, 9, 833 6 of 13
Energies 2016, 9, 833 6 of 13
Energies 2016, 9, 833 6 of 13

Energies 2016, 9, 833 6 of 13

Figure
Figure 4. 4.
TheThe trendofofthe
trend themaximum
maximum temperature
temperature reached
reachedin
inthe
thesurface
surfaceBBand
andC C
during thethe
during 157157
s ofs of
Figure
the 4. opening.
door The trend of the maximum temperature reached in the surface B and C during the 157 s of
the door opening.
the door opening.
The values of the max temperature registered in the two surfaces depend on the motion of the fluid
TheThevalues
values ofofthe
themax
max temperature
temperature registeredin inthe
thetwotwosurfaces
surfacesdepend
depend on
thethe motion of the fluid
leaving the furnace.
Figure 4. TheFor example
trend Figureregistered
of the maximum 5temperature
shows a sequence
reached inof thevelocity
surface Bvectors
onfrom
and C during
motion
the157
the
of the
initial fluid
s of time, up
leaving
leaving the
to 1 s. This furnace.
thethe
furnace.
sequence For
For example Figure
exampledemonstrates
of frames 5 shows
Figure 5 shows a
howa the sequence
sequence
hot gases of velocity
of velocity
inside the vectors
vectors from
frommove
chamber the
the initial initial
upwardstime,andtime,
up
door opening.
uptoto1 1s.s.
leave the This
This sequence
sequence
furnace of the
frames
of frames
through demonstrates
demonstrates
upper howahow
section with the thegases
hot
velocity hot
thatgases
inside
reachesinside
the theMeanwhile,
12chamber
m/s. chamber move
move upwards upwards
and
the external
andair,leave
leave atthe the
Thefurnace
furnace
ambient values of through
through themoves
the max
temperature, thetowards
upper upper
section
temperature section
with inwith
a velocity
registered
the furnace athat
thethrough
two velocity
reaches
surfaces that reaches
12 m/s.
depend
the bottom on 12 m/s.
Meanwhile,
the
section.motion theMeanwhile,
of the external
fluid
the at leaving
external
air, ambient the
air, atfurnace.
ambient
temperature, Fortemperature,
example Figure moves
moves towards 5 shows a sequence
towards
the furnace of velocity
the
through furnace vectors
the bottom throughfromthe
section.the bottom
initial time, up
section.
to 1 s. This sequence of frames demonstrates how the hot gases inside the chamber move upwards and
leave the furnace through the upper section with a velocity that reaches 12 m/s. Meanwhile, the external
air, at ambient temperature, moves towards the furnace through the bottom section.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 5. Sequence of the velocity vectors at different time at the exit of the furnace: (a) Velocity
Figure
Figure 5. 5.
vectors atSequence
0 s; (b)
Sequence of of
thethe
(a)Velocity velocity
vectors
velocity atvectors atVelocity
0.5 s;at(c)
vectors different
different time
vectors
(b) time at
at the
at the s. exit
1exit of furnace:
of the the furnace:
(c) (a) Velocity
(a) Velocity vectors
vectors at 0 s; (b) Velocity vectors at 0.5 s; (c) Velocity vectors at 1 s.
at 0 s; (b) Velocity
Figure vectorsofatthe
5. Sequence 0.5velocity
s; (c) Velocity
vectors at vectors at time
different 1 s. at the exit of the furnace: (a) Velocity
Continuing
vectors atthe
0 s;anlyses of the
(b) Velocity fluid
vectors dynamics
at 0.5 of the
s; (c) Velocity model,
vectors at 1 s.it can be observed from Figure 6 that
Continuing
the hot the anlyses
gases which cannot of bethe fluid dynamics
released from the upperof the model,
section,itarecanrecalled
be observed from Figure
downwards, 6 thata
forming
the
Continuing
hot gases
the anlyses
whichwhen cannot
of released
the fluidfrom
be meet
dynamics
thecoming
upper
of the model,
section,
it can bedownwards,
observed from Figure 6
convective Continuing
motion the anlyses
they of thethe
fluid dynamics
cold air of the from
model, it are recalled
can be
outside. observed from Figure forming
6 that a
that the hot
convective gases
the hotmotion which
whencannot
gases which cannot
they meet be released
the cold
be released fromairthefrom
coming the
upperfrom upper
outside.
section, section, are recalled downwards,
are recalled downwards, forming a
formingconvective
a convective
motion motion when
when they they
meet themeet
cold airthecoming
cold air
fromcoming
outside.from outside.

(a) (a) (b)(b)

(a) (b)
Figure 6. Velocity
Figure vectors
6. Velocity of the
vectors gases
of the gasesfor
foran
anopening of 33cm:
opening of cm:(a)
(a)Velocity
Velocity vectors
vectors andand formation
formation of of
Figure 6. Velocity vectors of the gases for an opening of 3 cm: (a) Velocity vectors and formation of
Figure 6. Velocity
convective
convective motion; vectors
motion;
(b) (b) of the gases
Particular
Particular ofof for an opening
convective
convective motionof
motion at3the
at cm:
the (a) Velocity
bottom
bottom ofof
thethe vectors
furnace.and formation of
furnace.
convective motion; (b) Particular of convective motion at the bottom of the furnace.
convective motion; (b) Particular of convective motion at the bottom of the furnace.
Energies 2016, 9,
Energies 2016, 9, 833
833 77 of
of 13
13

As the door continues to open, the vortexes disappear, the velocity vectors decrease, and the hot
gasesAsleaving
the doorthecontinues
furnace tostart to the
open, passvortexes
under disappear,
the door (Figure 7). The
the velocity complete
vectors motion
decrease, of hot
and the the
convective
gases leavingfluxes for thestart
the furnace transient
to passtime ofthe
under 157door
s, relative
(Figure to
7). the
Thefurnace
completedomain, is the
motion of shown in the
convective
attached
fluxes forvideo.
the transient time of 157 s, relative to the furnace domain, is shown in the attached video.

Figure 7. Fluid motion during the transient time from the opening of the door, up to the complete
Figure 7. Fluid motion during the transient time from the opening of the door, up to the complete
opening of 4.7 m at 157 s.
opening of 4.7 m at 157 s.

It is important to underline that the vectors reported in the previous images refer to the gases
It is important
that move to underline
in the furnace domain. that the vectors
For example, reportedthe
observing in picture
the previous images
relating to therefer to the
motion gases
of 50 s, it
that move in the furnace domain. For example, observing the picture relating to the motion
might seem that the vectors pass through the door. In reality this does not occur, in so far as when of 50 s,
it might
the gasesseem
pass that the vectors
through the air pass through
domain, the door.ofInthe
the presence reality
doorthis does the
deflects not motion
occur, in
ofso farvectors
the as when in
the gases
other pass through
directions, as it is the air domain,
possible the presence
to see from Figure 8.of the door deflects the motion of the vectors in
other directions, as it is possible to see from Figure 8.
Energies 2016, 9, 833 8 of 13

Energies 2016, 9, 833 8 of 13

Energies 2016, 9, 833 8 of 13

Figure 8. The velocity vectors’ directions in the air domain that move vertically upwards between the
Figure 8. The
Figure 8.
door
velocity vectors’ directions
directions in
and the furnace, and immediately
the air domain that move vertically upwards
outside the door. upwards between
between the
the
door and the furnace, and immediately outside the
door and the furnace, and immediately outside the door. door.
3.2. Heat Flux Evaluation
3.2. Heat Flux
3.2. Evaluation
In Evaluation
order to evaluate the energy fluxes, the contributions of the three forms of heat exchange:
convection, radiation and conduction, were identified. With the aid of the CFD Software, the amount
In order
In order to to evaluate
evaluate the
the energy
energy fluxes,
fluxes, the contributions of the three forms of heat exchange:
of the heat flux during the opening for convection and radiation has been evaluated, while a
convection,
convection, radiation
radiation and
and conduction,
conduction, wereidentified.
were
spreadsheet for the conduction was used. identified.With
With the
the aid
aid ofof
thethe CFD
CFD Software,
Software, thethe amount
amount of
of the
the heatheat flux during
flux during the opening
the opening for convection
for convection and radiation
and radiation has been while
has been evaluated, evaluated, while a
a spreadsheet
for 3.2.1. Radiative
spreadsheet Heat
for thewas
the conduction Flux was used.
conduction
used.
The values of the radiative energy, which passes through the opening of the door evaluated for
3.2.1.
3.2.1. Radiative
Radiative Heat
Heat
the first 157 Flux
Flux
s and related to the complete opening of the door of 4.7 m, are reported in Figure 9.
The
The values
values of
of the
the radiative
radiative energy,
energy, which
which passes
passes through
through the
the opening
opening of
of the
the door
door evaluated
evaluated for
for
the first 157 s and related to the complete opening of the door of 4.7 m, are reported in Figure
the first 157 s and related to the complete opening of the door of 4.7 m, are reported in Figure 9.9.

Figure 9. The graph reports the trend of the radiative heat flux through the door during the 157 s.

The values obtained show that the flux grows linearly with time and so with the opening. Even if
during the opening the walls start to cool down, the radiative heat flux per unit of area remains about
the same because the difference of temperature changes slightly. These values have been verified
through the analytical calculation for several time steps, using the view factors given by Fluent.
Figure 9.
Figure 9. The
The graph
graph reports
reports the
the trend
trend of
of the
the radiative
radiative heat
heat flux
flux through
through the
the door
door during
during the
the 157
157 s.s.

The values obtained show that the flux grows linearly with time and so with the opening. Even if
The values obtained show that the flux grows linearly with time and so with the opening. Even if
during the opening the walls start to cool down, the radiative heat flux per unit of area remains about
during the opening the walls start to cool down, the radiative heat flux per unit of area remains about
the same because the difference of temperature changes slightly. These values have been verified
the same because the difference of temperature changes slightly. These values have been verified
through the analytical calculation for several time steps, using the view factors given by Fluent.
through the analytical calculation for several time steps, using the view factors given by Fluent.
Energies 2016, 9, 833 9 of 13

3.2.2. Convective Heat Flux

Energies 2016, 9, 833 9 of 13
Energies 2016, 9, 833 9 of 13
The evaluation of the convective heat flux is carried out through the calculation of the mass flow
3.2.2. Convective Heat Flux
rate of enthalpy as the following Equation (1):
3.2.2. Convective Heat Flux
The evaluation of the convective heat flux Z is carried out through the calculation of the mass
flow The evaluation
rate of enthalpyof as the
the convective
following Equationheat flux(1): → → out through the calculation of the mass
is carried
Q = Hρ v ·dA (1)
flow rate of enthalpy as the following Equation (1):
Q = ∫ Hρv ⃗ ∙ dA ⃗ (1)
→ → Q = ∫ Hρv⃗ ∙ dA ⃗ (1)
where H is the Enthalpy, and ρ v ·dA is the mass flow.
where H is the Enthalpy, and ρv ⃗
⃗calculated
· dA is the mass flow.time step in the simulation allows us to obtain
The knowledge of the values for every
⃗ is the mass
where TheH knowledge
is the Enthalpy,
of theandvaluesρv⃗ · calculated
dA flow.time step in the simulation allows us to obtain
for every
the total convective
The knowledgeheatofflux.
the The trend
values of thefor
calculated fluxes
every fortimethe complete opening of the door of 4.7 m in
the total convective heat flux. The trend of the fluxes for the step in theopening
complete simulation allows
of the doorusofto4.7
obtain
m in
157 s 157
is shown
the total in Figure
convective
s is shown
10.
heat10.
in Figure
It
flux. isThe
It is
possible
trend of
possible
to see
to the
that
see fluxes
that the
the
forheat heat
the flux flux
complete on the
on theopening
door
door is given
is given
of the from from
door the
of 4.7
summthe
in sum
of
of thethe
others.
157 By
s is shown
others. Bycomparing
in Figure 10.the
comparing two
It istwo
the typesto
possible
types ofof
see heat
heat that flux
thefor
flux for
heatthethe
flux first
firston157 157
the its,isitispossible
s,door is possible
given from tothat
the
to see see that
sumtheof the
convective
convective heat flux is higher than the radiative, even if the latter depends on the fourth power of theof the
the heat
others. flux
By is higher
comparing than
the two the radiative,
types of heat even
flux if
for thethelatter
first depends
157 s, it is on the
possible fourth
to see power
that the
convective
temperature.
temperature. heat
This flux
This is higher
behavior
behavior is is
duethan
duetoto the
theradiative,
thefact thateven
fact that the if the lattergenerated
turbulence
the turbulence depends
generated on
from the
fromfourth
the the power
opening
opening of the
creates
creates
temperature.
a motion of airofwith
a motion This behavior
a high
air with a high is
Reynolds due to
Reynoldsnumber. the fact
number. that the turbulence generated from the opening creates
a motion of air with a high Reynolds number.

Figure
Figure 10. The
10. The convective
convective heatflux
heat fluxevaluated
evaluated in
in the
the three
threecontrol
controlsurfaces created
surfaces for afor
created complete
a complete
Figure 10.
opening of Thedoor
the convective
of 4.7 heat flux evaluated in the three control surfaces created for a complete
m.
opening of the door of 4.7 m.
opening of the door of 4.7 m.
3.2.3. Conductive Heat Flux
3.2.3. 3.2.3.
Conductive Heat
Conductive Flux
Heat Flux
It was possible to calculate the amount of the conductive heat flux through the walls of the
It wasIt possible
furnace was to relating
data calculate
frompossible to the
the amount
to calculate the amountof the
stratification of conductive
of the walls
the heatheat
conductive
as shownflux through
in flux 11,the
through
Figure walls
andthe of
thethe
walls
from of furnace
the
trend
from of data
the relating
furnace to the
from data
temperature stratification
relating
obtained tofrom the of the walls
the stratification of theaswalls
simulation. shown in Figure
as shown 11, and
in Figure from
11, and thethe
from trend
trendof the
of the temperature
temperature obtained
obtained from the from the simulation.
simulation.

Figure 11. Drawing showing the stratigraphy of the walls of the furnace with the decrease of the
Figure
Figure 11. Drawing
11. Drawing
temperature showing
whenshowing
the the
furnace the stratigraphy
is stratigraphy
under of conditions.
of
operating the
the walls
wallsofofthe
thefurnace with
furnace the the
with decrease of the
decrease of the
temperature when the furnace is under operating conditions.
temperature when the furnace is under operating conditions.
Energies 2016, 9, 833 10 of 13

The application of the following gives the values of the heat flux in function of the time:

Q = U·∆T·A (2)

where U is the equivalent transmittance of the wall, ∆T is the difference of temperature and A is the
area of the surface. However, this formulation does not consider the thermal bridges.

3.3. Total Energy Loss and Validation of the Model

Energies 2016, 9, 833 10 of 13
The knowledge of the trends of the heat fluxes in function of the time allowed the calculation of
the energy loss.The
Inapplication
particular,of the following
Table gives
2 gives thetheenergy
values offor
thethe
heatthree
flux inheat
function of the time:
fluxes.
Q = U · ∆T · A (2)
Table 2. Amount of energy lost for an opening of 600 s for radiation, convection and conduction.
where U is the equivalent transmittance of the wall, ΔT is the difference of temperature and A is the
area of the surface. However, this formulation does not consider the thermal bridges.
Type of Heat Flux Energy (MJ)
3.3. Total Energy Loss and Validation of the Model
Radiation 313
The knowledge of the trends of the heat fluxes in function
Convection 5252of the time allowed the calculation of
the energy loss. In particular, TableConduction
2 gives the energy for the41three heat fluxes.

TOTAL
Table 2. Amount of energy lost for 5606 convection and conduction.
an opening of 600 s for radiation,

Type of Heat Flux Energy (MJ)

To evaluate the accuracy of theseRadiation values, an indirect 313 analysis through the knowledge of the
Convection
methane consumption of the furnace was made. Assuming5252 a lower calorific value of the natural gas
Conduction 41
equal to 34 MJ/m3 , the flow rate is equalTOTAL to 165 Nm3 of methane. 5606 However the methane consumption
calculated is relative to the model created with the ideal operating condition of the furnace. The real
behavior instead To evaluate the accuracy
is conditioned by of these parameters
many values, an indirect
suchanalysis
as, forthrough
example,the knowledge of the of thermal
the presence
methane consumption of the furnace was made. Assuming a lower calorific value of the natural gas
bridges and damaged refractories, which increase the heat flux through the walls. Another aspect is
equal to 34 MJ/m3, the flow rate is equal to 165 Nm3 of methane. However the methane consumption
the presence of an interstice between the bogie
calculated is relative to the model created with hearth
the ideal and the condition
operating lateral walls of the The
of the furnace. furnace,
real which is
necessary to avoidinstead
behavior friction during movement,
is conditioned but allows
by many parameters such as,part of the the
for example, heat to exit
presence of from
thermalthe furnace
increasing bridges and damaged
the losses. These,refractories,
and other which increase the heat
phenomena, flux through
influence the walls.
the real Another aspect
consumption ofisnatural gas,
the presence of an interstice between the bogie hearth and the lateral walls of the furnace, which is
increasing the total to
necessary amount of fuelduring
avoid friction necessary to maintain
movement, but allowsthe partfurnace
of the heatchamber at a the
to exit from certain temperature.
furnace
The validation of the
increasing the model
losses. These,was carried
and other out through
phenomena, influenceanthe
experimental
real consumption testofmade
naturalingas,
SdF. The test
started with increasing the total amount
the opening of the of fuel necessary
door to maintain
of an empty the furnace
forging chamber
furnace at a certain
at the temperature.
operating temperature of
The validation of the model was carried out through an experimental test made in SdF. The test
1230 ◦ C. The furnace remained open for 10 min with the bogie hearth inside, and then closed again.
started with the opening of the door of an empty forging furnace at the operating temperature of 1230
When the door°C. Thewas completely
furnace remained open closed
for 10 the burners
min with started
the bogie hearthto calland
inside, upthento reach again
closed again. the operating
When
temperature. theTwo
door instant photographs
was completely of this
closed the experimental
burners started to calltestupareto reported
reach againintheFigure 12 from which
operating
temperature.
it is possible to see theTwo instant photographs
variation of the intensityof thisofexperimental
the furnace testcolor
are reported
whichincorresponds
Figure 12 fromto a sudden
which it is possible to see the variation of the intensity of the furnace color which corresponds to a
fall in temperature.
sudden fall in temperature.

(a) (b)

Figure 12. Pictures taken during the experimental test made in SdF: (a) The picture is related to a
Figure 12. Pictures takenatduring
partial opening the picture
60 s; (b) The experimental test
is related to made inopening
a complete SdF: (a) The
at 157 s. picture is related to a partial
opening at 60 s; (b) The picture is related to a complete opening at 157 s.
Energies 2016, 9, 833 11 of 13

Energies 2016, 9, 833 11 of 13

The consumption of methane was monitored between the closing time, after the 10 min, and the
time The consumption
it takes to returnofatmethane was monitored
its operating conditions.between
Takingtheinto
closing time,the
account after the 10 min, and
simplification the
of the
time it the
model, takes
twotovalues
returnofatmethane
its operating conditions.
consumption wereTaking
comparedintoand
account the that
resulted simplification
the values of
arethe
of
model, the two values of methane consumption were compared and resulted
the same order of magnitude. This validation guarantees the accuracy of the model and allowsthat the values are us
of
the same order of magnitude. This validation guarantees the accuracy of the model
to use it as a decisional instrument for future developments which will allow us to develop more and allows us to
use it asprocesses.
efficient a decisional instrument for future developments which will allow us to develop more
efficient processes.
In order to characterize the footprint of this phenomenon, the emission of CO2 caused by the
In order
combustion ofto
thecharacterize
165 Nm3 of the footprint
methane of this phenomenon,
is evaluated. the emission
From the stoichiometric of CO2of
equation caused by the
the methane
combustion of the 165 Nm 3 of methane is evaluated. From the stoichiometric equation of the
combustion results that 1 mol of CH4 produces 1 mol of CO2 (Equation (3)):
methane combustion results that 1 mol of CH4 produces 1 mol of CO2 (Equation (3)):
CH 2O22→
CH4 4++2O → CO + 2H
CO22 + 2H2OO
2
(3)
(3)

BeingBeing the molar

the molar massmass
of theof methane
the methane equal
equal to 16to g/mol
16 g/mol and
and themolar
the molarmassmassofofthe theCO CO22 equal
equal to
to
44 g/mol,
g/mol, results that the combustion
results that the combustion of 1 kg of CH
CH4 4 produces 2.75 kg of CO
of CO2 2 . For a density of the
the
methane equal to 0.73 kg/m3 3results
0.73 kg/m resultsthat
that1 1kgkgofofCHCH4 corresponds
4 correspondsto 1.4
to m
1.4 3 of3 CH4. So the kg of CO2
m of CH 4 . So the kg of
produced by the combustion of 165 Nm 3 of3 methane are 331 kg, where 309 kg are due to the
CO 2 produced by the combustion of 165 Nm of methane are 331 kg, where 309 kg are due the
combustion of
combustion of natural
natural gas
gas for
for the
the heat
heat lost
lost for
for convection.
convection.

4. Application
Applicationof
ofthe
theModel
Model
As shown
shown by Table
Table 2,
2, the
the major
major contribution
contribution toto the
the total
total heat
heat loss
loss is
is due
due to
to convection.
convection. For
For this
this
reason
reason the
themodel
modelcreated hashas
created been applied
been to evaluate
applied how an
to evaluate how increase of the door
an increase speed
of the canspeed
door influence
can
the convective fluxes of the furnace and the consequent global energy performance.
influence the convective fluxes of the furnace and the consequent global energy performance. For For this reason
two
this other
reasonsimulations of a complete
two other simulations of aopening
completeof opening
40 s and of 60 40
s were
s andcarried out.carried
60 s were Figureout.
13 shows
Figurethe
13
trend
showsofthe
thetrend
convective heat flux onheat
of the convective Surface A for
flux on the three
Surface A fordifferent
the threeopenings.
different openings.

Figure 13.
Figure 13. Convective
Convective heat
heatflux
fluxevaluated
evaluatedon
onthe
thecontrol
controlsurface
surfaceAAfor the
for three
the different
three opening
different of
opening
40 s, 60 s and 157 s.
of 40 s, 60 s and 157 s.

As it is possible to see, a reduction of the opening time entails an increase of the maximum
As it is possible to see, a reduction of the opening time entails an increase of the maximum value
value of convective heat flux calculated, which exceeds 9 MW for a 40 s opening. From the
of convective heat flux calculated, which exceeds 9 MW for a 40 s opening. From the evaluation of the
evaluation of the amount of the energy lost during the lifting time of the door and in the next 10 min
amount of the energy lost during the lifting time of the door and in the next 10 min for the three different
for the three different case studies, the results show that the opening of 40 s minimizes the heat loss,
case studies, the results show that the opening of 40 s minimizes the heat loss, with a total of 4324 MJ
with a total of 4324 MJ for a total time of 640 s. In the following Table 3 the values of the convective
for a total time of 640 s. In the following Table 3 the values of the convective heat flux for the different
heat flux for the different openings are shown.
openings are shown.
Energies 2016, 9, 833 12 of 13

Table 3. Energy fluxes evaluated on the control Surface A in the three different case studies for the time
of the door opening and the total time.

Time (s) Energyflux (MJ) Time (s) Energyflux (MJ)

40 499 640 4586
60 607 660 4664
157 1304 757 5252

Thanks to this study the company made their production process more efficient, saving fuel and
limiting pollutant emissions, simply by reducing the opening time of the door, from 157 s to 40 s.
An amount of about 60 kg of CO2 is saved simply with the implementation of a reduced door opening
time. A further reduction of this time is not allowed due to the mechanical limits of the door lifting
system. The data obtained from this study is also being used for other studies concerning the design of
an air knife system to install close to the door.

5. Conclusions
In this study the behavior of a real industrial furnace used in the forging industry was analyzed.
The CFD simulation of a typical insertion/extraction operation done in a forging furnace showed that
the amount of energy lost for a total time of 10 min is equal to 5606 MJ, where the main contributory
factor is the convective heat flux, with a value of 5252 MJ. In order to characterize the heat flows
during all the transient time, other variables were also monitored. In particular, results showed
that at the opening, because of the differences in temperature and pressure internally and externally,
turbulences were generated constituting the main reason for the heat loss. The validation of the
model, carried out through an experimental test done in SdF, has allowed the use of the model as
a decisional instrument. For this reason two other simulations were also conducted. Results showed
that a reduction of the door opening time from 157 s to 40 s reduces the energy loss, limiting the fuel
consumption and pollutant emissions. The importance of this study is due also to the fact that the
model created is applicable to a very large variety of furnaces, as it depends only on the geometry and
on the operating conditions. The model can be used for furnaces of every dimension and powered by
any kind of energy.

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the research funding of Divisione Fucine di Acciai Speciali Terni
and CIRIAF. The authors are grateful for this support.
Author Contributions: All the authors equally contributed to this work.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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