ENVE 101 : Introduction to Environmental Engineering Chapter V

Chapter- V

POLLUTION CONTROL AND WASTE TREATMETMENT

4.1 General Perspective on Pollution Control

Read the following sections from the book.

4.1.1 Human Influence on Ecosystems, Section 4-2, Page 4.3 – 4.4, Human Influences on
Ecosystems, Page (Davis and Cornwell)

4.1.2 Water Pollution and Their Sources , Section 7-2, Page 7.2 -7.5 ( Davis and Cornwell)

4.1.3 Effects of Air Pollutants, Section 9-4, Page 9.6-9.14 ( Davis and Cornwell)

4.1.4 Effects of Noise on People, Section 10.2, Page 10.12 – 10.20 ( Davis and Cornwell)

4.2 Water purification process

The self-purification mechanisms of a natural water body includes physical, chemical and
biological processes. Physical processes include dilution, sedimentation, filtration, gas transfer
and heat transfer. Chemical processes include simple to complex chemical reactions such as
oxidation-reduction reactions. Biological processes include various biochemical reactions such as
the metabolic reactions.

The same physical, chemical and biological processes that serve to purify natural water systems
also work in engineered systems. In water-and wastewater- treatment plants, the rate and extent of
these processes are managed by controlling the system variables. Biological processes are used in
practically all municipal wastewater-treatment systems. Microorganisms are the responsible
agents to carry out the biochemical reactions. In order to reproduce and function, microorganisms
need (i) a source of energy (ii) carbon for synthesis of new cellular material, and (3) inorganic
elements (nutrients) such as nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, calcium, and magnesium.
Carbon and energy sources are usually referred as 'substrates'. The microorganisms derive energy
from either inorganic compounds such as ammonia, nitrite and sulfide or from oxidation of the
organic compounds. Heterotrophic bacteria use organic carbon for the formation of cell tissues
where as autotrophic bacteria obtain cell carbon from carbon dioxide.

In biological waste treatment, microorganisms use the organic and inorganic substances present in
the waste stream as source of carbon and energy and reproduce themselves forming new
biological cells or 'biomass'. The microorganisms involved in wastewater treatment are essentially
the same as those that degrade organic material in natural freshwater systems.

4.3 Kinetics of Bacterial Growth

The general term that describes all of the chemical activities performed by a cell is metabolism.
This in turn is divided into two parts: catabolism and anabolism. Catabolism includes all the
biochemical processes by which a substrate is degraded to end products with the release of
energy. Anabolism includes all the biochemical processes by which the microrganisms
synthesizes new chemical compounds needed by the cells to live and reproduce. The synthesis
process is driven by the energy obtained from catabolism. The performance of biological waste

-1-
ENVE 101 : Introduction to Environmental Engineering Chapter V

treatment can be measured by the rate at which microorganisms metabolise the waste which, in
turn, is directly related to their rate of growth. Bacteria reproduce by binary fission (i.e. by
dividing, the original cell becomes two new organisms) and the generation time is 15-20 minutes.

The relationship of cell growth and food (substrate) utilisation can be illustrated by a simple batch
reactor such as stoppered bottle. A given quantity of food containing all the necessary nutrients is
placed in the bottle and inoculated with a mixed culture of microorganisms. If S represents the
quantity of soluble food (in mg/L) and X represents the quantity of biomass (in mg/L), the rate of
utilisation of food dS/dt and the rate of biomass growth dX/dt can be represented by curves as
shown in the Fig. 1.

There are several distinct segments in the biomass curve as discussed below.

(i) Lag phase : The lag phase represents the time required for the microorganisms to acclimate to
their new environment. If the organisms have been accustomed to a similar environment and
similar food, the lag phase will be very brief.

(ii) Log-growth phase : During this period the cells divide at a rate determined by their
generation time and their ability to process food. There is always excess amount of food
surrounding the microorganisms, and the rate of metabolism and growth is only a function of the
ability of the microorganisms to process the substrate. During this phase maximum growth occurs
at a logarithmic rate.

(iii) Stationary phase : Maximum growth cannot continue indefinitely. The food supply may
become limiting, environmental conditions may change and a population of grazers may develop.
Cells that are unable to obtain food from external sources begin endogenous catabolisms. The
stationary phase represents the time during which the production of new cellular material is
roughly offset by death and endogenous respiration.

(iv) Endogenous phase: During this phase, the death rate of organisms exceeds the production of
new cells. During this phase, a phenomenon known as 'lysis' can occur in which the nutrients
remaining in the dead cells diffuse out to furnish the remaining cells with food.

-2-
ENVE 101 : Introduction to Environmental Engineering Chapter V

Lag-growth
Lag phase Stationary Endogenous
phase phase phase
Concentration, mg/L

Biomass

Food

Time

Fig. 1: Biomass growth and food utilization

In both batch and continuous culture, the rate of growth of bacterial cell can be represented as
dX
rg  ( ) X
dt
where rg = rate of bacterial growth (mass/unit volume. time) (mg/L. day-1 ) (cells / L. day)
X = bacterial concentration (mg/L) (cell/L)
 = growth rate constant, day-1

4.3.1 Monod Equation

Direct evaluation of the growth rate constant is impossible for mixed cultures of microorganisms
metabolizing mixed organics. Several models have been developed to establish a value of . The
most widely accepted is the Monod equation. This equation assumes that the rate of food
utilization, and therefore the rate of biomass production, is limited by the enzyme reactions
involving the food compound.

The Monod equation is

S
  m
Ks  S
where, m = maximum growth rate constant, day-1
S = concentration of growth limiting substrate, mg/L
Ks = Half velocity constant (saturation constant) = concentration of limiting substrate when 
=1/2 m , mg/L
-3-
ENVE 101 : Introduction to Environmental Engineering Chapter V

The growth rate of biomass is therefore a hyperbolic function of the food concentration.

Case I : When there is an excess of limiting food i.e S>>Ks , then the growth rate constant  is
approximately equal to m and the system is enzyme limited. Since the enzymes are supplied by
the microbial mass, the system is essentially biomass limited. The system is a first-order equation
in biomass; i.e the growth rate is proportional to the first power of the biomass present.
dX/dt = m X

Case II : S<< Ks, the system is food-limited. In this case rg = m/Ks S and the system is zero order
in biomass, i. e. the growth rate is independent of the biomass present.

Case III : When S = Ks, the growth rate constant is one-half of the maximum growth rate.

Substitution yields

dX SX
rg   m
dt Ks  S

The mass of the new cells synthesized per unit mass of substrate removed is a constant for a given
substrate and bacterial species.

Yield Coefficient (Y) = (dX/dt) / (-dS/dt)

1 dX

Y  X dt 
1 dS 

X dt

4.3.2 Growth in a mixed culture

The relationship of cell growth and food (substrate) utilisation can be illustrated by a simple batch
reactor such as stoppered bottle. A given quantity of food containing all the necessary nutrients is
placed in the bottle and inoculated with a mixed culture of microorganisms.

S represents the quantity of ............................................ (in ...............................)

X represents the ................................................................... (in ........................),

dS/dt represents .........................................

dX/dt represents .........................................

In both batch and continuous culture, the rate of growth of bacterial cell can be represented as
dX
rg  ( )  .........
dt
(7.1)
-1
where rg = rate of bacterial growth (mass/unit volume. time) (mg/L. day ) (cells / L. day)
X = bacterial concentration (mg/L) (cell/L)
 = growth rate constant, day-1
-4-
ENVE 101 : Introduction to Environmental Engineering Chapter V

The Monod equation is given as:

1 dX
  (7.2)
X dt

where,

m = ( ...........................)

S= (............................)

Ks = (...........................)

dX SX
rg   m (7.3)
dt Ks  S

Eq. (7.3) assumes only growth of microorganisms and does not take into account the natural die-
off. It is generally assumed that the death or decay of the microbial mass is a first order expression
in biomass and hence Eq. 7.3 is modified to :

SX
rg '   X  k d X   m  kd X
Ks  S

4.3.3 Continuous culture

Microorganism mass balance

Accumulation = Inflow - Outflow + Growth

dX/ dt =

V=

Q=

Xo =

rg' =

At steady state condition dX / dt = 0 ; Assume Xo = 0

Substrate balance

-5-
ENVE 101 : Introduction to Environmental Engineering Chapter V

At steady state condition dS/ dt = 0

X=

Mean cell residence time (c) =

Basics of Physical treatment, TBC

Basics of Chemical treatment, TBC

-6-