Sustainable Bridges – 300 Year Design Life for Second

Gateway Bridge
John Connal, Industry Director, and Marita Berndt, Principal Engineer, Maunsell
Australia Pty Ltd, Melbourne, Australia

Synopsis
The Second Gateway Bridge is being built next to the original bridge to duplicate the
Gateway Arterial crossing of the Brisbane River. It is 1627m long with a main span of
260m. The three river spans are constructed by the cast in-situ balanced cantilever
method with segments varying from 15m to 5m deep and the approach spans are typically
71m long and constructed by match cast segmental construction with epoxy joints.

The new bridge is designed and is being built with a design life target of 300 years.
Designing for a very long service life has considerable economic and community benefits
and is a means of maximising the return on community investment in infrastructure.
Delaying replacement and minimising maintenance costs and the disruption caused by
maintenance activities is an aim of asset owners. Designing for such a long service life
can represent sustainable structural engineering without significant cost premium.

The durability design process for extended life requires the specific analysis of the
environmental conditions in which the structure is placed, the strategic use of a range of
materials and an understanding of the means by which they deteriorate and the rate of that
deterioration. The process involves:

Definition of the characteristics of the environment

Identification of the potential deterioration mechanisms in that environment
Determination of the likely rate of deterioration
Assessment of the material life
Definition of the required material performance
Consideration of a probabilistic approach to the variability of the relevant parameters
Assessment and definition of the need for further protection

This process goes beyond the deemed-to-comply approach of the codes, where materials
performance is assumed, and the strength of the materials and the concrete cover is
defined by an adopted exposure classification. The process takes a first-principles and
deterministic approach to modelling the environmental influences and material
performance, but rather than just adopting mean values of the governing parameters, it
overlays an understanding or assumption of their variation using known or assumed
coefficients of variation to account for the stochastic nature of the deterioration process.

This paper describes the background to the selection of a 300 year design life target, then
provides an explanation of the design process for addressing durability, and describes the
outcomes.

1.0 Introduction
The term “sustainable” can be defined as “avoiding depletion of natural resources”. The
very act of building a bridge uses natural resources but is done so with the objective of
providing a transport solution that gives enduring benefits to society that also help the
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cause of conserving the planet’s natural resources. Assuming the right planning decision
has been made to build the bridge, how do we maximise the sustainability of the bridge?

Collings (2006) has performed an environmental comparison of bridge forms that provides
some indication of embodied energy and CO2 emissions in bridges, assuming these are a
reasonable measure of the environmental burden of the structure. The major findings from
that comparison suggest:

The environmental burden during the construction of a bridge is approximately

proportional to its cost, which in turn generally equates to the volume of materials
consumed by the bridge. Larger spans use more material and have a higher burden.
The use of materials with lower embodied energy and CO2 are beneficial. For most
bridge forms the concrete bridge has the lower embodied energy and CO2 emission
values. Whilst concrete bridges use cement that has a high embodied energy, this can
be mitigated by the use of supplementary cementitious materials as partial cement
replacement.
There is an ongoing environmental burden during the maintenance of paintwork,
bearings, joints etc, and a particular spike in that burden when resurfacing is
undertaken. This is increased when traffic diversions are accounted for.
The CO2 emissions during the life of the bridge from repair and maintenance can be
similar to those of the construction phase, for bridges of moderate spans.

These findings suggest sustainable bridge construction should aim to conserve natural
resources and minimise waste (be an efficient, minimalist design, avoiding extravagant
architectural statements), minimise the embodied energy in the structure (appropriate
selection of materials and material sources for the functional demands of the bridge), and
have a long life with minimal maintenance input (long service life and durable materials).
Sustainability objectives for bridges are best accomplished by ensuring durable bridges
with long service life and low maintenance inputs, that, on a whole-of-life basis, minimise
material consumption over the long term. It is likely that such a bridge also has the lowest
whole-of-life economic cost.

Such objectives were perhaps an innate characteristic of the ancient engineers whose
structures still stand today as a testament to their sustainable design and construction
practices.

Figure 1 The Pantheon, Rome

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The Pantheon in Rome is a marvellous example of engineering sustainability. This
structure is almost 2000 years old. Compression is a wonderful thing! Our engineering
predecessors knew that the materials available to them work well under compression and
proportioned their structures accordingly. The dome of the Pantheon is an unreinforced
concrete structure, maintained in compression and with no reinforcing steel to corrode.
The selection of materials and structural form has produced a very long life structure.

Figure 2 Ponte Vecchio, Florence

The Ponte Vecchio in Florence was built around 1345 and is more than 600 years old.
Bridge engineers have, for centuries, been capable of designing and building bridges of
very long life. The early bridge engineers, working with stone and again keeping the
structure substantially in compression, were able to build sustainable bridges. More
modern bridge practice seeks to be more frugal with materials, and has at its disposal an
array of more sophisticated materials, capable of resisting tension. The sustainability
challenge now involves a large range of complex issues.

2.0 Economics of Service Life

Fenwick and Rotolone (2003) explored the economics of service life for civil infrastructure
from a long term asset owner’s perspective. They adopted the AASHTO (2006) definition
of service life as the period of time that the structure is expected to be in operation, and
considered a simple example of a culvert, exploring service lives between 30 and 300
years. For almost all cases over a range of feasible interest rates, a service life of 300
years before replacement proved to be the most economical outcome on a net present
value basis. Whilst this is a simple example, the results of course hold provided the ratio
of initial to replacement cost is similar. For many cases, particularly infrastructure in busy
urban areas, the replacement cost can be many times the initial cost when all the costs of
diversion and traffic congestion are taken into account. From a sustainability perspective,
these costs are also likely to be representative of embodied energy and CO2 emission
levels.

The Fenwick and Rotolone (2003) study did not consider the maintenance costs
associated with the example. It could be expected that a structure designed for a very
long service life might be more durable than a structure designed for a very short service
life. On the other hand perhaps a structure with a short life would be neglected in the

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expectation that it will be replaced quicker. Either way it is likely that the structure designed
for a very long service life will have a lower annual maintenance cost.

In many circumstances, designing for 300 year service compared to say 100 years service
does not represent an order of magnitude increase in material consumption, embodied
energy, CO2 emission or cost. The Fenwick and Rotolone (2003) study assumed a
structure with a 300 year service life would have an initial cost 10 percent higher than one
designed for a 30 year design life. This is a broad assumption and one hard to verify for
various scenarios.

3.0 Service Life and Design Life

In targeting a service life performance for a structure, the asset owner needs to be aware
not only of the initial cost of creating the structure, but its service life and the long term cost
of maintaining and repairing it over that service life, and finally its replacement cost. This
can be done on a net present value basis, but requires knowledge of the impact of the
durability performance on initial and long term costs. Those owners concerned with
sustainability can take this analysis to a new level and also evaluate the options with
respect to embodied energy and CO2 emission levels. These evaluations are not usually
done to establish a service life performance target that can be embedded in a design or
project specification.

A service life performance must be formulated into specific design criteria to provide the
designer with objectives for the design which are then encapsulated in specification
requirements that must be met by the builder during the construction. The codes usually
define a design life that implies a particular service life regarded by society as acceptable.
AS5100 (2004) adopts a design life of 100 years. BS5400.1 (1988) assumes a design life
of 120 years and AASHTO (2006) is based on a design life of 75 years. It is usual to
simply apply these codes and standards that imply a particular assumption of service life
performance. These are based on current materials and technologies and perhaps inhibit
achieving very long service lives through the use of new materials or combinations of
materials and new technologies.

For the Second Gateway Bridge the service life performance was “defined” by a design life
of 300 years. This selection was made in recognition of the size and importance of the
bridge in the transport network and with the background indicated above that suggests for
such a large asset, designing for a very long life provides the owner with the best whole-of-
life value. In simplistic terms this philosophy can be described as “aim higher, it doesn’t
cost much more initially, but can be significantly cheaper in the long term”.

A 300 year design life target is a new and interesting challenge. It requires the designer to
explore outside the current codes, evaluate environmental loading and establish material
performance over a long period, requiring extrapolation of current knowledge of climate
and material properties as well as the extrapolation of material deterioration models.
Importantly, it also focuses the design and construction team to go beyond the standard
durability response, to explore new means of achieving an extended service life and
achieve a higher level of performance.

4.0 Second Gateway Bridge Durability

The Second Gateway Bridge is a prestressed and reinforced concrete bridge that sits in a
range of environmental exposure conditions. The durability of the concrete comprising the
bridge elements is the major factor in achieving a long service life.
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The project scope and technical requirements (PSTR) for the bridge specified that the
durability be applied diligently and continuously throughout the process of design,
construction and throughout the maintenance period, and that the Second Gateway Bridge
have a design life of 300 years, with some replaceable sub-items having design lives
ranging from 20 years (wearing course) to 100 years (bearings). Design life was defined
as the period assumed in design for which the structure or structural element is required to
perform its intended purpose without replacement or major structural repairs.

In addition to a 300 year design life dictated for the bridge structure, several other
requirements were mandated from the PSTR. These were aimed at ensuring a minimum
level of durability:

Minimum B2 exposure classification (Notwithstanding B2 exposure classification is

described in AS5100.5 as within 1km of the coastline and the Gateway Bridge is
approximately 7 km from the coast of Moreton Bay)
Minimum 40 MPa concrete strength
Minimum 20% fly ash
Electrical connectivity of reinforcement in concrete piles, pile caps and piers for
possible future installation of cathodic protection, and
Mix requirements for concrete in potential acid sulphate soil.

For the Second Gateway Bridge, the durability challenge is significant and varied. The
bridge comprises a concrete structure with various elements in a range of exposure
conditions:

In the tidal/splash zone, where the main span piers are located in the Brisbane River
which is essentially sea water
Permanently submerged, where the foundations close to the Brisbane River are below
the tidal zone
In contact with the ground where the soil has, in places, high chloride content and acid
sulphate potential, and
Air-exposed.

The philosophy adopted in meeting the extended design life is based on “building in” the
required durability at the outset, where feasible, and minimising the need to take measures
later in the life of the bridge to achieve a 300 year service life. Integral with this philosophy
is the appropriate selection of high quality materials chosen to address the particular
durability issues that are posed by the range of exposure conditions.

The design process for addressing durability is summarised as follows:

Define the characteristics of the environment

Identify the potential deterioration mechanisms in that environment
Determine the likely rate of deterioration
Assess the material life
Define the required material performance
Take a probabilistic approach to the variability of the relevant parameters
Assess and define the need for further protection

This process goes beyond the deemed-to-comply approach of the codes, where materials
performance is assumed, and the strength of the materials and the concrete cover is

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defined by an adopted exposure classification. The process takes a first-principles and
deterministic approach to modelling the environmental influences and material
performance, but rather than just adopting mean values of the governing parameters, it
overlays an understanding or assumption of their variation using known or assumed
coefficients of variation.

This approach is similar to the ACI Life 365 design methodology which is a deterministic
methodology, but incorporates the probabilistic components of “DuraCrete” (1999); a
European research project on the probabilistic performance based durability design of
concrete structures. Both of these methodologies are summarised by Rostam (2005).

5.0 Concrete Durability Design

In order to assess the durability risks and required preventative measures for reinforced
and prestressed concrete, the exposure environments were classified as follows:

Tidal/Splash
Submerged
Buried
Atmospheric

The exposure environments were evaluated for aggressivity towards concrete due to
deterioration mechanisms such as reinforcement corrosion caused by chloride ingress or
carbonation, sulphate attack, microbiological attack and degradation resulting from acid
sulphate soil exposure. In addition, other forms of deterioration and durability risks were
considered such as alkali-aggregate reaction and thermal cracking. This paper focuses on
the methods used to predict chloride ingress and carbonation.

5.1 Chloride Ingress

In terms of chloride ingress, the greatest concern was for pile caps in the tidal/splash zone
of the Brisbane River. The following describes the approach taken to predict chloride
penetration. The same principal was used for other chloride-bearing exposure
environments. Modelling of chloride ingress versus depth of cover was performed. It was
assumed that all transport of chloride ions in concrete would occur by ionic diffusion. Such
diffusion can be modelled using a solution to Fick’s Second Law of Diffusion as shown in
Equation 1 below:

x
c x ,t c s . 1 erf (1)
2 D.t

where D = diffusion coefficient of chloride through concrete (m2/s)

cx,t = chloride concentration at depth x and time t (%)
cs = surface chloride concentration (%)
erf = numerical error function
t = time (s)

Variations on Equation 1 have been proposed to account for phenomena such as chloride
binding, convection, intermittent exposure, moisture content, and temperature. However,
Equation 1 generally describes the diffusion process reasonably well for most
circumstances in uncracked concrete.

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The changes in diffusion coefficient with time can be modelled according to Equation 2 as
given in ACI Life 365:

m
t0
Dt Dt 0 (2)
t

where Dt = diffusion coefficient at time t (m2/s)

Dt0 = diffusion coefficient at time of testing t0 (m2/s)
t0 = time at test (s)
t = time (s)
m = age factor depending on mix proportions

Equations 1 and 2 can be combined to give Equation 3 which predicts chloride ingress
versus time for a changing diffusion coefficient (Luping and Gulikers, 2007).

x
c x ,t c s . 1 erf m
(3)
m
1 t0 t
2 .D. . t .t s
(1 m) t ts

where ts = age at start of exposure (s)

The limitation of Equation 3 is that it effectively allows the diffusion coefficient to

continually decrease over the selected time period. However, it is generally recognised
that after approximately 30 years the diffusion coefficient remains constant because
hydration is virtually complete. Therefore, use of Equation 3 to predict chloride diffusion
over a prolonged period could potentially result in underestimation of chloride
concentration at a given depth of cover. For a life of 100 years, Equation 3 still gives an
acceptable prediction. The 300 year design life for the Second Gateway Bridge required
consideration of how underestimation of chloride concentration due to assumed ongoing
reduction of diffusion coefficient could be avoided.
A time weighted average diffusion coefficient (DTWA) was calculated assuming reduction of
the diffusion coefficient over the first 30 years according to Equation 2, followed by a
constant value thereafter. The time weighted diffusion coefficient was calculated
according to Equation 4:
n
Dti .t i
i 1
DTWA n
(4)
ti
i 1

where DTWA = time weighted average diffusion coefficient (m2/s)

Dti = diffusion coefficient at time ti (m2/s)

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The concrete mix proposed for the pile caps was a 50 MPa grade ternary blend consisting
of 30% fly ash and 21% blast furnace slag. The total cementitious content was 560 kg/m3
and the maximum water/cementitious material ratio was 0.32. In addition to improving
durability properties such as chloride and sulphate resistance, the use of fly ash and slag
had the added benefits of reducing heat of hydration and greenhouse gas emissions of the
concrete compared with a 100% cement mix and thereby improving sustainability in terms
of materials usage. Testing in accordance with NordTest NTBuild 443 was performed on
trial mixes and it was determined that the initial chloride diffusion coefficient was 1.2 - 1.4 x
10-12 m2/s at 56 days. A conservative initial diffusion coefficient of 2 x 10-12 m2/s was
selected for the modelling.
The Brisbane River was determined to have a chloride concentration up to 18,000 ppm
which is similar to that of seawater. Testing of core samples from pile caps on the existing
Gateway Bridge indicated surface chloride concentrations of 0.4 to 0.5% by weight of
concrete. A “worst case” surface chloride concentration of 0.65% by weight of concrete
was used in the analysis and is similar to published data for marine splash environments
(e.g., Lee and Chisholm, 2005; Bertolini et al., 2004; Lay et al., 2003). Furthermore, the
value of 0.65% also corresponds with the tendency for fly ash- and slag-modified
concretes to have higher surface chloride concentrations.
There is experimental and field data available for the age factor (e.g., Mangat and Molloy,
1994; Bamforth, 1999; Thomas and Bamforth, 1999; Stanish and Thomas, 2003; Lee and
Chisholm, 2005; Nokken et al., 2006; Thomas et al, 2008). However, data for ternary
blends is limited. Hence, it was decided to use the ACI Life 365 guidelines and thereby
use conservative values in order to ensure long-term durability. Table 1 summarises the
input parameters used for modelling chloride ingress in the pile caps.

Table 1 Input Parameters for Chloride Diffusion Modelling of Pile Caps in Tidal/Splash Zone

Supplementary Age Factor Age Cs (% by Dt1 DTWA

Cementitious Calculation Factor wt. (m2/s) (m2/s)
Material (“m”) concrete)
30% Fly Ash (FA), m = 0.2 + 0.56 0.65 2 x 10-12 1.1 x 10-13
21% Blast Furnace 0.4[(%FA/50) +
Slag (BFS) (%BFS/70)]

The chloride threshold concentration above which corrosion is initiated depends on factors
such as cement chemistry, presence of supplementary cementitious materials, pH, oxygen
concentration and exposure conditions. Typically, a value of 0.06% by weight of concrete
is assumed as an initiation threshold for black steel (Bertolini et al., 2004; Lay et al., 2003).
For Type 316L/LN stainless steel the threshold chloride concentration was taken as 0.5%
by weight of concrete based on recommendations by the ACI Life 365 model. The value
of 0.5% by weight of concrete was regarded as conservative since other data suggest that
the value may be higher, particularly if the bars are pickled (Bertolini et al, 2004; Clemeña
and Virmani, 2004; Hurley and Scully, 2006). The threshold chloride concentration for
pickled LDX 2101duplex stainless steel was assumed to be 0.35% by weight of concrete
in the pickled condition (Hurley and Scully, 2006) and 0.15% by weight of concrete if
unpickled (Clemeña and Virmani, 2004) .

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The proposed pile cap design was to have 150 mm minimum cover to black steel
reinforcement and 75 mm minimum cover to stainless steel reinforcement. The outer layer
of concrete and stainless steel was regarded as sacrificial in the structural design.
Formwork to pile caps was to be kept in place for a minimum of 14 days to prevent early
ingress of chloride ions to the concrete. The predicted chloride ingress versus depth of
cover after 280 years is presented in Figure 3. A period of 280 years was selected as the
required time to corrosion initiation, following which corrosion and spalling may take place
over a subsequent 20 year period, resulting in a 300 year service life before major repairs.
The corrosion threshold concentrations for the different types of reinforcement considered
are also indicated on Figure 3.
Chloride Concentration (% by wt. concrete)

0.7
-13 2
DTWA = 1.1 x 10 m /s; 30% FA; 21% BFS; t = 280 years
0.6

0.5 316 LN

0.4
LDX 2101 Pickled
0.3

0.2
LDX 2101 Unpickled
0.1
Black Steel

0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150

Depth of Cover (mm)

Figure 3 Predicted Chloride Profile at Year 280 (Pile Caps, Grade S50 Ternary Blend Concrete).
Corrosion threshold for black and stainless steels indicated.

The predicted chloride ingress profile in Figure 3 indicated that 150 mm cover to black
steel and 75 mm cover to LDX 2101 or 316LN stainless were likely to provide adequate
protection and prevent initiation of corrosion within 280 years. The LDX 2101 had cost
savings compared with 316LN and was therefore the favoured stainless steel.

The above deterministic model has limitations because the inherent variability of concrete
properties and depth of cover in practice are not taken into account. Hence, it was
appropriate to also use a probabilistic approach to modelling of chloride ingress rather
than the deterministic approach above. Accounting for inherent variabilities and
uncertainties in parameters such as diffusion coefficient, corrosion threshold, age factor,
depth of cover and surface chloride concentration enables a more realistic assessment of
the adequacy of proposed protective measures. Statistical variations of the input variable
for chloride modelling have been documented (e.g., Bentz, 2003; Enright and Frangopol,
1998). The coefficients of variation used in the Second Gateway Bridge analysis are
summarised in Table 2.

The reliability index for concrete in the tidal/splash zone with different supplementary
cementitious materials was calculated. This was based on a Monte Carlo sampling
technique using 1000 iterations. The target reliability index, , was > 1.28, equating to a
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failure probability of 10%, where failure refers to initiation of corrosion within 280 years
rather than any loss of structural capacity. The reliability index was selected based on
recommendations from Fluge (2001). Plots of the reliability index versus time for the
ternary mix and 150 mm depth of cover to black steel in the pile caps are given in Figure 4.
The effect of changing the coefficient of variation for the depth of cover is shown.

Table 2: Input Data for Probabilistic Time to Corrosion Initiation Predictions

Variable Mean Coefficient of

Variation
(COV)
Depth of cover (mm) 75 0.05, 0.1, 0.2
(stainless),
150 (black)
Initial 56 day Chloride Diffusion Coefficient (m2/s) 2 x 10-12 0.25
Age Factor “m” 0.56 0.25
Surface Chloride Concentration (% by weight of 0.65 0.2
concrete) (Cs)
Threshold Chloride Concentration for black (carbon) 0.06 0.25
steel (% by weight of concrete) (Ct)
Threshold Chloride Concentration for LDX 2101 0.35 0.25
pickled stainless steel (% by weight of concrete) (Ct)

4
Reliability Index

= 1.28
1

0
Ternary Blend; 150 mm Cover, 5% COV
-1 Ternary Blend; 150 mm Cover; 10% COV
Ternary Blend; 150 mm Cover; 20% COV

-2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Time (years)

Figure 4 Reliability Index versus Time for Grade S50 Ternary Blend Pile Cap Concrete with 150 mm
Cover to Black Steel. Effect of COV for cover indicated.

Figure 4 predicts that the target reliability index ( = 1.28) is met over 300 years for 150
mm cover to black steel reinforcement steel with S50 ternary blend concrete even if the
coefficient of variation for depth of cover is 20%. However, it was recommended that tight
construction quality control be implemented to reduce the coefficient of variation.

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The reliability index calculations for the concrete with an outer layer of pickled LDX 2101
stainless steel reinforcement 75 mm cover are presented in Figure 5.

4
Reliability Index

= 1.28
1

0
Ternary Blend; 2101; 75 mm Cover; 5% COV
-1 Ternary Blend; 2101; 75 mm Cover; 10% COV
Ternary Blend; 2101; 75 mm Cover; 20% COV
-2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Time (years)

Figure 5 Reliability Index versus Time for Grade S50 Ternary Blend Pile Cap Concrete with 75 mm
Cover to LDX 2101 Pickled Stainless Steel. Effect of COV for cover indicated.

Figure 5 predicts that the S50 ternary blend concrete with 75 mm cover to pickled LDX
2101 stainless steel would achieve the required life. It is also noted that the predicted
corrosion rate of stainless steel will be significantly lower than that for black steel and this
further enhances design for durability

5.2 Carbonation
Another potential risk, particularly for concrete exposed to atmospheric conditions, is
carbonation. This was primarily of concern for the superstructure elements of the Second
Gateway Bridge. The process of carbonation results in reduction of concrete pH. The
passive iron oxide layer, which protects reinforcement from corrosion in concrete
structures, is only maintained at higher pH levels. If the concrete becomes carbonated to
the depth of reinforcement, the passive iron oxide layer is no longer stable and corrosion
can occur in the presence of sufficient water and oxygen.

The rate of carbonation of concrete is related to a combination of factors. These include

CO2 concentration, moisture content of the concrete and diffusivity of hardened cement
paste. The diffusivity in turn depends on mix design (cementitious content, presence and
proportion of supplementary cementing materials, water/cementitious material ratio),
extent of curing, pore size and distribution within the concrete, and connectivity of pores.
The presence of cracks permits local ingress of CO2 and can result in carbonation and
subsequent corrosion ahead of the main carbonation front in sound concrete.

The risk of reinforcement corrosion initiation by the process of carbonation can be reduced
by using high quality concrete and sufficient depth of cover. The rate of carbonation in
atmospheric environments is expressed typically expressed by Equation 5.

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Depth of Carbonation (mm) = C.t0.5 (5)

where C = carbonation rate (mm/year0.5)

t = time (years)

The carbonation rate can be expressed as a function of the controlling factors and these
are described by Lay et al. (2003) and Maage and Smeplass (2001). Other more
sophisticated models of carbonation have also been developed (e.g., CEB, 1997; Saetta
and Vitaliani, 2004; Steffens et al., 2002). However, the simpler Equation 5 was used in
this instance.

The concrete mix designs considered for the bridge superstructure were 40 and 50 MPa
with 25% fly ash. The maximum water/cementitious material ratios of the S40 and S50
concretes were 0.46 and 0.4, respectively and the minimum total cementitious contents
were 450 and 390 kg/m3, respectively. The fly ash was required to provide protection
against alkali-aggregate reaction. However, a disadvantage of fly ash in this case was
increased carbonation rate for concrete with equivalent water/cementitious material ratio
and total cementitious content. Published data (Ho and Lewis, 1987; Burden, 2006;
Collepardi et al, 2004; McPolin, 2007; Sisomphon and Franke; 2007) for similar mix
designs to those proposed was used to estimate the carbonation rates for predictive
purposes. The rates selected were 4.5 and 3.0 mm/yr0.5 for S40 and S50 concrete with
25% fly ash, respectively, and an atmospheric CO2 concentration of 0.04% has been
assumed. The carbonation predictions are presented in Figure 6.
120
0.5
Carbonation Rate = 3.0 mm/yr , S50 25% FA
0.5
Carbonation Rate = 4.5 mm/yr , S40 25% FA
Depth of Carbonation (mm)

100

80

60
55 mm

45 mm
40

20

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Time (years)

Figure 6 Predicted Depth of Carbonation versus Time for S40 and S50 25% Fly Ash Concretes.

The depth of carbonation predictions in Figure 6 suggested that the proposed 55 mm

cover to exterior surfaces of superstructure elements would be acceptable in preventing
premature carbonation and corrosion initiation provided an S50 concrete or other mix with
a maximum carbonation rate of 3.0 mm/yr0.5 was used. Reliability analysis was also
performed using the procedure outlined by Maage and Smelplass (2001) as part of the
Duracrete work on service life prediction. Therefore, the philosophy adopted was to use
high quality concrete with predicted carbonation rate 3.0 mm/yr0.5 and cover of 55 mm.
To provide more cover was not regarded as practical or beneficial because the
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superstructure comprises relatively slender elements and additional cover would only
result in wider crack widths under load and have a detrimental effect on durability.

5.3 Other Durability Issues

In addition to reinforcement corrosion due to chloride ingress or carbonation, durability

assessment for the Second Gateway Bridge considered other mechanisms of deterioration
including sulphate attack, alkali-aggregate reaction and acid sulphate soils. The approach
taken to ensure durability was to use high quality concrete with supplementary
cementitious materials, appropriate cover, and, where necessary additional protection
such as sacrificial steel casing. Guidelines produced by Carse (2004) for protection
against acid sulphate soils and the research findings by Carse and Dux (1988, 1989) on
the use of fly ash for control alkali-aggregate reaction were implemented.

6.0 Construction Control

The long life sought by the design will not be achieved without the necessary control
applied by the construction team to realise the design assumptions of the durability plan.
The first step is to supply a concrete mix with properties equal to or better than those
assumed in the design. In this case trial concrete mixes were tested to ensure the chloride
diffusion coefficients were achievable, and the concrete cast was tested during production
to verify that the properties were achieved in the structure.

However apart from using high performance concrete, the single most important element
in achieving durable structures is to ensure the correct thickness of high quality cover
concrete. The design must ensure the detailing is practical
enough to prevent reinforcement congestion, but the
construction must ensure the requisite cover is achieved, the
compaction of the concrete achieves a good layer of dense
cover concrete, and the concrete is sufficiently cured to
prevent any early age cracking or incomplete hydration. For
the Second Gateway Bridge the contractor undertook an
extensive education program with a theme of 3 C’s to
encourage commitment of all workers to achieve a 300 year
life. The slogan adopted is shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7 The 3C’s Logo

7.0 Conclusions
Very long life concrete structures have been achievable through the ages and are
achievable now. Structures that meet the challenge for very long life go a long way
towards sustainability and provide asset owners and the community in general with a
better return on their investment in major infrastructure.

This paper describes a design methodology that can be adopted to achieve very long
service life. The process goes beyond the deemed-to-comply assumptions of the codes,
and uses a first-principles, materials science approach to durability planning.

The cost to achieve very long life is not great. In the case of the Second Gateway Bridge,
the price paid to achieve a design life of 300 years rather than notionally 100 years
involved:

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 Selection of good quality concrete. This is not a cost impost but rather business as
usual and can often be based on current concrete specifications of the State road
authorities. The extra requirement is the need to define target chloride diffusion and
carbonation coefficients, and achieve them.
Selection of greater cover to reinforcement. In this case 55mm cover was adopted
for 50MPa superstructure concrete when the AS5100.5 code would have permitted
45mm.
Use of a ternary concrete mix and selective use of stainless steel as surface
reinforcement in the splash zones.
Provision of electrical continuity for reinforcement in substructure elements in more
aggressive environments, to enable future cathodic protection to be installed if
necessary.
Good detailing to enable compaction of concrete, along with good vibration and
subsequent curing during construction, to ensure a dense layer of cover concrete.

It takes a commitment from owners, designers and builders to achieve the goal of very
long life. This commitment was demonstrated by all involved on the Gateway Bridge
project down to the men placing, finishing and curing the concrete. This commitment
achieves results when supported by an adequate level of supervision and guidance, plus
active and independent surveillance.

8.0 Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank Queensland Motorways Limited, Leighton Abigroup Joint
Venture, and the Maunsell-SMEC Joint Venture for permission to publish this paper. The
views expressed in this paper are those of the authors

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