7.2.

3 Inductance Neumann Formula for the Mutual Inductance

Two loops of wire at rest.
Φ 2 = ∫ B1 ⋅ da= ∫ (∇ × A1 ) ⋅ da= v∫ A1 ⋅ dl 2
A steady current I1 around loop 1Î B1
Some B1 passes through loop 2 Î Φ2 µ0 I1 dl1
4π v∫ r
A1 =

µ0 I1 dl1 × rˆ µ0 I1 dl1 ⋅ dl 2
Φ 2 = ∫ B1 ⋅ da and B1 =
4π v∫ r 2
Φ2 =
4π ∫
v ∫
v r
µ dl ⋅ dl
M 21 = 0 v∫ v∫ 1 2 ⇐ Neumann formula
4π r
µ0 dl1 × rˆ
Φ2 = [
4π ∫ v∫ r2
⋅ da]I1 = M 21 I1

It involves a double line integral ---

The constant of proportionality: one integration around loop 1, the
mutual inductance of the two loops. other around loop 2.
1 2

Important Things about Mutual Inductance Example

It is not very useful for practical A circular coil with a cross-sectional area of 4 cm2 has 10
µ dl ⋅ dl
M 21 = 0
4π v∫ v∫ 1 r 2 calculation, but it reveals two
important features.
turns. It is placed at the center of a long solenoid that has 15
turns/cm and a cross-sectional area of 10 cm2, as shown
below. The axis of the coil coincides with the axis of the
1. M21 is purely geometrical quantity, having to do with the solenoid. What is their mutual inductance?
size, shape, and relative position. Solution:
Φ12 = B2 A1 = µ 0 n2 I 2 A1
2. M21=M12, so we can drop the subscripts and call them M. N1Φ12
M= = µ 0 n2 N1 A1
I2
Whatever the shapes and positions of the loops, the flux = (4π ×10 −7 )(1500)(10)(0.0004)
through 2 when we run current I around 1 is identical to the
flux through 1 when we send the same current I around 2. = 7.54 uF
Notice that although M12=M21, it would have been much
Advantage of M21=M12, see the following examples. difficult to find Φ21 because the field due to the coil is quite
3 nonuniform. 4
 Self-Inductance Example 7.11
It is convenient to express the induced emf in
Find the self-inductance of a toroidal coil with rectangular
terms of a current rather than the magnetic flux cross section (inner radius a, outer radius b, height h), which
through it.
carries a total n turns.
The magnetic flux is directly proportional to the
current flowing through it. Sol: magnetic field µ0 NI
B=
N1Φ11 = L1 I1 Inside a toroidal 2π s
where L1 is a constant of proportionality called the self-
N Φ11 b µ NI µ hNI1
inductance of coil 1. The SI unit of self-inductance is the L1 = and Φ11 = h ∫ 0 1 ds = 0 ln(b / a )
I1 a 2π s 2π
henry (H). The self-inductance of a circuit depends on its size
and its shape.
The self-induced emf in coil 1 due to changes in I1 takes the µ0 hN 2 b
form ∴ L1 = ln( )
dI 2π a
E = − L1 1
dt 5 6

Example LR Circuits
A coaxial cable consists of an inner wire of radius a that How does the current rise and fall as a function of time in a
carries a current I upward, and an outer cylindrical conductor circuit containing an inductor and a resistor in series?
of radius b that carries the same current downward. Find the Rise dI
Vemf − IR − L =0
self-inductance of a coaxial cable of length L. Ignore the dt
magnetic flux within the inner wire. dI
Let I = I 0 e −α t + β ⇒ = −α I 0 e −α t
dt
Solution:
µI µI  −α t R
B = 0 , dΦ = BdA = 0 Adx e : α=
L
2πx 2πx 
 E
b µ I µ IA b 0 : E − Rβ = 0 ⇒ β =
Φ = ∫ 0 Adx = 0 ln = LI  R
a 2πx 2π a t = 0 : I = − β = − E

µA b
0
R
L = 0 ln E R
2π a
− t
∴ I = (1 − e L )
Hint1: The direction of the magnetic field. R

Hint2: What happens when considers the inner flux? 7

The quantity τ=L/R is called the time constant. 8
 LR Circuits 7.2.4 Energy in Magnetic Field
Decay Inductance (like capacitance) is an intrinsically positive
dI quantity. Lenz’s law dictates that the emf is in such a
− IR − L =0 direction as to oppose any change in current Î back emf.
dt
dI It takes a certain amount of energy to start a current flowing
Let I = I 0 e −α t ⇒ = −α I 0 e −α t
dt in a circuit.
 −α t R What we are concerned with are the work you must do
e : α=
L against the back emf to get the current going.
 E
t = 0 : I 0 =
 R Is this a fixed amount? Is it recoverable?
E − L t E −τt
R Yes, you get it back when the current is turned off.
∴I = e = e
R R It represents energy latent in the circuit or it can be regard as
energy stored in the magnetic field.
The quantity τ=L/R is called the time constant.
9 10

Energy Stored in an Inductor The Power

The battery that establishes the current in an inductor has to The work done on a unit charge, against the back emf, in
do work against the opposing induced emf. The energy one trip around the circuit is –E.
supplied by the battery is stored in the inductor. the work done by
you against the emf
In Kirchhoff’s loop rule, we obtain
The total work done on per unit time is
di
E = iR + L dW d (−EQ) dI
dt = = −EI = LI
di dt dt dt
iE = i 2 R + Li
dt I0 dI 1 2
The total work is W = ∫ LI = LI 0
dU L 1 0 dt 2
iE = i 2 R + , where U L = LI 2
dt 2
Depends only on the geometry of the
loop (in the form of L) and the final
power supplied power dissipated energy change rate
current I0.
by the battery in the resistor in the inductor 11 12
 Energy Density of the Magnetic Field Generalized Total Energy
We have expressed the total energy stored in the inductor in There is a nicer way to write the total magnetic energy W.
terms of the current and we know the magnetic field is
Φ = ∫ B ⋅ da = ∫ (∇ × A) ⋅ da = v∫ A ⋅ dl = LI
proportional to the current. Can we express the total S S P
magnetic energy in terms of the B-field? Yes.
S: surface bounded by P P: perimeter of the loop
Let’s consider the case of solenoid.
L = µ 0 n 2 AA 1 2 1 1 1
W= LI = ΦI = I v∫ A ⋅ dl = v∫ ( A ⋅ I )dl
2 2 2 P 2P
1 2 1 B2
UL = LI = ( µ 0 nI ) 2 AA = AA
2 2µ0 2µ0 generalize to the volume current
1 1 1
2 v∫P 2 V∫
τ
2
uB =
B W= ( A ⋅ I ) dl = ( A ⋅ J ) d , where J = ∇×B
2µ0
(The energy density of a magnetic field in free space) µ0
1 1
W = ∫ ( A ⋅ J )dτ =
2 µ0 V∫
Although this relation has been obtained from a special case, [ A ⋅ (∇ × B)]dτ
the expression is valid for any magnetic field. 2V
13 14

Generalized Total Energy II Electric and Magnetic Field Energy

Product rule 6, ∇ ⋅ ( A × B) = B ⋅ (∇ × A) − A ⋅ (∇ × B) Electric field energy energy density
1 ε ε0
A ⋅ (∇ × B) = B ⋅ (∇ × A) − ∇ ⋅ ( A × B) Welec = ∫ (V ρ )dτ = 0 ∫ E 2 dτ , uE = E2
 
2 2 2
B
1 1 Magnetic field energy
W= ∫
2 µ0 V
[ A ⋅ (∇ × B)]dτ =
2 µ0 V∫
[B ⋅ B − ∇ ⋅ ( A × B)]dτ
1 1 1 2
1 1
divergence theorem
Wmag =
2 ∫ ( A ⋅ J )dτ =
2 µ0 ∫
B 2 dτ , uB =
2 µ0
B
= ∫
2 µ0 V
B 2 dτ −
2 µ0 v∫ (A × B) ⋅ da
S

1 Magnetic fields themselves do no work. Where does the

V → all space
2 µ0 v∫ (A × B) ⋅ da → 0
S
energy come from?
A changing magnetic field induces an electric field which can
1
W= ∫ B dτ
2 do work.
2 µ0 all space 15 16
 Example Example
The breakdown electric field strength of air is 3x106 V/m. A Use the expression for the energy density of the magnetic field
very large magnetic field strength is 20 T. compare the energy to calculate the self-inductance of a toroid with a rectangular
densities of the field. cross section.
Solution:
Solution: 1 µ 0 NI
U E = ε 0 E 2 = (0.5)(8.85 × 10-12 )(3 × 106 ) 2 B=
2 2πr
= 40 J/m 3 B2 B2 µ h( NI ) 2
dU B = dV = h(2πrdr ) = 0 dr
2 µ0 2 µ0 4πr
1 20 2
UB = B = 2
b µ 0 h( NI ) 2 µ hN 2 I 2 b 1 2
2µ0 2 × 4π ×10-7 UB = ∫ dr = 0 ln( ) = LI
a 4πr 4π a 2
= 3.2 ×10 J/m 8 3
µ0 N 2 h b
L= ln( )
2π a
Magnetic fields are an effective means of storing energy
without breakdown of the air. However, it is difficult to produce Can we use the concept of magnetic flux to derive the self-
such large fields over large regions. inductance?
17 18

Example 7.13 7.3 Maxwell’s Equations

7.3.1 Electrodynamics before Maxwell
A long coaxial cable carries current I (the current flows down 1
the surface of the inner cylinder, radius a, and back along the ∇⋅E = ρ (Gauss's law)
ε0
outer cylinder, radius b) as shown in the Figure. Find the
magnetic energy stored in a section of length l. ∇⋅B = 0 (no name) electromagnetic theory
over a century ago
∂B
Sol: ∇×E = − (Faraday's law)
µI ∂t
magnetic field B = 0 φˆ
2π s ∇ × B = µ0 J (Ampere's law)
1 2 µ0 I 2
energy density uB = B = 2 2 A fatal inconsistency in Ampere’s law
2 µ0 8π s
∇ ⋅ (∇ × B) = µ0∇ ⋅ J
µ I2 µ I2 b
magnetic energy WB = ∫ uB dτ = ∫ 02 2 l 2π sds = 0 l ln( )
V V
8π s 4π a =0 ≠0
1 µl b
self-inductance WB = LI 2 ⇒ L = 0 ln( ) Ampere’s law is incorrect for the nonsteady current.
2 2π a 19 20
 The Electric and Magnetic Fields Another Inconsistency of Ampere’s Law
Two distinct kinds of electric fields: How do we determine the enclosed current Ienc?

E (in static case): attributed to electric charges, using

Coulomb’s law. v∫ B ⋅ dl = µ I 0 enc

E (in nonsteady case): associated with changing

magnetic field, using Faraday’s law.

* The simplest surface---the wire puncture this surface

Two distinct kinds of magnetic fields: so Ienc=I Í Ampere’s law is ok.
B (in static case): attributed to electric currents, using * A bollon-shaped surface---no current passes through
Ampere’s law. this surface. so Ienc=0 Í Ampere’s law is not valid!
B (in nonsteady case): associated with changing electric
field, using? For nonsteady current, “the current enclosed by a loop”
is an ill-defined.
21 22

How Maxwell Fixed Ampere’s Law Electric Analogy of Faraday’s Law

Applying the continuity equation and Gauss’s law, Maxwell’s term cures the defect in Ampere’s law,
the offending term can be rewritten: and moreover, it has a certain aesthetic appeal.
∂ρ ∂ (ε 0∇ ⋅ E) ∂E
∇⋅J = − =− = ∇ ⋅ (−ε 0 ) Faraday’s law
∂t ∂t ∂t
∂E A changing magnetic field induces a electric field.
A new current J′ = J + ε 0 ← kills off the extra divergence
∂t
∂E
∇ ⋅ (∇ × B) = µ0 (∇ ⋅ J′) = µ0∇ ⋅ (J + ε 0 )=0
∂t A changing electric field induces a magnetic field.

When E is constant (electrostatic+magnetostatic), we

will have ∇ × B = µ0 J . Maxwell called this extra term “the displacement current”.
∂E
ε0 plays a crucial role in the EM wave propagation. ∂E a misleading name,
∂t Jd ≡ ε0
∂t nothing to do with current
23 24
 The Displacement Current 7.3.3 Maxwell’s Equations
How the displacement current resolves the paradox of the Maxwell’s equations in the traditional way.
charging capacitor. 1
∇⋅E = ρ (Gauss's law)
ε0
The electric field between ∇⋅B = 0 (no name)
the two capacitor plates is
∂B
σ 1 Q the charge on the plate ∇×E = − (Faraday's law)
E= = ∂t
ε0 ε0 A the area of the plate ∂E (Ampere's law with
∇ × B = µ 0 J + µ 0ε 0
∂E 1 ∂Q I ∂t Maxwell's correction)
ε0 = = =J
∂t A ∂t A F = q (E + v × B )
Lorentz force law
J=J, Jd=0 at the flat surface
J tot = J + J d
J=0, Jd=J at the balloon-shaped surface ∂ρ
Continuity equation ∇⋅J = −
∂t
25 26

Maxwell’s Equations (II) 7.3.4 Magnetic Charge

If there is a magnetic “charge” ρm and the corresponding
Another expression of the Maxwell’s equations.
current of the magnetic “current” Jm, the Maxwell’s
ρ ∂B equations read
∇⋅E = ∇×E + =0
ε0 ∂t ρe ∂B
∇⋅E = ∇×E + = −ε 0 J m A symmetric
∂E ε0 ∂t between E and B
∇⋅B = 0 ∇ × B − µ 0ε 0 = µ0 J
∂t ∂E EÆB
∇ ⋅ B = µ0 ρ m ∇ × B − µ0ε 0 = µ0 J e BÆ-µ0ε0E
The fields (E and B) on the left ∂t
and the sources (ρ and J) on the right.
Both charges would be conserved:
∂ρ ∂ρ
Maxwell’s equations tell you how sources produce ∇ ⋅ J e = − e , and ∇ ⋅ J m = − m
∂t ∂t
fields; reciprocally, the Lorentz force law tells you how
fields affect sources. Í A nonlinear feedback Q: Has any one ever found the magnetic charge?
No.
27 28
 7.3.5 Maxwell’s Equations in Matter Polarization and Bound Currents
When working with materials that are subject to electric and Bound current Jb: magnetization of the material involving
magnetic polarization, there is a more convenient way to the spin and orbital motion of electrons.
write the Maxwell’s equations.
Static case:
Polarization current Jp: the linear motion of charge when
An electric polarization produces a bound charge: ρ b = −∇ ⋅ P
the electric polarization changes.
A magnetic polarization results in a bound current: J b = ∇ × M Now ρ = ρf + ρ b = ρf − ∇ ⋅ P
Nonstatic case: ∂P
J = Jf + Jb + Jp = Jf + ∇ × M +
Any change in the electric polarization involves a flow of ∂t
bound charge. 1
Gauss’s law: ∇ ⋅ E = ( ρf − ∇ ⋅ P) ⇒ ∇ ⋅ (ε 0 E + P) = ρf
dI dσ b da⊥ ∂P ε0
Jp = = = where σ b = P ⋅ nˆ
da⊥ dt da⊥ ∂t
∂P ∂E
Ampere’s law: ∇ × B = µ0 ( J f + ∇ × M + ) + µ 0ε 0
polarization current ∂t ∂t
1 ∂
(nothing to do with the bound current). ⇒ ∇ × ( B − M ) = J f + (ε 0 E + P)
29 µ0 ∂t 30

Maxwell’s Equations in Matter 7.3.6 Boundary Conditions (I)

Differential form Integral form
In terms of free charges and currents, Maxwell’s equations

read ∂B ∇ ⋅ D = ρf
v∫ D ⋅ da = ρ 
f

∇ ⋅ D = ρf ∇ × E + =0  over any enclosed surface S .

S

∂t ∇⋅B = 0 v∫S B ⋅ da = 0 
∂D
∇⋅B = 0 ∇×H − = Jf
∂t

The constitutive relations: P = ε 0 χeE v∫ D ⋅ da = ρ

S
f

M = µ0 χ m H D1 ⋅ a − D2 ⋅ a = σ f a ⇒ D1⊥ − D2⊥ = σ f

So D = ε 0 E + P = ε 0 (1 + χ e )E = ε E
1 v∫ B ⋅ da = 0
H= B−M ⇒ B = µ0 (1 + χ m )H = µ H wafer thin S
µ0 Gaussian pillbox B1 ⋅ a − B 2 ⋅ a = σ f a ⇒ B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0
31 32
 Boundary Conditions (II) Boundary Conditions in Linear Media
Differential form Integral form
D1⊥ − D2⊥ = σ f E1// − E2// = 0
∂B ∂ 
∇×E + =0 v∫ E ⋅ dl = − ∂t ∫ B ⋅ da  for any surface S B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0 H1⊥ − H ⊥2 = (K f × nˆ )
∂t 
 bounded by the
P S
∂D ∂ In case of linear media, D and H can be express in terms of
∇×H −
∂t
= Jf v∫P H ⋅ dl = J f + ∂t ∫S D ⋅ da  closed loop P. E and B.
ε1 E1 − ε 2 E2 = σ f
⊥ ⊥ // //
E1 − E2 = 0
∂
v∫P E ⋅ dl = − ∂t ∫S B ⋅ da B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0
1
B1⊥ −
1
B ⊥2 = K f × nˆ
∂ µ1 µ2
E1 ⋅ l − E2 ⋅ l = − ∫ B ⋅ da ⇒ E1// − E2// = 0
∂t S
∂ If there is no free charge or free current at the interface,
v∫P H ⋅ dl = J f + ∂t ∫S D ⋅ da then ε E⊥ − ε E⊥ = 0 E // − E // = 0
1 1 2 2 1 2
∂
very thin Amperian H1 ⋅ l − H 2 ⋅ l = I fenc + ∫ D ⋅ da ⇒ (H1⊥ − H ⊥2 ) ⋅ l = I fenc 1 1
loop straddling the ∂t S B1⊥ − B2⊥ = 0 B1⊥ − B ⊥2 = 0
µ1 µ2
surface I fenc = K f ⋅ (nˆ × l ) = (K f × nˆ ) ⋅ l ⇒ H1⊥ − H ⊥2 = (K f33× nˆ ) 34

Homework of Chap.7 (part II)

Prob. 31, 40, 42, 53, 57

35