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Gift University Gujranwala

Electromagnetic Field Theory

Lecture # 03

Student Notes

Electrical Department

Prepared By: Eng. Ali Arshad

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1.1 DEL (∇) OPERATOR AND GRADIENTS OF A SCALAR FIELD

Gradient uses a del operator , hich is sho n as ∇. Del operator is a ector differential operator.

It gives the maximum space rate of change of the scalar. The scalar can be temperature, potential and so
on.

Del has units of 1/metre (1/m)

It is given as

Del operator ∇” is also called a gradient operator. The gradient of a scalar quantity ‘V’ (in Cartesian
coordinates) is given as

Gradient of a scalar is a vector and is defined as

Gradient V is expressed as a vector. Its magnitude is obtained as

Del operator ∇” in Cylindrical coordinates is given as

Del operator ∇” in Spherical coordinates is given as

It gives the maximum space rate of change of the scalar. The scalar can be temperature, potential and so
on.
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Problem 1 A scalar function, V is given by V = xyz2. Find the gradient of V.

Solution Grad

1.2 DIVERGENCE OF VECTOR FIELDS

Divergence of a vector is a scalar and is defined as

Divergence means the spreading or diverging of a quantity from a point. It is applicable to vectors only.
The divergence of a vector indicates the net flow of quantities like gas, fluid, vapor, electric and
magnetic flux lines. In other words, it is a measure of the difference between outflow and inflow.

The divergence of a vector is positive if the net flow is outward.

It is negative if the net flow is inward.

Divergence point is positive if field lines are coming out from a small volume (diverging and
surrounding the point).

Divergence is negative if field lines are coming into a small volume (converging). If the rate at which
field lines entering a small volume is equal to that leaving the small volume surrounding the point, then
divergence is zero.
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Let vector (in

Cartesian coordinates)

Now divergence is

Divergence in Cylindrical coordinates is

Divergence in Spherical coordinates is

Problem 2 If a vector, B = 4xy2ax + 2y3ay + xyzaz, find the divergence of B.

Solution
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1.3 CURL OF A VECTOR (≡ ∇ × A)

Curl of a vector is a vector and is defined as

Curl A

It is a measure of the tendency of a vector quantity to rotate or twist or curl. In other words, the rate of
rotation or angular velocity at a point is the measure of curl.

In Cartesian coordinates,

In cylindrical coordinates,

is a vector.

In spherical coordinates,
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Problem 3 Given a vector, A = 3xax + yay + 5zaz, find the curl of A.

Solution
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2 Electrostatic Fields

2.1 Electrostatic Field

Electrostatic fields are produced by charges at rest.
Electrostatic fields are also called static electric fields or steady electric fields. These fields are not variant
with time. They are produced by static charges or charge distributions.
These fields have a wide range of applications.

Applications of Electrostatic fields

1. in cathode ray oscilloscopes to obtain the electron beam deflection
2. in ink-jet printers to obtain speed of printing and quality of print
3. to sort out minerals in ore separators, to sort out seeds in agriculture and for spraying
plants and trees
4. in electrostatic generators
5. to produce potential
6. to produce force on charges for their mobility
7. in electric power transmission
8. in lightning protection
9. to measure moisture content
10. to spin cotton
11. in field-effect transistors
12. in capacitors
13. in LCDs
14. in touch pads
15. in capacitance keyboards
16. in fast baking of bread
17. in ECGs, EEGs, ERG, EMG, EOG in medical applications
18. in spray painting
19. in electrochemical machining
20. X-ray machines

2.2 Different Types of Charge Distributions

Charges at rest produce electrostatic field. The charges are basically of two types: positive
and negative.

2.2.1 Properties and Functions of Charges

1. Charge is conserved. It can neither be created nor destroyed.

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2. Electron charge or proton charge is the basic charge.

3. When a charge is accelerated, electromagnetic field is produced. A fraction of the field is
detached and propagates at the speed of light. The detached field carries energy,
momentum and angular momentum. This is called electromagnetic radiation.
4. Charges are surrounded by electric and magnetic fields.
5. A charge experiences a force in the presence of a field.
6. Charges mediate the integration of fields.

There are four types of charge distributions.

Figure 2.1 shows various types of charge distributions.

Figure 2.1 Types of charge distributions

i. Point charges distribution

Point charges, Q (Coulomb) these are the charges which do not occupy any
space, that is, the volume of the point charge is zero. For example, an electron is considered
to be a point charge and has a charge of 1.6 × 10–19Coulombs (C).

ii. Line charge distribution

Line charge distribution ρL (c/m) this is a charge distribution in which the

charge is distributed along a line like a filament, that is, this has only length but no width or
breadth. ρL is defined as the charge per unit length, that is,

Where ΔQ is small charge, ΔL is small length, dQ is differential charge and dL is differential

length.
ρL is simply considered as Q/L.

An example is the electron beam in CRT.

Example 2.1 If there is a charge of 10μC over a filament length of 0.5 m, find its line
charge density.
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Solution Here, Q = 10μC = 10 × 10–6 C

L = 0.5m
Line charge density, ρL = Q/L = 10 / 0.5 = 20 μC / m

iii. Surface charge distribution

Surface charge distribution ρs (c/m2) When a charge is confined to the surface

of a conductor, it is said to be surface charge distribution. Such a surface has both length and
width but no breadth.
Surface density is defined as the charge per unit area, that is,

Where ΔS is small area and dS is differential area.

Sometimes, ρs is simply considered as Q/S.

An example is the conductor surface of a capacitor.

Problem 2.2 If there is a total charge of 10 pC over a surface area of 0.2 m2, find the
surface charge density.
Solution Here, Q = 10 pC = 10 × 10–12C
S = 0.2 m2
Surface charge density, ρs = Q/ S = (10 × 10–12)/0.2
= 50pC/m2

iv. Volume charge distribution

Volume charge distribution, ρv (c/m3) Volume charge density is defined as the

charge per unit volume, that is,

where dv is differential volume.

Sometimes, ρv is simply considered as

Examples are ionospheric region, electron cloud in vacuum tube.

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Problem 2.3 If there exists a total charge of 12 nC in a spherical volume of 0.1 m3, find the
volume charge density.

Solution Here Q = 12nC = 12 × 10 –9C

v = 0.1 m3

The volume charge density,

ρv = Q / v

= 12 / 0.1

= 120 nC / m3