4 Particle shape effect on sand behaviour

4.1 Introduction

The research progress in particle shape has been reviewed in Section

2.5. This chapter will firstly introduce a systematic numerical study on

particle shape using DEM. The unique innovation is to separate the

relative contributions of elongation index (EI), flatness index (FI),

convexity (Cx) and roundness (R) from individual measurements. A

specific shape factor effect on shear behaviour based on direct shear tests

is investigated. Then, particle shape information for the real sand - Fujian

Standard Sand obtained from MorphologI and the microscope at UCL are

provided. Combined with the numerical particle shape studies results and

experimental particle shape information, we propose a representative

particle shape to prepare the numerical direct shear tests for calibration of

pure sand. Finally, the numerical direct shear tests results (stress-strain

relationship, volume-strain response and stress dilatancy curve) are

compared with the corresponding experimental results. The discussion

and limitation about pure sand calibration based on numerical and

experimental work are summarized.

4.2 DEM investigations on particle shape

1
 4.2.1 Sample preparation

The general DEM procedure for the direct shear tests on sand

including initial sample preparation, consolidation and calculation has

been introduced in Chapter 3 section 3.5. This section adds some more

details on sample preparation for particle shape studies based on direct

shear tests. Details are including information such as the particle size

distribution of sand used in DEM model; the selection of different states

of sample preparation (loose, medium dense and dense sample); and a

sample design chart with a series of particle shapes.

Numerical direct shear tests are carried out based on the

corresponding laboratory tests. The soil container was reported to be 60

mm in length, 60 mm in width and 40 mm in high. In the laboratory tests,

dry sand with the particle size distribution shown in Figure 4.1 has been

used. Since the computational time in DEM simulations is highly

depending on the numbers of particles, the particle “up-scaling”

technique has been commonly used in DEM studies to balance the

computational cost against the scaling effect on the sample response

2
(Wang and Leung, 2008; Lin et al., 2013; Tran et al., 2013). It can be

seen in those studies that the mechanical behaviour of the investigated

objects with the technique of “up-scaling” has been investigated

satisfactorily. Therefore, the particle sizes of sand in the laboratory tests

were increased with an up-scaling factor of 7 for DEM simulations in this

study, as shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1 Particle size distribution of sand in laboratory tests and in DEM simulations.

In the laboratory tests, the relative density of sand achieved during

sample preparation was 0.95, with a dry density of 1.611 g/cm 3. In order

to obtain an identical specimen in DEM and validate the correctness of

sample preparation process, we prepared three different states of sand to

carry out the numerical direct shear tests. The loose sample with the

3
porosity and inter-particle friction were 0.15 and 0.5 respectively. The

medium dense sample with the porosity and inter-particle friction were

0.15 and 0.2 respectively. And the dense sample (as introduced in Section

3.5) with the porosity and inter-particle friction were 0.15 and 0.0

respectively. Then the assembly was compressed to a 4.5 kPa isotropic

stress state. The sand-sand particle friction was increased to 0.2 before

compressing the specimen to reach a 5.0 kPa isotropic stress state. During

compressing the sample to 30 kPa isotropic stress state, the sand-sand

particle friction keeps constant at 0.2.

We choose randomly a particle shape shown in Figure 4.2 to conduct

these tests. The clump with two pebbles is simple. And various particle

shapes will replace it in the following particle shape studies. Figure 4.3

shows the numerical direct shear tests results. As expected, Figure 4.3 (a)

shows that the dense sample has an obvious peak stress at shear strain of

2.5%, while the cases of medium dense and loose samples show lower

peak stresses. The initially loose sample and medium-dense sample

display no peak strength, but eventually reaches the same critical shear
4
stress as the initially dense sample. These three cases reach a similar

critical stress which is expected. Figure 4.3 (b) shows the relationship

between volume strain and shear strain. For dense sample, the behaviour

of dilatancy is remarkable, it means during the shearing, the lid of the

shear-box is moving upward and the sample is increasing in volume, or

dilating. And for the cases of loose sample, there is a tendency of

contraction, the lid of the shear-box is moving downward and the sample

is reducing in volume, or compressing. Figure 4.3 (c) shows the stress-

dilatancy curve. The vertical axis is the stress ratio, the horizontal axis is

about the gradient of volumetric strain increment and shear strain

increment. We used 3 points LINEST function to get this figure. Ψ is

defined as the maximum negative of the rate of increase of volumetric

strain with shear strain. This curve can further verifies all samples reach

the same critical stress state, and also proves the correctness of the model

and simulation carried out.

5
 Figure 4.2 Particle shape used in testing the dense sample preparation.

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 4.3 Numerical direct shear test results of different states of sand.

6
 After introducing and verifying the sample preparation procedure, a

sample design chart with different particle shapes is provided in Table

4.1. In order to keep consistent with further rubber-tyre pull-out tests

investigation, all samples with different particle shapes based on direct

shear tests are prepared to dense state. To investigate the elongation effect

on shear behaviour, we control other shape parameters like flatness index,

roundness and convexity the same or similar. The particle shapes in

flatness index and roundness group follow a similar design concept. For

particle shapes in the convexity effect group, we designed a longer and

shorter group to consider more range of elongation index.

7
 Table 4.1 Sample design chart with different particle shapes

4.2.2 Effect of particle shape on packing ability

Packing ability of a soil is a function of particle size distribution and

also particle shape. Youd (1972) examined the packing of granular

8
materials with different grading uniformities and different roundness

extents and found that the void ratios increase as particles become more

angular. The effect of particle shape on packing ability is examined in

Figure 4.4 which shows that reasonable correlations exist between each

of elongation index (EI), flatness index (FI), convexity (Cx) and

roundness (R), and the maximum and minimum void ratios. For the

elongation effect results shown in Figure 4.4 (a), ellipsoidal particles can

pack densely than spheres in a certain range of elongation index, e.g.

from 0.7 to 1.0. If particles are too elongated, the packing becomes

looser. When the elongation index ranges from 0.25 to 0.7, both emax and

emin decrease with an increase of elongation index, similar trend was

found in previous studies (Altuhafi et al, 2016; Yang et al, 2019). It’s

noted that the range of elongation index (they call aspect ratio, but the

calculation is the same) investigated in Altuhafi and Yang’s studies is

narrow, ranging from 0.7 to 0.8, and from 0.35 to 0.55, respectively. Both

of them used the real soils for investigations, the trend is compatible with

the numerical results. This means particle shape studies using DEM not
9
only disclose the packing abilities but also consider more range of

elongation index flexibly.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 4.4 Effect of particle shape on extreme void ratios.

For the flatness effect results shown in Figure 4.4 (b), the change of

both emax and emin along with the flatness index is minimal. The reason

may be the elongation index for this group of particle shapes is 0.6, it’s

10
easier to pack densely according to the results shown in Figure 4.4 (a). It

means that in this situation, elongation index rather than the flatness

index would be a dominated influencing factor on the particles packing

ability.

For the convexity effect results shown in Figure 4.4 (c), the void ratio

decreases with the increase of convexity. Besides, void ratios for

elongated particle group (EI = 0.25) are higher than those of moderately

elongated particle group (EI = 0.5), which is consistent with the results

shown in Figure 4.4 (a). Similar observations can be found in Altuhafi et

al (2016). Clearly, lower convexity values increase the irregularity of

particles which will hinder particle mobility and their ability to attain

dense packing configurations.

For the roundness effect results shown in Figure 4.4 (d), it’s shown

that both emax and emin increase as roundness decrease. This trend is

consistent with observations by Cho (2006).

In summary, generally, the void ratio decreases with the increase of

these shape descriptors, such as elongation index (EI), flatness index (FI),
11
convexity (Cx) and roundness (R). A transition point exists in elongation

index results. Too elongated particles bridge the gaps over particles and

create large open voids, which results in higher void ratios. When

particles are moderately elongated (e.g. EI = 0.6), the flatness index may

not be a dominant influencing factor for the packing ability.

4.2.3 Effect of particle shape on friction angle

Figure 4.5 shows the effect of shape factors on the angle of internal

friction at peak and critical state. For the peak state, the shear data may be

influenced by sample preparation and shear box dimension, which results

in not convincing interpretation for the particle shape effect. It could be

kind of reference to generate numerical sample specimen with

appropriate particle shape when calibrating and matching the

experimental results. However, the achievement of a critical state (critical

void ratio or specific volume, critical friction angle etc), at which

continued shear can take place without change in volume, is illustrated by

the idealized results from shear-box tests on dense and loose samples of

12
soils. Therefore, most researchers analyse the relationship between

particle shape and angle friction based on critical state.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 4.5 Effect of particle shape on the internal angle of shearing

resistance at peak and critical state.

13
 It is shown that the critical friction angle follows a decreasing trend as

an increase in elongation index, flatness index and convexity. Elongated,

flatty particles and those with less convexity increase the irregularity of

the soil specimen, which increases the interlocking between angular

particles during shearing. These results are consistent with previous

studies reported in Altuhafi (2016) and Yang (2019), although the range

of shape descriptors considered in previous studies is not as wide as the

range designed in this PhD research.

It is interesting to find that the critical friction angle follows a

decreasing trend as an increase of roundness, which is opposite with the

trend from Cho’s experimental observation. Three potential reasons help

to explain this abnormal phenomenon: (1) In Cho’s study, real soils are

investigated from experimental perspectives. Group particle shape

identification descriptors are linked and not completely independent. It is

not possible to separate the relative contributions of elongation, flatness,

convexity and roundness from such individual measurements. It may

exist a governed shape factor influencing the shearing strength

14
performance. (2) the description for roundness as the calculation shown

in this study, which is also current popular calculation method may need

to be modified to represent the real particle property correctly. (3) The

particle shapes of roundness effect investigation in the design chart may

deviate the real soil characteristics, because the elongation index and

flatness index are equal to 1.0 ideally.

4.2.4 Effect of particle shape on strain at peak

When we process the calibration work for soils, we compare the

numerical results with the corresponding laboratory results. A good

match of them means the numerical model together with the input

parameters adopted can correctly interpret the experimental tests well.

During this process, the peak stresses at different stress levels are often

closely watched. In order to provide helpful references to calibrate soils

efficiently, we summarised how and what degree of particle shapes

influence the strain at the peak as shown in Figure 4.6. Here, values for

the shear strain were recorded at different corresponding peak stress

levels.
15
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 4.6 Effect of particle shape on shear strain at the peak stress level.

It’s shown that strain at peak follows a decreasing trend with an

increase of elongation index and roundness. However, when the flatness

index increases, strain at peak shows a slightly increasing trend. It seems

that the effect of convexity on strain at peak is minimal.

4.2.5 Effect of particle size scale on shearing results

16
 Specimen scale effects in the direct shear apparatus on the shear

strength parameters of granular soils has been a well-studied topic since

the 1930s, when Parsons (1936) showed the variation of sand friction

angle as a function of the shear box size. Wang and Gutierrez (2010)

presented a study of the micro-mechanics of granular materials as

affected by the direct shear test scale (specimen length and height scales

in relation to the particle size) using DEM. In this study, we keep the box

size constant while change the particle size scale factor to observe the

shearing behaviour. We selected four different particle shapes (labelled as

Case 1, Case 2, Case 3 and Case 4, respectively) from the sample design

chart shown in Table 4.1. Particle size scale factors of 5, 7, 10 and 12 are

adopted.

Figure 4.7 and Table 4.2 summarised the particle size scale effect on

maximum dilatancy rate, strain at peak, peak friction angle and critical

friction angle for Case 1. Figure 4.8 and Table 4.3, Figure 4.9 and Table

4.4, Figure 4.10 and Table 4.5 provide information for Case 2, Case 3 and

Case 4, respectively. For example, in Case 1, it can be seen that when the
17
scale factor is 5 and 7, the shear stress results are similar. However, when

the scale factor is 10 and 12, the shear stress results become fluctuating. It

means for Case 1, using particle size scale factor of 5 and 7 to do the

simulation is reliable. Same analysis method can be applied in Case 2,

Case 3 and Case 4.

(1) Case 1

Figure 4.7 Particle shape and shear information for case 1.

Table 4.2 Scale effect studies for case 1

18
(2) Case 2

Figure 4.8 Particle shape and shear information for case 2.

Table 4.3 Scale effect studies for case 2

19
(3) Case 3

Figure 4.9 Particle shape and shear information for case 3.

Table 4.4 Scale effect studies for case 3

(4) Case 4

20
 Figure 4.10 Particle shape and shear information for case 4.

Table 4.5 Scale effect studies for case 4

In summary, the particle size scale factor has an important and

obvious influence on numerical shear stress results. By comparing

different particle size scale factors for four different particle shapes, it

confirms that the scale factor of 7 used in this PhD project to investigate

particle shape effects, calibrate the sand, investigate rubber-tyre interface

behaviour and pull-out tests is reasonable and reliable.

21
 Table 4.6 Summary of particle size scale effect

Scale factor Case 1 Case 2 Case 3 Case 4

10

12

4.3 Experimental tests information of the sand at UCL

4.3.1 Sand morphology pictures *** WILL UPDATE LATER***

(1) Introduce the MorphologI, understand the principal;

(2) What data u obtain from the MorphologI, how to interpret the data;

(3) Compare the data for Fujian sand with other similar sands. That will

be a very helpful reference;

PS: show the excel you have currently; arrange the tests; read the manual

and set clear goals before testing; update this section quickly.

22
4.3.2 Experimental direct shear tests for pure sand

The laboratory tests were carried out using a small direct shear box

having plan size of 60 mm x 60 mm and a depth of 40 mm. All the tests

were performed in dry and clean conditions. The details of laboratory

tests are given below.

Sand Used in the Experiments

Poorly-graded fine sand (effective particle size D10 of 0.25 mm) was

used for the laboratory tests. Table 4.7 shows the physical properties of

sand samples used in direct shear tests. This type of sand is referred to as

Fujian Standard Sand in China. Figure 4.11 shows the particle size

23
distribution of the sand.

Table 4.7 Physical properties of Fujian Standard sand

Figure 4.11 1 Particle size distribution of Fujian Standard Sand (Lihua et

al, 2017)

Direct shear box, sample preparation and test procedure

The direct shear box (DSB) consists of upper and lower boxes. The

plan area of DSB was 3600 mm2 (60 mm x 60 mm). The bottom box

moves in horizontal direction on smooth rollers. The top box is fully

constrained from lateral movement. The shear displacement was

24
measured using a horizontal displacement dial gauge (HDDG) attached to

the bottom box. The vertical displacement dial gauge (VDDG) and

horizontal force dial gauge (HFDG) shown in Figure 4.12 were used.

Uniform normal pressure was applied to the top of the shear box with a

lever arm ratio of 1:10 in the process of shearing. The proving ring

calibration is 0.2207N per division on HFDG.

For each test, a pre-weighed amount of dry sand was poured into the

shear box and densified in three layers of roughly equal thickness using a

wooden hammer to achieve a 95% relative density. Due to the laboratory

limitation, test may be repeated if the initial void ratio is found to be

without the range 0.625 ± 3% by manual compaction.

After finishing the sample preparation, the tests are basically

undertaken with reference to ASTM standard D3080. Three normal stress

levels of 30 kPa, 50kPa, 100 kPa were used by applying loading of 1.1

kg, 1.84 kg and 3.67 kg for all tests. The HFDG and HDDG were set to

zero before shearing for easy recording and data processing. Readings of

VDDG and HFDG were taken at every 25 division increments of the

HDDG, corresponding to Δx=0.25 mm. The proving ring displacements

were produced to calculate the actual shear displacement for better

accuracy. Shearing speed was set to 0.5 mm/min for all tests. Shearing
25
occurs by displacing the lower half of the box to the right at a constant

velocity of 1mm/min. Tests were terminated upon reaching 10 mm

horizontal displacement of the bottom shear box because at this

displacement both the peak and the critical state shear resistance were

stable. Tests involving groups of tyre-sand were terminated at 20 mm

horizontal displacement in order to avoid and check the boundary effects.

Figure 4.12 Direct shear apparatus

Results and discussion

Data processing was based on: Normal stress is σ =N / A; shear stress

is τ =T / A ; stress ratio is η=τ /σ . The Coulomb-Terzaghi equation: τ =σ tan φ

, where φ is friction angle. Dilatancy is dv/ds = volumetric strain

increment/shear strain increment.

26
 Figure 4.13 Test results for pure sand

The peak and critical state friction angles of the sand measured from

direct shear tests are 42o and 32o, respectively. We could also interpret

27
these test results via the stress-dilatancy curve shown in Figure 4.13. The

vertical axis is the stress ratio, the horizontal axis is about the gradient of

volumetric strain increment and shear strain increment. We used 3(or 5?)

points LINEST function to get this figure.

4.3.3 Calibration results of direct shear tests for sands

(1) introduce how I link the numerical particle shape studies and

experimental shape information from MorphologI and microscope to

design a representative shape for calibration;

Figure 4.14 Representative particle shape.

The numerical simulations were conducted at three different confining

stresses: 50, 100 and 200 kPa, which were identical to those in the

laboratory tests. The basic DEM procedure for direct shear tests on sand

generally include an initial sample preparation; consolidation before

shearing; shearing and calculation are introduced in Section 3.5. The

micro input parameters of the DEM investigations are listed in Table 4.8

and the calibration results of the direct shear tests for sand are shown in
28
Figure 4.15. Although the up-scaling factor influences the numerical

results (Achmus and Abdel-Rahman, 2002), the up-scaling factor for sand

is constant throughout the study. The study of the scale effect on the shear

behaviour was also investigated in Section 4.2.5, the conclusion shows

that using particle size scale factor of 7 is reasonable and rigorous.

Therefore, the numerical results which have been calibrated with the

experimental data, are believed to be reliable. That means the value of

angularity and internal friction angle gave a reproduction of the shear

behavior consistent with the results of experiments.

Figure 4.15 Calibration results of the direct shear tests of sand.

29
 Table 4.8 Input parameters of sand in numerical direct shear tests

Density of the soils [kg/m3] 2650

Particle diameter [mm] Gradation as in Figure 4.1

Particle effective modulus, E* [MPa] 40

Normal-to-shear stiffness ratio, kn/ks 1.2

Friction coefficient of the particles 0.2

Friction coefficient between the particles 0.0

and the walls

4.4 Summary and limitations

This chapter provides a systematic investigation on the particle

shape effect based on direct shear tests numerically and

experimentally. Separate contributions of elongation index, flatness

index, convexity and roundness to the shearing behaviour of

particle shape are studied firstly using DEM. The conclusions show

that particle shape has a great influence on packing ability, angle of

30
friction and shear strain at the peak stress. In general, the packing

ability and friction angle follow a decreasing trend with an increase

of shape factor index. A transition point exists in packing ability

with different elongation index cases. Particles with more

irregularity can be compacted to dense state easily. However, too

elongated particles bridge the gaps over particles and create large

open voids, which results in higher void ratios. Flatness index and

convexity seem have a minimal effect on the location of shear

strain at the peak stress.

Apart from the numerical studies, particle shape apparatus like

MorphologI and microscope at UCL are used to measure and

collect particle shape information of Fujian Standard Sand.

Information like aspect ratio, circularity and convexity for the

Fujian sand are provided. Based on these real sand particle shape

index together with the numerical studies results, a representative

particle shape which is close to the real sand shape is proposed to

calibrate the numerical model for the sand. The calibration results

31
show the numerical model can give a good reproduction of the

shear behavior consistent with the corresponding experimental

tests.

A systematic numerical studies on particle shape with

separation of their relative contributions to the shear behavior can

not only help design appropriate particle shape before calibration,

but also conversely guide the engineering practice when choosing

soils with specific shape index emphasized to improve the

performance of the mixtures. What’s more, the particle shape

information about Fujian Standard Sand are analyzed in detail in

this study is also meaningful. That will be a helpful reference for

research or engineering practise design when refer to Fujian

Standard Sand as there are many studies on that sand currently.

However, we need to know some limitations in this study: (1) The

particle information from MorphologI are 2D which reduce the

accuracy of the results compared with the 3D real soil particles. (2)

Only one kind of particle shape rather than consider all kinds of

32
 particle shape in real soils is adopted during the numerical sample

preparation, which also restricts to repeat the laboratory tests

exactly. (3) Particle scale factor of 7 is used to run the simulation

in this study considering the computational power, which may

result in the numerical volume change of the soil sample during

shearing is higher than that of in experimental tests. Considering

unique contributions and some limitations in this study, to combine

numerical results with experimental real soil information, use more

advanced image analyzing technology and higher performance of

computers may become potential robust way to design, repeat,

modify, verify and guide the numerical models and engineering

practices.

References: (for Chapter 4 – Particle shape effect)

Youd, T. (1972). Factors controlling maximum and minimum densities of sands. Evaluation
of relative density and its role in geotechnical projects involving cohesionless soils , E.
T. Selig and R. S. Ladd, eds., ASTM, Los Angeles, 98–112.

33
Altuhafi, F. N., Coop, M. R., & Georgiannou, V. N. (2016). Effect of particle shape on the
mechanical behavior of natural sands. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental
Engineering, 142(12), 04016071.
Hao, Y. A. N. G., Bo, Z. H. O. U., & WANG, J. J. (2019). Exploring the effect of 3D grain
shape on the packing and mechanical behaviour of sands. Geotechnique Letters, 9(4),
299-304.
Cho, G. C., Dodds, J., & Santamarina, J. C. (2006). Particle shape effects on packing density,
stiffness, and strength: natural and crushed sands. Journal of geotechnical and
geoenvironmental engineering, 132(5), 591-602.
Parsons, J. D. (1936). Progress report on an investigation of the shearing resistance of
cohesionless soils. Proc. 1st Int. Conf. on Soil Mech. Found. Engng, Cambridge,
Massachusetts 2, 133–138.
Wang, J., & Gutierrez, M. (2010). Discrete element simulations of direct shear specimen scale
effects. Géotechnique, 60(5), 395.
Li, L. H., Chen, Y. J., Ferreira, P., Liu, Y., & Xiao, H. L. (2017). Experimental investigations
on the pull-out behavior of tire strips reinforced sands. Materials, 10(7), 707.
Standard, A. S. T. M. D3080 (2004). Standard test method for direct shear tests of soils under
consolidated drained conditions, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA.
Achmus, M., & Abdel-Rahman, K. (2002). The influence of up-scaling on the results of
particle method calculations of non-cohesive soils. 1 st International PFC Symposium,
Gelsenkirchen, Germany.

34