Running head: PERSONAL THEORY 1

Choosing a Personal Theory: Identifying with Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory

Walsh University
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Abstract

What follows is an exploration into personal theory. The author shares her beliefs

about development (including personality development), problem development, mental

illness, change and human nature. Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory is discussed in this

work and how the components of this theory align with the author’s worldview.
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Choosing a Personal Theory: Identifying with Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory

In a counseling program, a counselor trainee learns about the many scholarly

theories that make up the psychotherapy world. Upon consideration, the trainee is asked

to discuss his/her own worldview and how one of these theories most closely relates to

that view. What follows is my own journey through this process.

Self-Reflection

Development

When considering development, I believe that a person’s social and cultural

environment play the biggest role. While it is understood that genetics and biology effect

development to a point, the role of a person’s environment is more determining. For

example, Bowlby’s attachment theory describes how the first attachments with one’s

primary caregiver affect his/her future relationships (Broderick, & Blewitt, 2010). Mary

Ainsworth takes the attachment idea further to describe different attachment qualities that

children can form as a result of their relationship with their primary caregiver (Broderick

& Blewitt, 2010). Research has shown children who are securely attached, even at a later

age, are more self-confident and are more socially capable (Corey, 2009). Studies have

shown children who were insecurely attached to be more dependent, have lower self-

esteem and be more likely to act out to seek attention (Corey, 2009). This is just the

beginning of how one’s environment affects development.

Continuing to discuss parental influences in development, the style in which

parenting takes place greatly affects a child’s (or adolescent’s) development (Broderick

& Blewitt, 2010). The level of warmth and demandingness that parents/caregiver shows

a child greatly impacts how he/she develops (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). Authoritative
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parents tend to produce children who exhibit positive self-development and high self-

esteem, and, in contrast, neglecting-uninvolved parenting results in children who are

likely to be aggressive, depressed, and have low self-esteem (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010).

Bronfenbrenner discusses the three levels of environment that influence a person’s

development (Broderick & Blewitt, 2010). According to Bronfenbrenner, humans are

affected by their own microsystem (the immediate environment, such as family), their

exosystem (the settings that one may not directly interact with, but will still affect

him/her), and the macrosystem (the larger culture that affects microsystems) (Broderick

& Blewitt, 2010). Environment, I believe, plays the biggest role in development.

Problem Development

In my opinion, the environment in which we live is a major determining factor in

producing problems. As previously stated, insecure attachments can lead to low self-

esteem and dependency issues. In addition, a person who experiences abusive

relationships with his/her parents, other family members, spouse, employer, etc. have a

higher risk of developing psychological problems throughout their life (Briere & Elliot,

1994). My family has struggled with some situations that I believe led to problem

development. My brother’s first wife is bipolar, and she was emotionally abusive to my

brother and their three children. I believe the dysfunctional relationship and emotional

abuse impacted the children adversely. When the marriage dissolved, the oldest of the

three children, who was thirteen at the time, took on the role of “mother” in the

household. She ended up maturing more quickly than was developmentally appropriate

and involved herself in many promiscuous relationships at an early age. The second of

the three children developed an eating disorder in high school and still struggles with
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depression. The youngest of the three, who was nine when the marriage dissolved, has

struggled for the last twenty years with drug and alcohol abuse. I know some of these

problems could have been avoided through different choices made, or could be the result

of biological factors, but I truly believe that being exposed to a dysfunctional and abusive

environment played the biggest role in developing these problems. Therefore, I consider

the environment to be the largest influence in problem development.

Mental Illness

When considering mental illness, I have conflicting views. Many mental

illnesses, such as depression, are considered genetic, but environment also plays a role in

their onset (Sullivan, Neale, & Kendler, 2000). For example, a mentally “healthy”

individual may be struck with a traumatic event and find him/herself struggling with

depression. One example that comes to mind is a close friend of mine who recently had

twin girls. While she does have a history of depression in her family, she had never

shown any symptoms of depression herself. Post-partum depression is a common

problem facing new moms, and it struck my friend as well. This instance made me stop

and wonder whether she would have developed depression with or without the post-

partum factor, or if it was, in fact, a result of the time “stuck” alone at home and stress

associated with being a new mom. As Sullivan, Neale, & Kendler (2000) state, illnesses

such as Major Depression are complex and are a result of both genetic and environmental

influences, not just one or the other.

When treating mental illness, I do not believe that medication alone is the cure.

While certain medications may “mask” symptoms that a client is experiencing, the core

problem still exists without the benefit of talk therapy.

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Development and Structure of Personality

In my opinion, personality development continues throughout a person’s lifespan.

Unlike Freud, I believe that the personality continues to grow, change, and develop as a

person matures. My mom is a great example of this. She was a very different mom to

my oldest siblings than she was to me, the youngest of her five children, which is the case

in many families. However, in my mom’s case, it truly showed a change in personality.

When raising my older siblings, she could have been labeled as obsessive-compulsive or

at the very least seen as a compulsive perfectionist. She would polish my siblings’ shoes

every night and place them outside their rooms as they slept. They received baths at least

once every day. My father was a self-employed farmer, who rarely saw anyone outside

our family during the workday, and my mom would bleach his white work shirts and iron

his work pants. She insisted on having the laundry out on the clothesline to dry before

sunrise. She was not just this rigid about her chores, but discipline as well, often short-

tempered and overly strict. As time went on and she had more children, Mom’s views

changed. Instead of focusing her life on being constantly perfect, she saw the value in

enjoying her family. Mom’s parenting “personality” changed as well, as her temper

softened and she was less strict. Now she has ten grandchildren and ten great-

grandchildren, and she can see the value in the contribution she has made to the next

generation and in the quality time she spends with her family, not focusing on being

perfect. Erikson’s Psychosocial stages take into account the social impact throughout the

lifespan, which is more in tune with how I view personality development (Broderick &

Blewitt, 2010). While personality can be somewhat affected by genetics, biology, etc., I

see it largely influenced by the social realm in which one lives.

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While Freud identified the id, ego and superego as the parts that make up the

structure of personality, I have a hard time seeing the personality in pieces. There may be

“traits” or “characteristics” that make up each person’s individual personality, but I see it

to be taken in as a whole. I can see the value in having a client explore the characteristics

of his/her own personality, but do not agree with personality being split into categories,

as Freud does.

Change

Counselors seek change. Whether it is through behavior modifications, cognition

restructuring or empathetic relationships, all counselors desire to help their clients

change. In my opinion, clients are capable of and are responsible for their own change.

The client responds to the relationship and collaboration he/she is experiencing with the

counselor and through that partnership, change is able to occur. Changes made in my

own life are a great example of this. In the fall of 2008, my husband and I decided to start

a family. In two short months, we were pregnant and were so thankful to not struggle

with fertility issues, as many couples do. However, we found out we were miscarrying

early in the pregnancy. We got pregnant again very quickly, only to miscarry again.

Throughout this time, I was wrestling with low self-esteem (due to a bad self-body

image) and feeling worthless. These were unresolved issues from adolescence, which

only intensified when I could not carry out a successful pregnancy and continued to gain

weight. After losing our second baby, we decided to take a break from trying to

conceive. I was continuing to struggle with low self-esteem and was slipping into

depression. In an attempt to change the state of my life, I joined Weight Watchers to get

healthy and signed up for Life Power (a class offered by the Walsh Communicate
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Institute focusing on reducing educator stress and promoting a positive attitude toward

life). Through these changes, I learned a great deal about what I had to offer the world

and became a much healthier (emotionally and physically), happier and much thinner

person – losing a total of 75 pounds! Now I view life differently and choose to see the

good that can come out of bad situations, like my beautiful daughter, Kate. I am a much

healthier mom than I would have been two years ago, which is what she deserves. My

story is proof that fundamental personality change is possible. The changes I was able to

make were a result of the people I surrounded myself with at Weight Watchers, Life

Power, and my family and friends who supported my new lifestyle. Without these

loving, supportive relationships, I would not have been able to make the changes that

were so greatly needed.

Human Nature

When looking at the Basic Assumptions of Human Nature, I find myself along

each continuum somewhere between the extremes. In each instance, however, I am able

to identify with one extreme.

In regards to freedom and determinism, I believe that people do have freedom in

controlling their everyday life, behaviors, thoughts, and emotions. While I strongly

believe that environmental factors play a significant role in development, people are not

pre-determined to behave, think, or feel a certain way by outside forces. A good example

is my own story, which was previously shared. I chose to control the direction of my life

and was supported by my relationships, not controlled by outside or predetermined

factors.
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It is my view that people are, primarily, rational beings, who are capable, at times,

of irrational behaviors. Humans guide their behaviors through reason, but there are, of

course, times when outside, irrational forces guide behaviors. Relating again to my story,

I continually told myself that I was fat and worthless, which was irrational and untrue.

However, at my core I knew that I was beautiful and valued by many, so I had to be

worth something. The rational part of me took over, and I was able to guide my

behaviors through clearer reasoning.

Similar to the previous statements about personality structure, I believe that the

whole person should be considered when explaining behavior. So much goes into why a

person acts the way they do: his/her emotions, thoughts, values, background, culture,

personality, etc., and it should be considered when evaluating a client’s behavior.

As previously stated, personality is primarily a result of the environment in which

a person lives. While I accept that some factors of personality are inherited or genetic,

the majority of personality is the result of the social and cultural environment in which a

person is exposed.

Because I see the environment as such a crucial role in personality development,

it seems sensible that I also believe that a person is capable of fundamental personality

change throughout life. This is possible with a change in environment and personal drive

to change and grow. The part of my family I discussed earlier is an excellent example.

My brother was able to remarry and find true happiness with his new wife and their

grandchildren. In addition, his oldest daughter is now married with three children and no

longer lowering herself by being in meaningless relationships. Both of them, at one point

or another, saw themselves as worthless because of their previous abusive and

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dysfunctional situations, but no longer do. Their personality changes were possible due to

a change in their environment and their desire for a better life. Change such as this is

necessary for personality development.

When looking at the world, I see it more subjectively than objectively. I do not

see behavior primarily influenced by objective factors, but rather by personal,

experiential influences. My family examples show that the subjective factors in life

produce behavior change: my mom learned to love the time with her family, and

softening her perfectionism; and my brother married his new wife and learned his true

worth.

The proactivity-reactivity question is seeking the true causes of human behaviors.

I believe that people internally create their own behavior. Instead of behavior being a

reaction, the causes of behavior are found within. While environment plays a crucial role

in much of our development, personality, etc., I do not believe that it is responsible for

our behaviors.

Another Basic Assumption is determining the reason for human motivation.

Heterostasis implies that motivation is directed toward personal growth, stimulus seeking

and self-actualization, while homeostasis states that motivation is directed toward

equilibrium. Human motivation, in my opinion, is more heterostatic, moving torward

growth. I consider myself to be a person who constantly is striving to grow and improve.

For instance, I am still a Weight Watcher who regularly exercises, I am pursuing a new

career in Counseling, and I am learning to be a stay-at-home mom.

Lastly, I do not believe that human nature is fully knowable. Even in writing this

viewpoint on human nature, I struggle with full understanding. It is my opinion that we

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will never fully understand human nature, but will always have to accept the

“unknowability” of it.

Theory as a Reflection of Personal Worldview

In choosing a theory, I had to consider her worldview, personality, past

experiences, and my view of work with clients. Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory (PCT)

reflects what I believe about personality development, problem development, counselor-

client relationships, and views on human nature. Through past experiences, I have

learned to be very present in the moment and live life to the fullest. This, too, coincides

with Rogers’ theory.

Theory Selection

As previously stated, I have chosen to espouse myself with Rogers’ Person-

Centered Theory (PCT). When examining many theories, PCT embodies counseling the

way I view it should be: actively present with the client, empathetic, and authentic. What

follows is a thorough explanation of how PCT aligns with my worldview and my view of

counseling.

Counseling Relationship

A major consideration when studying any counseling theory is the relationship

between counselor and client. Is the counselor an expert, teaching the client how to deal

with life’s problems, or is the counselor an equal, just going through the walk of

discovery alongside his/her client? Is the relationship cold and distant or warm and

empathetic? No matter which kind of relationship a theory may stress, how the counselor

and client work together is a major foundation of the counseling experience. I consider a

warm, authentic and empathetic relationship to be crucial to the success of counseling.

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Rogers, in his Person-Centered Theory, states that the relationship between counselor and

client is necessary and sufficient for change (Rogers, 1957). This relationship, according

to Rogers, should include the following conditions: the two (counselor and client) are in

psychological contact; the client is considered to be in a state of incongruence, or

vulnerable; the counselor is congruent, or authentic, in the relationship; the counselor

exhibits unconditional positive regard for the client; the counselor is empathetic toward

the client; and this empathy and unconditional positive regard is communicated to the

client (Rogers, 1957). I agree with Rogers’ view of the counselor-client relationship and

the elements that make this relationship successful.

A major component of the counseling relationship is defining the roles of

counselor and client. While I will go through extensive psychological training before

becoming licensed as a counselor, it does not give me the expertise on the life of every

client I will see. Instead, I can use my knowledge to guide the client as he/she goes

through his/her own journey during the counseling experience. The counselor is not the

teacher or expert, and the client is not the student. Instead, the counselor and client work

together on the same ground toward change. Equality, as stated by Rogers, characterizes

the counseling relationship (Corey, 2009). “The process of change in the client depends

to a large degree on the quality of this equal relationship” (Corey, 2009, p. 173).

Synthesizing Worldview to Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory

When considering the views and opinions previously stated, I would have little, if

any, trouble synthesizing the work of Carl Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory with my

worldview. While I consider people capable of making change in their lives, I believe a

warm, empathetic relationship that includes unconditional positive regard is necessary to

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promote that change successfully (Corey, 2009). This unconditional positive regard can

be present in relationships with parents, educators, and counselors (Rogers, 2002).

Without this unconditional positive regard, people feel empty and powerless (Rogers,

2002). This coincides with my view that the environment in which people live greatly

affects their personality and problem development.

In my opinion, all people strive to develop their potential to the fullest. Rogers

calls this an actualizing tendency (Rogers, 2002). Through past experiences, I have

learned to see the good in life, instead of focusing on the negative side of experiences.

Through losing family members, being laid off, and struggling to start a family, I have

learned that traumatic events may come and go, but they should not dictate life. Instead,

these situations should help a person to appreciate the positive side of life, and know that

every day should be lived to the fullest. Rogers also shared this view of life.

Rogers describes an experience he had on a vacation in northern California in

which he was standing on a headland overlooking one of the rugged coves on the

coastline. At one point, he noticed a plant that was withstanding a torrent of water

and each time a wave would pass, the plant would stand erect, tough and resilient.

Rogers recognized in this palm-like plant a metaphor for the tenacity of life, that he

called the forward thrust of life, the ability to push into an incredibly hostile

environment and not only hold its own, but to adapt, develop and become itself

(Rogers, 2002, p. 198).

This desire to strive and grow unifies my worldview with PCT.

Goals of Counseling

The goal of counseling, in my opinion, should be to help the person who has come
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to counseling, not just fix his/her surface problems, thoughts, or behaviors. PCT also

focuses on the client, rather than just the problems he/she presents, hoping to help

him/her achieve greater integration and independence (Corey, 2009).

Because I see the value in getting the most out of life and living to the fullest

potential, this should also be a goal of counseling: to help clients continue to strive

toward living and making the most of their capabilities. Rogers focused on people

seeking to self-actualize, which coincides with my beliefs (Corey, 2009). If a person is

becoming increasingly actualized, they have the following four qualities: being open to

experience, be able to trust themselves, internally evaluate, and be willing to continue to

grow (Corey, 2009). Instead of focusing on problems, this helps the counselor to focus

the person, putting him/her at the center of the counseling experience.

Techniques and Interventions

There are a wide variety of techniques and interventions used in counseling. Each

individual situation with each client needs to be evaluated to decide what is appropriate,

in my opinion. However, there are characteristics of counseling that should be present in

each setting, such as active listening and exhibiting empathy and unconditional positive

regard. I believe that there will be times when counseling calls for other techniques to be

used, such as questioning, collecting a history, assigning homework, etc. which does not

align with Rogers’ view of counseling, but more with a Cognitive-Behavioral approach.

Through my reading of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy, I can see the benefit of using

specific cognitive and behavioral techniques in certain situations. Some clients, especially

culturally diverse clients, seek counseling as a last resort to help them cope (Corey,

2009). These clients are seeking specific strategies to deal with a crisis or problems in
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their everyday lives, and may not find the help they need through the practice of PCT

(Corey, 2009). However, the desire to be present and empathetic with the client, along

with showing unconditional positive regard, matches the essential techniques used in

PCT (Corey, 2009).

Limitations

No theory is without limitations, and Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory is no

exception. First, it is important to list the limitations as they pertain to my own use of

this theory. As previously stated, there will be instances in which more directive

techniques are called for in a counseling session. Rogers viewed his six conditions as

necessary and sufficient for constructive personality change (Rogers, 1957). While I

value these conditions as highly necessary and crucial to change, I understand they may

not always be sufficient for every client and every situation. This limitation has been

previously noted by other researchers, claiming there is a lack of evidence-based practice

in PCT through proven techniques (Corey, 2009).

Researchers also note other limitations of PCT, stating that the supportive

relationship does not promote an environment that challenges the client (Corey, 2009).

While, in some cases, this may be true because of the warm environment it promotes, I

believe PCT does challenge the client. Putting the responsibility for change on the client

creates a very challenging environment, just not in the traditional sense.

Another limitation that should be addressed concerning PCT is the level of

commitment it takes for the counselor to practice it in the way it was intended by Rogers.

Fully committing to being present with the client, expressing true empathy and

unconditional positive regard is not only extremely difficult, but also exhausting. In
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addition, if the counselor is not able to be completely authentic with the client, she will

not be fully present, truly empathetic, and/or exude unconditional positive regard (Corey,

2009).

Finally, practicing PCT strictly is a challenge with culturally diverse clients

(Corey, 2009). First, some clients from diverse cultures may want a more direct

approach, as they see counseling as a last resort to help solve their problems (Corey,

2009). Instead of the relationship conditions being the only agent for change, they may

desire a more structured approach (Corey, 2009). In addition, clients from a collectivist

culture will have a hard time identifying with the focus of an internal locus of evaluation,

as they are highly influenced by social expectations (Corey, 2009). Focusing on the

internal and self may be hard for these clients to accept (Corey, 2009).

Populations

PCT would be very valuable to use with a wide range of clients. My interests

include working with families and children who are dealing with grief and trauma. While

DeRobertis (2006) notes that Rogers never specifically focused on working with children,

his theory is incredibly humanistic and could be beneficial with this population. In

addition, he states that a “strength of this perspective is that it is specific about the

parental behaviors that foster resilience and growth or strain children’s efforts to mature”

(DeRobertis, 2006, p.197). I have not found extensive research on the use of PCT in

grief or trauma cases, but Goodman, Morgan, Juriga, & Brown (2004) used Client-

Centered Therapy with an adolescent girl who had lost her father in the 2001 attack on

the World Trade Center.

In this particular instance, CCT allowed for the emergence of personal themes and
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was especially well suited to a case spanning an array of issues that included the

ongoing impact of 9/11-related activities and the intense public scrutiny that the

families endured (Goodman, Morgan, Juriga, & Brown, 2004, p. 209).

Corey (2009) discusses the use of the person-centered approach in crisis situations. His

discussion cites the benefits of the clients being heard and understood (Corey, 2009).

“Genuine support, caring, and nonpossessive warmth can go a long way in building

bridges that can motivate people to do something to work through and resolve a crisis”

(Corey, 2009, p. 179). I hope to discover more specific research involving the use of

PCT with clients dealing with grief and trauma. Nevertheless, because of the nature of

the counseling relationship, it is my opinion that there is great value in using PCT with

families, children and specifically those dealing with grief or trauma.

Surely there are populations in which the use of PCT will not be ideal. As

previously stated, PCT may not be appropriate to use with all culturally diverse clients.

Specifically, PCT may be mostly ineffective with clients from collectivist cultures

(Corey, 2009). Corey (2009) discusses the focus on individual, personal growth could be

viewed as selfish by a culture that primarily focuses attention on the common good.

PCT Diverging from Personal Worldview

There are instances where the theoretical view of Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory

diverges from my worldview. These two diverge when I contemplate the use of more

directive techniques during a counseling session in addition to the conditions of the PCT

relationship. When a situation arises in which I see the need for a different approach

from what Rogers viewed as necessary and sufficient, I will do extensive research on
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complimentary techniques that will help that specific client in that situation.

Conclusion

Through my studying, I view Rogers’ Person-Centered Theory as an incredibly

beneficial and effective approach to counseling that also closely aligns with my personal

worldview. Not only has it been proven to produce fundamental and necessary change in

clients, it promotes a humanistic view that is applicable to everyday life.

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References

Briere, J.N., & Eliiot, D.M. (1994). Immediate and long-term impacts of child sexual

abuse. The Future of Children, 4(2), 54-69.

Broderick, P.C., & Blewitt, P. (2010). The life span: human development for helping

professionals. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Corey, G. (2009). Theory and practice of counseling and psychotherapy. Belmont, CA:

Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.

DeRobertis, E.M. (2006). Deriving a humanistic theory of child development from the

works of child development from the works of carl r. rogers and karen horney.

The Humanistic Psychologist, 34(2), 177-199.

Goodman, R. F., Morgan, A. V., Juriga, S., & Brown, E. J. (2004). Letting the story

unfold: a case study of client-centered therapy for childhood traumatic grief.

Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 12(4), 199-212.

Rogers, C.R. (1957). The necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic personality

change. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 21 (2), 95-103.

Rogers, C.R. (2002). spiritual intelligence…. Gifted Education International, 16(3), 198-

199. Retrieved from EBSCOhost.

Sullivan, P.F., Neale, M.C., & Kendler, K.S. (2000). Genetic epidemilogy of major

depression: review and meta-analysis. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 157,

1552-1562.