Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Lecture – 1
INTRODUCTION
Definition: An estimate for any construction work may be defined as the process of
calculating the quantities and costs of the various items required in connection with the work.
It is prepared by calculating the quantities from the dimensions of the drawings, the various
items required to complete the project and multiplied with the unit cost of item concerned.
Purpose of Estimating:
¾ To ascertain the necessary amount received by the owner to complete the proposed
work and arranging fund for the same. For public work construction estimates are
required to obtain administrative approval, allotment of fund and technical sanction.
¾ To ascertain the quantity of materials required for programming timely procurement.
¾ To know the number of different categories of works that is to be employed to
complete the work within the schedule time of completion.
¾ Helps to assess the requirements of Tools, Plants and equipments required to
complete the work according to the programme.
¾ To fix up the completion period from the volume of work involved in the estimate.
¾ To justify the investment from benefit cost ratio.
¾ Estimate is required to invite tender and preparation of bills for payment.
¾ Estimate for existing property is required for valuation
1. A detailed Estimate
2. A preliminary or rough Estimate
3. A quantity Estimate
4. Revised Estimate
5. Supplementary Estimate
6. A complete Estimate
A detailed Estimate: This includes the detailed particulars for the quantities, rates and costs of
all the items involved for satisfactory completion of a project.
A quantity Estimate: This is a complete estimate or list of quantities for all items of work
required to complete the concerned project.
Revised Estimate: Revised Estimate is a detailed estimate for the revised quantities and rates
for items of works originally provided in the estimate without material deviations of a
structural nature from the design originally approved for a project.
Supplementary Estimate: While a work is in progress, some changes or additional works due
to material deviation of a structural nature from the design originally approved may be
thought necessary for development of a project, an estimate is then prepared to include all
such works. This is known as supplementary estimate.
A complete Estimate: This is an estimated cost of all items which are related to the work in
addition to the “detailed estimate”.
Height or
Item No. Description No Length Breadth Quantity
Depth
Abstract of Estimated cost: is the second part in the preparation of a detailed estimate. The
cost of each and every individual item of work is calculated by multiplying the quantity
computed in the measurement form with the specified rate in a tabular form known as
“Abstract form” and are added all together to get the actual estimated cost of work. This
estimated cost of work is increased by 3-5% for any unforeseen expenditure and is called
“Contingencies”. To maintain additional supervising staff at work site called “Work charged”
establishment, a further amount of 2.5% is directly charged to the estimate prepared from
item of work. Thus by summation of cost obtained by adding all items, contingencies and
work charged establishment a detailed estimate is prepared.
¾ Quantity of materials
¾ Availability of materials
¾ Transportation of materials
¾ Location of sites
¾ Local Labour charges
Lump-sum item: Sometimes a lump-sum rate is provided for certain small items for
which detailed quantities cannot be taken out easily or it takes sufficient time to find the
detail, as front architectural or decoration work of building, site cleaning etc.
Earthwork in excavation for foundation trenches: Earth is excavated for for foundation
trenches to the exact width and depth of foundation with vertical sides and the bottom leveled
both longitudinally and transversely. The quantity of earthwork is calculated by taking the
dimensions of each trench length x breadth x depth.
Earthwork in filling: This consists of two parts: (a) foundation trenches and (b) plinth filling.
Normally excavated earth from foundation trenches is used for filling.
Soling: When the soil is soft or bad, one layer of dry brick or stone soling is applied below
the foundation concrete. The soling layer is computed in sq-ft (length x breadth) specifying
the thickness.
Damp Proof Course: This is usually a layer of cement concrete mixture in the proportion of
1:2:4 mixed with water proofing compound laid in between the plinth and superstructure
walls to prevent the rise of water by capillary action from the ground. The quantity is
estimated in sq-ft multiplying the length and breadth. The thickness is described in the
description column.
R.C.C work: Reinforced concrete may be for columns, beams, lintels, roof slabs etc. The
quantity is worked out in cu-ft including reinforcement. The volume occupied by
reinforcement is not deducted from the volume of concrete. The quantity of reinforcement is
found separately.
Centering and shuttering (Form work): The cost of formwork is about 30% of cement
concrete. Unless otherwise specified formwork is measured separately.
Flooring: Ground floor means floor on plinth. The floor consists of two parts, (1) bottom
floor with cement concrete (1:3:6) over a flat soling (Soling is done to prevent the
contamination of concrete with earth below it), (2) the top part which may be different types.
The quantity is measured in sq-ft.
Plastering: Plastering usually ½” thick is calculated in sq-ft.For walls the measurements are
taken for the whole face of the wall for both sides as solid and then deduction for openings
are made.
ANALYSIS OF RATES
Definition: The determination of rate per unit of a particular item of work, from the cost of
quantities of materials, the cost of laborers and other miscellaneous petty expenses require for
its completion is known as the analysis of rate. A reasonable profit, usually 10% for the
contractor is also included in the analysis of rate.
How to fix up rate per unit of an item: The following sub heads are estimated and a
summation of these is the rate per unit of an item.
Analysis of Rate:
Example-1: Cement concrete 1:2:4 with graded stone chips for R.C.C works.
Solution: Consider volume of course aggregate = 1 cu-m
Total proportion = 1+2+4 = 7
Cement = 1.54* 1/7 = 0.22 cu-m
Sand = 1.54* 2/7 = 0.44 cu-m or 0.22*2 = 0.44 cu-m
Stone chips = 0.22*4 =
Quantity (cu-m) Rate Amount
0.88 Particulars
Cement 0.22 - ……./-
Materials Sand 0.44 - ……./-
Stone chips 0.88 - ……./-
Labour Labour - - ……./-
Contingencies 5% ……./-
Water charges 1% ……./-
Profit ……./-
Rate Per cu-m = ……./-
SPECIFICATIONS
Specification includes:
a) Description of materials
b) Workmanship
c) Tools and plants
d) Protection of new work
1. Foundation and plinth: Brickwork in foundation and plinth shall be of the first class
brick in cement mortar over cement concrete.
2. Filling: Foundation trenches and plinth shall be filled up with course sand.
3. D.P.C: D.P.C shall be 2.5 cm thick cement concrete .Mix ratio is 1 : 1.5: 3
4. Superstructure: Superstructure shall be of the first class brickwork in cement mortar.
5. Flooring: Mosaic flooring shall be provided in to all floors including staircase.
6. Roofing: The roof shall be 10 cm R.C.C Slab with 10 cm average lime terracing over
it.
7. Finishing: Inside and outside shall be 12mm cement plastered. The inside of drawing,
dining and bed rooms shall be distempered and rest portions white washed three coats.
The outside shall be color washed over three coats of white wash.
8. Doors and windows: Doors and windows frames shall be of seasoned teak wood and
shutters of 3cm thick wood paneling, Brass fitting shall be provided. Doors and
windows shall be varnished with French polish.
9. Miscellaneous: Rain water pipes shall be of Asbestos cement or cast iron, finished
with paint. All sanitary, water supply and electrical fittings shall be of first class
materials.
COURSE NAME: DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION ESTIMATING
COURSE NO: CE-200
Lecture – 2
In this method the longer walls in a building are considered as long walls and measured from
out -to-out and the shorter walls, in a perpendicular direction of the long walls are considered
as short walls and measured from in-to-in for a particular layer of work. To calculate the
length of long and short walls determine first there centre to centre lengths individually from
the plan. Then the length of long wall, out-to-out may be calculated after adding half breadth
of wall at each end with its centre to centre length. Thus the length of short wall measured in-
to-in may be found out after subtraction half breadth at each end from its centre to centre
length.
In this method calculate the total centre line length of walls in a building and multiply the
same by the breadth and depth of the respective item to get the total quantity at a time. For
different sections of walls in a building, the centre line length for each type shall be worked
out separately. In case of Partition wall or verandah walls joining with main wall the centre
line length shall be reduced by half of the breadth of the layer of main wall that joins with the
partition or verandah wall at the same level. Number of such joints are studied first to
calculate the centre line length.
By this method estimates may be prepared more quickly and this methods as accurate as the
other methods.
Crossing method:
In this method calculate the overall perimeter of the building and subtract from this four
times thickness of wall to obtain the centre line length.
Internal walls are grouped separately to their sections and measured in between the internal
faces of the main wall at that level.
Principally this method is same as the centre line method but differs the process of
calculations to find the centre line lengths.
DETAILED ESTIMATE OF A TWO STORIED RESIDENTIAL
BUILDING:
General Specification:
1. Foundation and plinth: Brickwork in foundation and plinth shall be of first class brick
in cement mortar (1:4) over cement concrete (1:3:6)
2. Filling: Foundation trenches shall be filled up with excavated earth and the plinth
shall be filled up with local sand.
3. Damp-Proof-Course: DPC shall be of cement concrete (1:2:4) with water proofing
compound.
4. Superstructure: Shall be of first class brickwork in cement mortar (1:6).Wall thickness
are 10inch.
5. Roofing: The roof shall be of 5inch R.C.C slab with 3.5in lime terracing over it.
Concrete mix ration is 1:3:6
6. Flooring: The under bed of ground floor shall be of 3inch thick CC laid over a layer
of brick flat soling.
7. Plastering: Inside and outside walls shall 1/2inch thick cement mortar(1:6). Ceiling
and sunshade shall be of 1/4inch cement plastered (1:4).
8. Doors and windows:
9. Painting:
Given:
SUB HEAD‐2 : CONCRETE WORK
Concrete in foundation
Outer long wall 2 45 4 1.25 450.00 cft
Outer short wall 2 24.34 4 1.25 243.40 cft
Wall ‐1 1 24.34 4 1.25 121.70 cft
4 Wall ‐ 2 1 14 4 1.25 70.00 cft
Wall ‐ 3 2 11.5 4 1.25 115.00 cft
Wall ‐ 4 1 28.5 4 1.25 142.50 cft
Wall ‐ 5 1 8 4 1.25 40.00 cft
Total concrete in foundation = 1182.60 cft
1" thick D.P.C
Outer long wall 2 45 0.83 74.70 sft
DPC is usually a
Outer short wall 2 24.34 0.83 40.40 sft layer of cement
Wall ‐1 1 24.34 0.83 20.20 sft concrete
Wall ‐ 2 1 14 0.83 11.62 sft mixture in the
Wall ‐ 3 2 11.5 0.83 19.09 sft proportion
Wall ‐ 4 1 28.5 0.83 23.66 sft 1:2:4 mixed
Wall ‐ 5 1 8 0.83 6.64 sft with water
5 P.W 1 8 0.5 4.00 sft proofing
P.W 1 22 0.5 11.00 sft compound laid
Total = 211.31 sft in between the
Deduction : plinth and
Door, D1 3 3.5 0.83 8.72 cft superstructure
D2 2 3 0.83 4.98 cft walls to prevent
D3 2 2.5 0.83 4.15 cft the rise of
water by
Collapsible gate 1 4 0.83 3.32 cft
capillary action
Net total = 190.15 cft
from the
6 Concrete in slab 46 27 0.42 521.64 cft
ground.
Concrete in lintel
Outer long wall 2 45 0.83 0.5 37.35 cft
Outer shor wall 2 24.34 0.83 0.5 20.20 cft Lintel X‐section
Wall ‐1 1 24.34 0.83 0.5 10.10 cft : 10" x 6"
7
Wall ‐ 3 1 11.5 0.83 0.5 4.77 cft 0.5' = 6"
Wall ‐ 4 1 29.5 0.83 0.5 12.24 cft
P.W 1 16 0.5 0.5 4.00 cft
Total concrete in lintel = 88.67 cft
Concrete in stair
Base on toe wall 1 4 0.83 0.83 2.76 cft
Waist slab of flight 2 9.43 4.25 0.42 33.67 cft 9.43 = sqrt (82+
8 52) where,
Landing (lower& at 1st floor) 2 4 8 0.42 26.88 cft
5' = 1/2 of
Steps 20 4 0.42 0.5 16.80 cft
height of one
Total concrete in stair = 80.10 cft
floor
Concrete in Sunshade
Window,W1 4 4 1.5 0.42 10.08 cft
9 Window,W2 4 3 1.5 0.42 7.56 cft
Window, W3 4 2 1.5 0.42 5.04 cft
Total concrete for sunshade = 22.68 cft
Concrete in flooring
Bed room 1 14 11 0.25 38.50 cft
Bed room 1 14 12.5 0.25 43.75 cft
Drawing room 1 11 10 0.25 27.50 cft
Dining room 1 10 15.5 0.25 38.75 cft 0.25' = 3" (CC)
10 Kitchen 1 6 10 0.25 15.00 cft Inner dimension
Store room 1 7.17 8 0.25 14.34 cft are taken
Toilet 1 4 5 0.25 5.00 cft
Toilet 1 4 8 0.25 8.00 cft
Passage between toilet and din 1 13.33 5 0.25 16.66 cft
Total concrete in floor = 207.50 cft
SUB HEAD‐3 : BRICKWORK
Brick flat soling
Main wall 1 236.52 4 946.08 sft
11
Toe wall 1 4 2.5 10.00 sft
Total brick flat soling = 956.08 sft
Brick flat soling in floor
Bed room 1 14 11 154.00 sft
Bed room 1 14 12.5 175.00 sft
Drawing room 1 11 10 110.00 sft
Dining room 1 10 15.5 155.00 sft
12 Kitchen 1 6 10 60.00 sft
Store room 1 7.17 8 57.36 sft
Toilet 1 4 5 20.00 sft
Toilet 1 4 8 32.00 sft
Passage between toilet and din 1 13.33 5 66.65 sft
Total brick flat soling = 830.01 sft
Brick work in foundation
Up to G.L
1st footing 1 236.52 3.5 0.83 687.09 cft
2nd footing 1 236.52 2.83 0.83 555.56 cft
13
3rd footing 1 236.52 2.33 0.83 457.41 cft
4th footing 1 236.52 1.83 0.83 359.25 cft 3.5' = 42"
From G.L to P.L 1 236.52 1.25 3 886.95 cft 2.83' = 34"
Total brickwork in foundation = 2946.26 cft 2.33' = 28"
Brickwork in superstructure 1.83' = 22"
Outer long wall 2 45 0.83 10 747.00 cft
Outer short wall 2 24.34 0.83 10 404.04 cft
Wall ‐1 1 24.34 0.83 10 202.02 cft
Wall ‐ 2 1 14 0.83 10 116.20 cft PW = 8' (Toilet
Wall ‐ 3 2 11.5 0.83 10 190.90 cft wall ‐ 6" wall)
Wall ‐ 4 1 28.5 0.83 10 236.55 cft PW 22' =
Wall ‐ 5 1 8 0.83 10 66.40 cft 11'(Drawing)+
P.W 1 8 0.5 10 40.00 cft 6'(kitchen)+
P.W 1 22 0.5 10 110.00 cft 5'(toilet)....(all
14 Total = 2113.12 cft are 6" wall)
Deduction:
For Door, D1 3 3.5 0.83 7 61.01 cft
D2 2 3 0.83 7 34.86 cft
D3 1 2.5 0.83 7 14.53 cft
For Windwo, W1 4 4 0.83 4 53.12 cft
W2 4 3 0.83 4 39.84 cft
W3 4 2 0.83 4 26.56 cft
For lintel = 88.67 cft
Total deduction = 318.58 cft
Net total B.W in superstructure = 1794.54 cft
SUB HEAD‐4 : PLASTERING
15 1/2" thick Cement plaster to wall
Inside plastering :
Bed room 1 50 10 500.00 sft
Bed room 1 53 10 530.00 sft
Drawing room 1 42 10 420.00 sft
Kitchen 1 32 10 320.00 sft
Store room 1 30.34 10 303.40 sft 50' = 2*(14+11)
53' =
Toilet 1 18 10 180.00 sft
2*(14+12.5)
Toilet 1 24 10 240.00 sft
50' include all
Stair case 1 48 10 480.00 sft inside wall of
15(a) Total = 2973.40 sft
Deduction : the bed room
For Door, D1 3 3.5 7 73.50 sft
D2 2 3 7 42.00 sft
D3 1 2.5 7 17.50 sft
For Windwo, W1 4 4 4 64.00 sft
W2 4 3 4 48.00 sft
W3 4 2 4 32.00 sft
Total deduction = 277.00 sft
Net total inside plastering = 2696.40 sft
Outside plastering 1 142 10 1420.00 sft
Deduction = 277.00 sft
15(b)
15(b)
Net total outside plastering = 1143.00 sft
Total amout of plastering = 3839.40 sft
1/4" plastering in ceiling
142 = 2*(45+26)
Bed room 1 14 11 154.00 sft
Bed room 1 14 12.5 175.00 sft
Drawing room 1 11 10 110.00 sft
Dining room 1 10 15.5 155.00 sft
Kitchen 1 6 10 60.00 sft
Store room 1 7.17 8 57.36 sft
16 Toilet 1 4 5 20.00 sft
Toilet 1 4 8 32.00 sft
Passage between toilet and din 1 5 13.33 66.65 sft
Stair case : 13.33' = 11' +
Under waist slab 1 4 8 32.00 sft 10" + 6' ‐ 5' (for
toilet)
1st landing 2 4 8 64.00 sft
Underside of 1st floor landing 1 4 8 32.00 sft
Total plastering = 958.01 sft
1/4" plastering in Sunshade
For Windwo, W1 4 4 1.5 24.00 sft
17 W2 4 3 1.5 18.00 sft
W3 4 2 1.5 12.00 sft
Total plastering = 54.00 sft
Abstract of Estimated Cost
Lecture – 3
R.C.C WORKS
Measurement of materials for cement concrete mixer:
Accurate measurement of cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregate is most necessary for
producing good concrete.
Cement: cement should always be measured by weight.
Weight of 1bag cement = 50kg.
1 bag cement = 1.25cft
Sand: sand should be measured by volume (cft or cum).
Coarse aggregate: coarse aggregate may be measured by volume (cft or cum)
Water: water is measured by volume. The strength and workability of concrete depend to a
great extent on the amount of water used in mixing. Quality of water is measured by using
water cement ratio.
Water cement ratio = weight of water / weight of cement
1gallon = 4.546lit
1 lit = 0.2199gallon
Controlled concrete:
A concrete mix which is designed on the basis of test of the strength conducted in the
laboratory on the trial mixture of cement and aggregates to be actually used in the
construction is termed as controlled concrete.
Reinforcing bars:
The most common type of reinforcing steel is in the form of round bars often called rebar’s
available in different diameters. These bars are furnished with surface deformations for the
purpose of increasing resistance to slip between steel and concrete.
For many years, bar sizes have been designated by no. (Say #3 bar)
#3 bar means, diameter of bar = 3/8 inch.
Bar no Nominal weight
Area (in2)
inch mm lb/ft kg/m
2 6 0.05 0.167 0.22
3 10 0.11 0.376 0.62
4 12 0.20 0.668 0.89
5 16 0.31 1.043 1.58
6 19 0.44 1.502 2.23
7 22 0.60 2.044 3.00
8 25 0.79 2.670 3.85
9 29 1.00 3.40 4.83
10 32 1.27 4.303 6.31
11 36 1.56 5.313 7.90
14 43 2.25 7.650 11.95
18 57 4.00 13.60
Standard weight per meter in kg = D2/162
Where, D = dia in mm
Bent up bar:
The usual practice of bending of a bar near support is at an angle of 450. The angle of bend
may also be 300 in shallow beams where effective depth is less than 1.5 times its breadth.
Purpose of bent bars:
¾ To resist negative moment this occurs at the regions of support.
¾ To resist shear force this is greater at the support.
Calculation of steel :
Calculation of concrete :
Detailed estimate of a R.C.C column :
Calculation of steel :
Calculation of concrete :
Detailed estimate of a R.C.C slab:
Calculation of steel :
Summary :
Cement = 46 bag
Sand = 116 cft
Khoa = 231 cft
Steel(10 mm) = 260 kg
Detailed estimate of a stair case :
Calculation of steel :
Calculation of concrete :
Detailed estimate of a pile:
Calculation of steel:
Calculation of concrete:
Detailed Estimate of a septic tank :
Short wall :
Long wall :
Detailed estimate of a retaining wall:
Calculation of steel:
Calculation of concrete:
COURSE NAME: DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION ESTIMATING
COURSE NO: CE-200
Lecture – 4
FOUNDATION
Every building consists of two basic components:
¾ Superstructure
¾ Substructure
Superstructure is usually that part of the building which is above ground and which serves the
purpose of its intended use.
Substructure is the lower portion of the building, usually located below ground level, which
transmits the loads of the superstructure to the sub soil.
Foundation:
A foundation is that part of the structure which is in direct contact with the ground to which the
loads are transmitted.
The soil which is located immediately below the base of the foundation is called the sub soil or
foundation soil.
Footing:
The lowermost portion of the foundation which is in direct contact with the sub soil is called
footing.
Functions of foundations:
Types of foundation:
¾ Shallow foundation
¾ Deep foundation
Shallow foundation:
When the foundation is placed immediately beneath the lowest part of the superstructure, it is
termed as shallow foundation. A foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than its
width. There are various types of shallow foundations:
1. Spread footing
2. Grillage foundation
3. Eccentrically loaded footing
4. Combined footing
5. Mat or raft footing
6. Strap footing
Spread footing:
Spread footings are those which spread the super imposed load of wall or column over the widen
area. Spread footing may be of the following types-
(a) Wall footing: These types of footing consist of several courses of bricks. It might be two
types: simple footing and stepped wall footing.
In case of stepped footing, the lowest course is usually twice the breadth of wall above.
The increase base width of the wall is achieved by providing 2.5in offset on either side of
the wall. Depth of each course is usually 5inch. Generally a concrete base is provided at
the lowest level.
(b) Column footing: Column footing is one which is provided under a column for
distributing the concentrated loads in the form of uniformly distributed load on soil
below. Generally column footing means reinforced cement concrete column footing. It
also may different types:
Single footing: Here the column load is distributed through the single spread.
Stepped footing: This footing is generally used for heavily loaded column which requires
greater spread.
Sloped footing: In this footing the concrete base does not have uniform thickness but it is
made sloped with greater thickness at its junction with the column and smaller thickness
at the ends.
(c) Reinforced concrete footing: In places where the walls are subjected to relatively heavy
loading and the bearing capacity of the soil on which the wall footing is to rest is very
low, the wall footing results a massive structure. In such case it is desirable to provide
reinforced concrete footing below the wall.
(d) Inverted arch footing: In older periods, this type of foundation used for multistoried
buildings. These types of foundation greatly reduced the depth of foundation in soft soils.
However with the advancement in engineering technique, inverted arch construction is
rarely done these days.
Grillage foundation:
When heavy structural loads from superstructure are required to be transferred to a soil of low
bearing capacity, grillage foundation is often found to be lighter and more economical. This
avoids deep excavation and provides necessary area at the base to reduce intensity of pressure.
Depending upon material used for construction grillage foundation can be divided in two
categories:
a) Steel grillage: Steel grillage foundation consists of steel beams also known as grillage
beam. In this case excavations are carried to the desired depth and the bed is well leveled.
This foundation bed is covered with a layer of rich mixture of concrete. This is well
compacted so as to make the layer of concrete an impervious bed. Grillage beams of
designed dimensions are then placed on this bed of concrete at specified distance apart
using separators. The upper surface of grillage beam flanges is brought in a horizontal
plane and rich cement grout is then poured all around the lower flanges of the beam. The
concrete is then placed between and around the beam.
b) Timber grillage: Where the soil encountered is soft and is permanently water logged
building wall can be economically supported by suitable designed grillage foundation of
timber.
Combined footing:
A spread footing which supports two or more columns is termed as combined footing. It may be
following types:
(a) Rectangular
(b) Trapezoidal
(c) Combined between wall footing
The combined footing for column will be rectangular in shape if they carry equal loads. If the
columns carry unequal loads, the footing is of trapezoidal shape. The design of combined footing
should be done in such a way that C.G of column load coincides with C.G of footing area.
Sometime it may require providing combined footing for column and a wall.
Mat or Raft foundation:
A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a structure and supports
all the walls and columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low or the building loads are
heavy, the use of spread footings would cover more than one half the areas and it may prove
more economical to provide mat or raft foundation. Also if the structure is liable to subsidence
on account of uncertain behavior of its sub soil water condition, raft foundation should be
preferred.
Strap footing:
If the independent footing of two columns is connected by a beam, it is then called strap footing.
Strap footing may be used where distance between the columns is so great that a combined
trapezoidal footing becomes quite narrow, with high bending moments. In that case each column
is provided with its independent footing and a beam is used to connect the two footings. The
strap beam does not remain in contact with soil and thus does not transfer any pressure to soil.
Deep foundation:
Deep foundation is those in which the depth of foundation is very large in comparison to its
width.
9 The load of the super structure is heavy and its distribution is uneven.
9 The top soil has poor bearing capacity.
9 The subsoil water level is high so that pumping of water from the open trenches for the
shallow foundations is difficult and uneconomical.
9 There is large fluctuation in sub soil water level.
9 If deep strip foundation is attempted, timbering of sides is difficult to maintain or retain
the soil of the sides of trench.
9 The structure is situated on the sea shore or river bed, where there is damage of scouring
action of water.
9 Canal or deep drainage lines exist near the foundations.
9 The top soil is expansive in nature.
1. Pile foundation
2. Pier foundation / cofferdams
3. Caissons or well foundation
Pile foundation:
Pile foundation is generally used when simple spread foundation at a suitable depth is not
possible either because the stratums of required bearing capacity or steep slopes are encountered.
Depending upon their function or use piles may be classified in following types:
End bearing pile: End bearing piles are those which are driven into the ground until a hard
stratum is reached. Such piles act as pillars’, supporting the super structure and transmitting the
load down to the level at which it can safely borne by the ground.
Friction piles: When piles are required to be driven at a site where the soil is weak or soft to a
considerable depth, the load carried by a pile is borne by the friction developed between the side
of the pile and the surrounding ground.
Sheet pile: Sheet piles differ from above piles is that they are rarely used to furnish vertical
support but are used to function as retaining wall. Generally used as impervious cut off to reduce
seepage.
Anchor piles: When piles are used to provide anchorage against horizontal pull from sheet pilling
wall or other pulling forces. They are termed as anchor piles.
Batter piles: When piles are driven at an inclination to resist large horizontal or inclined forces,
the piles are termed as batter piles.
Fender piles: When the piles are used to protect concrete deck or other water front structure from
the abrasion or impact that may caused from ships are called fender piles.
Compaction piles: When piles are driven in granular soil with the aim of increasing the bearing
capacity of the soil, the piles are termed as compaction piles.
Tension piles: The piles that are used to anchor down the structures subjected to uplift due to
hydrostatic pressure or due to overturning moment.
Pier foundation:
When a heavy loaded building is to be situated in sandy soil or soft soil, overlaying hard bed at
responsible depth, pier foundation is used to transfer the load to the hard bed below. These
methods consist of sinking vertical shafts up to hard bed and filling them with concrete.
Cofferdams:
A cofferdam may be defined as a temporary structure constructed in a river or lake or any other
water bearing surface for excluding water from given site in order to perform various operation
on dry surface.
Types:
Earthen cofferdam: It essentially consists of an earthen embankment built around the area to be
enclosed.
Rock fill cofferdam: If the depth of water to be retained by the embankment of cofferdam is of
order of 1.8 to 3m, stone or rubble is used for the embankment. This is known as rock fill
cofferdam.
Single walled cofferdam: This type of cofferdam is used in places where the area to be enclosed
is very small and the depth of water is more about 4.5to 6m.
Doubled walled cofferdam: For cofferdam required to enclose large area, in deep water single
wall type becomes uneconomical as larger sections would be necessary to resist water pressure.
Double walled cofferdam is provided in such situations.
Crib cofferdam: In deep water where it is difficult to penetrate the guide piles or sheet piles into
the hard bed bellow, crib cofferdam is used. In this type, the sheet piles are supported by a series
of wooden cribs. A crib is a frame work of horizontal timbers installed in alternate courses to
form pockets which can be filled with earth or stones.
Cellular cofferdam: This type of cofferdam is mostly used for de watering large areas in places
where the depth of water may be of the order of 18 to 21m. These are mostly used during the
construction of marine structures like dams. Cellular cofferdam is made by driving straight web
steel, sheet plates arranged to form a series of inter connected cells. The cells are constructed in
various shapes. Finally the cells are filled with clay sand or gravel to make them suitable against
various forces to which they are likely to be subjected to two common shapes of the cellular
cofferdam are : Circular type and diaphragm type.
Caissons:
A caisson may be defined as a watertight structure made up of wood, steel or reinforced concrete
for foundations of bridge, piers, abutments in rivers and lakes dock structure for shore protection.
The caisson remains in its position and ultimately becomes an integral part of the permanent
structure.
Types of caissons:
1. Open caisson
2. Box caisson
3. Pneumatic caisson
Open caisson:
Depending upon their shapes, open caissons can be further classified as:
Single wall open caisson: This is a box type structure having no top or bottom (during
construction and mainly consists of vertical walls)
Cylindrical open caisson (well): This may be defined as a cylindrical shell made up of timber,
masonry, steel or reinforced concrete with a cutting edge which is sunk by excavating the soil
with in the shell. To facilitate sinking of the caisson, water jets are sometimes used around the
sides which decrease the skin friction. This caisson is also known as well caisson.
Open caisson with dredging wells: This type of caisson has the distinction of being employed for
the deepest foundation for bridge piers, abutments and other similar structure. The caisson in this
case is rectangular or square in plan and is further subdivided into smaller section from inside
forming open walls. The outside walls as well as the inside divider walls are normally made up
of reinforced concrete.
Box caisson:
This type of caisson is similar to open caisson except that it is closed at the bottom. This caisson
is cast and cured on the land and when required it is launched in water. The caisson is sunk by
filling sand, gravel or concrete in the empty space inside. The function of the sand layer is to
uniformly distribute the superimposed loads over the soil below the caisson and thus avoid tilting
of caisson.
Pneumatic caisson:
This type of caisson is closed at top and open (during construction) at the bottom. The water is
excluded from the caisson chamber by means of compressed air.
Machine foundation:
Another type of foundation is used for machine. Design of this foundation involves careful study
of the vibration characteristics of the foundation system. All parts of machine foundation should
be designed for maximum stresses due to worst combination of vertical loads, torque,
longitudinal and transverse forces, stresses due to temperature variation and foundation dead
load. The foundation block should have the designed thickness and should be reinforced both at
top and bottom even if reinforcements are not required from design consideration.
The causes of failure of foundations may be summarized under the following heads:
1. Unequal settlement of the subsoil.
2. Unequal settlement of masonry.
3. Horizontal movement of the soil adjoining the structure.
4. Shrinkage due to withdrawal of moisture from the soil below the foundation.
5. Lateral pressure tending to overturn the structure.
6. Action of atmosphere.
7. Lateral escape of the soil below the foundation.
COURSE NAME: DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION ESTIMATING
COURSE NO: CE-200
Lecture – 5
BRICK MASONRY
Definition:
The construction carried out using bricks and mortar is known as brick masonry.
Types of brick:
1. Traditional bricks
2. Modular bricks
Traditional bricks:
The bricks that are generally used in construction are known as traditional bricks. General
size of the brick is 9.5” x 4.5” x 2.75”.
Modular bricks:
Any bricks which are of same uniform size of PWD standard are known as modular bricks.
Moulded bricks:
Moulded bricks are those which are manufactured in special shapes and sizes to be used for
giving architechtural shapes. Such bricks are used for cornices, slopping walls etc.
Stretcher:
A stretcher is the longer face of the brick. A course of brick in which all the bricks are laid is
known as stretcher course if all the stretchers are on facing (9.5 x 2.75)
Header:
A header is the shorter face of the brick. A course of brick in which all the bricks are laid as
headers on the facing is known as header course or heading courses (4.5 x 2.75)
Lap:
Lap is the horizontal distance between the vertical joints of successive brick courses. Lap
should not be less than 1/4th of the length of the brick.
Perpend:
A perpend is an imaginary vertical line which includes the vertical joint separating two
adjoining bricks.
Quoin:
It is a corner or external angle on the face side of a wall.
Racking back:
It is the termination of a wall in a stepped fashion.
Toothing:
It is the termination of the wall in such a fashion that each alternate course at the end projects
in order to provide adequate bond if the wall is continued horizontally at a latter stage.
Bed:
Bed is the lower surface of the brick when laid flat. (9.5 x 4.5)
Closer:
It is a portion of brick with the cut made longitudinally and is used to close up bond at the
end of the course. A closer helps in preventing the joints of successive courses to come in a
vertical line. Closer may be of various types:
a) Queen closer: It is a portion of a brick obtained by cutting a brick lengthwise into two
portions. Thus a queen closer is a brick which is half as wide as the full brick. This is
known as queen closer. When the queen closer is broken into two pieces, it is known
as queen closer quarter.
b) King closer: It is obtained by cutting a corner of the brick joining middle points of
width and length of the brick. It is used near door and window openings to get good
arrangement of the mortar joints.
c) Beveled closer: It is obtained by cutting a triangular portion of the brick, half width
and full length.
d) Mitred closer: Mitred closer is obtained by cutting a triangular part of the brick from
one of its header face. Cutting face is inclined at 45 to 60 degree with longer stretcher
face of the brick.
e) Bat: It is a piece of brick. If bat is half brick in length, it is known as half bat, it it is
3/4th of the brick it is known as three quarter bat. Bat may be beveled also which is
then called beveled bat.
f) Bullnose: The brick moulded with round angle is known as bullnose.
Types of bond:
1. Stretcher bond
2. Header bond
3. English bond
4. Flemish bond
5. Facing bond
6. English cross bond
7. Brick on edge bond
8. Dutch bond
9. Raking bond
10. Zigzag bond
11. Garden wall bond
Stretcher bond: Stretcher bond or stretching bond is one in which all the bricks are laid as
stretchers on the faces of walls. This pattern is used only for those walls which have thickness
half brick i.e. 4.5 inch.
Header bond: Header bond or heading bond is the one in which all the bricks are laid as
headers on the faces of walls. This pattern is used only when the thickness of the wall is equal
to one brick i.e. 9.5 inch. This is achieved by using three quarter brick bats.
English bond: This is most commonly used bond for all wall thickness. This bond is
considered to be the strongest. The bond consists of alternate courses of headers and
stretchers. In order to break vertical joints in successive joints it is essential to place queen
closer after first header in each heading course.
Flemish bond: In this type of bond, each course is comprised of alternate headers and
stretchers. Every alternate course starts with a header at corner then queen closer are placed.
It has two types:
a) Double Flemish bond: In the double Flemish bond, each course presents the same
appearance both in the front face as well as in the back face. Alternate headers and
stretchers are laid in each course.
b) Single Flemish bond: Single Flemish bond is comprised of double Flemish bond
facing and English bond backing and hearting in each course.
Facing bond: In this bond, a header course is laid after several stretcher courses. The bond
may be used to lay costly facing bricks on exposed face and low quality bricks in the backing
of the walls.
English cross bond: This is modification of English bond used to improve the appearance of
the wall. Special features are:
→ Alternate course of header and stretcher
→ A header is introduced next to the quoin stretcher in every alternate stretcher course.
Brick on edge bond: In this type bond stretcher brick courses are used on edges instead of
bed. This bond is weak in strength but is economical.
Dutch bond: This is another modification form of English bond. In this bond the courses are
strengthen:
→ Alternate layer of headers and stretchers are provided.
→ Every stretcher course started with a three quarter bat.
→ In every stretcher courses, a header is placed next to the bat.
Raking bond: It is the bond in which filling of thick walls is done by laying bricks in inclined
direction with the facing of walls. It is of two types:
a) Diagonal bond: In this type of bond filling bricks are inclined in one direction only.
Here the bricks are arranged at 45degree in such a way that extreme corners of the
series remain in contact with the extreme line of stretchers.
b) Herring bone bond: This bond is very useful for walls having thickness more than
4bricks. Bricks are laid at an angle 45 degree from the centre line of the wall in plan.
Zig zag bond: This bond is similar to herring bone bond except that the bricks are laid in zig
zag fashion. It is most commonly used for making ornamental panels in brick flooring.
Garden wall bond: This type of bond is used for garden wall, boundary walls where thickness
of wall is one brick thick and it does not exceed two meters. It has three types:
a) Garden wall English bond: In this bond, header course is provided only after three to
five stretchers courses. In each header course a queen closer is placed next to quoin
header. In stretcher courses, quoin headers are placed in alternate courses.
b) Garden wall Flemish bond: In this bond each courses contain one header after three to
five stretcher continuously placed. Each alternate layer contain 3/4th brick bats placed
next to quoin header. Then another header is placed.
c) Garden wall monk bond: This is special type of garden wall Flemish bond in which
each course contain one header after two successive stretchers. Every alternate course
contain a quoin header followed by 3/4th brick bat.
COURSE NAME: DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION ESTIMATING
COURSE NO: CE-200
Lecture – 6
SCAFFOLDING
Scaffolding is a temporary frame work of timber or steel work i.e. elements having platforms
at different levels to enable masons to work at different height of building. The scaffolding
should be stable and should be strong enough to support workmen and other construction
material placed on the platform of scaffolding.
Part of scaffolding:
1. Standards: These are the vertical member of the frame work, supported on the ground
or embedded into the ground.
2. Ledgers: These are horizontal members running parallel to the walls.
3. Braces: These are diagonal members running or fixed on standard to provide stiffness
to scaffolding.
4. Put logs: These are transverse members, placed at right angle to the wall one end
supported on ledgers and other end on the wall.
5. Transoms: These are those put logs whose both ends are supported on ledgers.
6. Bridle: This is a member used to bridge a wall opening, supports one end of put log at
the opening.
7. Boarding: These are horizontal platform to support workmen and material. These are
supported on the put log.
8. Guard rail: This is a rail provided like a ledger at the working level.
9. Toe board: These are boards, placed parallel to ledgers, supported on put log to give
protection at the level of working plat form.
Types of scaffolding:
1. Brick layers scaffolding or single scaffolding
2. Masons scaffolding or double scaffolding
3. Steel scaffolding
4. Needle or cantilever scaffolding
5. Trestle scaffolding
6. Suspended scaffolding
7. Gantries
8. Patented scaffolding
Double scaffolding:
In stone masonry, it is very difficult to provide holes in the wall to support putlogs. In that
case, scaffolding consists of two rows is used. Each row forms a separate vertical formwork.
First row is placed at 20 to 30 cm away from the wall. While the other form work is placed
1m distance from first one. Put logs are then supported on both the frames. Cross braces are
provided to make scaffolding more strong and durable.
Steel scaffolding:
Steel scaffolding is similar to the masons scaffolding except that the steel tubes are used in
place of wooden members. Standards are spaced about 3m apart and connected with the help
of steel tube ledgers at a vertical interval of about 1.8m.
Advantage of steel scaffolding:
¾ They can be used for very large height.
¾ They can more strong and durable.
¾ They can be easily assembled.
¾ They are fire resistant.
¾ They have high scrap value.
Disadvantage of steel scaffolding:
¾ They have high initial cost.
¾ They require skilled labour.
¾ They required periodical painting.
Trestle scaffolding:
In this type of scaffolding, working platform are supported on ladders, tripod etc. they do not
need any standards, putlogs etc. They can be easily shifted from one place to another place. It
is mostly used for minor repairs or painting works in side the rooms.
Suspended scaffolding:
This type of scaffolding is mostly used for maintenance works such as painting, pointing,
distempering, white washing etc. in this arrangement working platform is suspended from the
roofs or parapet walls by means of ropes, chains or wires. Rope or chain ends are kept
anchord on the terrace and working platform is suspended from other ends of the ropes.
Gantries:
Gantries are used when very heavy stone blocks are required to be lifted to put them in
position of their use. It is two types:
a) Gantry with a crane
b) Platform gantry
Patented scaffolding:
These days various patented types of scaffolding useful for certain specific purposes. In all
these scaffoldings, the working platform is supported on brackets which can be adjusted to
any height.
Lecture – 7
Constituents of paint:
Paint generally made up of following constituents:
1. Base: A base is a solid substance in a form of fine powder, forming the bulk of paint.
A base in paint provides of opaque coating to hide the surface to be painted.
2. Vehicle: These are liquid substances which hold the different ingredients of paint in
liquid suspension. The vehicle makes it possible to spread the paint evenly on the
surface.
3. Drier: Driers are used to accelerate the process of drying and hardening by extracting
oxygen from the atmospheric and transferring it to the vehicle.
4. Colouring pigments: Colouring pigments are added to the base to have different
desired colours.
5. Solvent or thickness: Solvents are added to the paint to make it thin so that it can be
easily applied on surfaces. It also helps the paint in penetrating through the porous
surface of the background.
Defects in painting:
1. Blistering: it is the defect caused due to the formation of bubbles under the film of
paint. This defect occurs by water vapor trapped behind painted surface.
2. Bloom: in this defect, dull patches are formed on finished surface. It occurs due to bad
ventilation.
3. Sagging: this defect occurs due to application of too thick paint.
4. Fading: this is the gradual loss of color of paint due to the effect of sunlight on
pigment.
5. Flaking: it is the dislocation of some portion of painted surface, resulting from poor
adhesion.
6. Flashing: it is the formation of glossy patches on the painted surface resulting from
bad workmanship, cheap paint or weather action.
7. Grinning: this defect is caused when the final coat does not have sufficient opacity so
that background is clearly seen.
8. Running: this defect occurs when the surface to be painted is too smooth. Due to this,
the paint runs back and leaves small area uncovered.
9. Sponification: this is the formation of soap patches on the painted surface due to
chemical action of alkalis.
Distempering:
Distempers are considered as water paints. Distemper is composed of a base such as whiting
or chalk, a carrier as water, a binder as glue and coloring agent i.e. coloring pigments.
Process of distempering:
Preparation of white wash: white wash is prepared from fat lime. The lime is slaked at the site
and mixed and stirred with about five litres of water for one kg of unslaked lime to make a
thin cream. This should be allowed to stand for a period of 24 hours and then should be
screened through a clean coarse cloth. Then one kg of gum is dissolved in each cum of lime
cream. About 1.3kg of sodium chloride dissolved in water also added for every 10kg of lime.
Small quantity of ultra marine blue may be added to the last two coats of white wash solution.
Preparation of surface: The new surface should be thoroughly cleaned off all dirt, dust and
mortar drop before white wash is to be applied. Old surfaces already white washed should be
broomed to remove all dirt and dust. All loose scales of lime wash and other foreign matter
should be removed. Where heavy scalling has taken place, the entire surface should be
scrapped clean.
Application of white wash: White wash is applied with brush to the specified number of coats
(generally three). The operation in each coat should consist of a stroke of the brush from the
top down wards, another from bottom upwards over first stroke. Another coat horizontally
from the right to left and from left to right before it dries. Each coat should allowed to dry
before the next coat is applied. The white washing on ceiling should be done prior to that on
wall.
Color washing:
Color washing is prepared by adding coloring pigment to white wash. Generally used
pigments are yellow earth, red ocher and blue vitriol. These are crushed to powder before
mixing. The color wash is applied in the same fashion as white wash. For color washing on
new surface, the first primary coat should be of white wash and the subsequent coats should
be of color wash.
COURSE NAME: DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION ESTIMATING
COURSE NO: CE-200
Lecture – 8
PLASTERING
Plastering is the process of covering rough surfaces of walls, columns, ceilings and other
building components with thin coat of plastic mortars to form a smooth durable surface.
The coating of plastic material is termed as plaster. Plastering on external exposed surface is
known as rendering.
Objects of plastering:
¾ To protect the external surfaces against penetration of rain, water and other
atmospheric agencies.
¾ To give smooth surface in which dust dirt can’t lodge.
¾ To give decorative effect.
¾ To protect surface against vermin.
¾ To conceal interior materials or defective workmanship.
It should adhere to the background and should remain adhered during all variations in
seasons and other atmospheric conditions.
It should be hard and durable.
It should possess good workability.
It should be possible to apply it during all weather conditions.
It should be cheap.
It should effectively check penetration of moisture.
Selection of type of mortar for plastering depends upon the following factors:
1. Availability of binding materials.
2. Durability requirements.
3. Finishing requirements.
4. Atmospheric conditions and variations in weather.
5. Location of surface.
Method of plastering:
Lime plaster:
Lime plaster is applied either in three coats or in two coats. Before applying plaster, the
background is prepared as desired above:
Cement plaster is applied either in two coats or in three coats, the former being more
common. For interior work, single coat plaster is sometime provided.
Defects in plastering:
Lecture – 9
POINTING
The term pointing is applied to the finishing of mortar joints in masonry. In exposed masonry,
joints are considered to be weakest and most vulnerable spots from which rain water or
dampness can enter. Pointing consists of raking the joints to a depth of 10 to 20 mm and filling it
with better quality of mortar in desired shape.
Preparation of surface:
New work: All the joints are raked down to a depth of 20mm while the mortar in the joint is still
soft. The surface of the joints are then cleaned and thoroughly wetted.
Old work: All loose pointing and superfluous mortar on the surface and in the joints are
removed. The joints and surface are cleaned and then thoroughly wetted.
Method of pointing:
After preparing the surface, mortar is carefully placed in desired shape in these joints. A small
trowel is used for placing the mortar in the joint, the mortar is pressed to bring perfect contact
between the old interior mortar of the joint and new mortar. The pointed surface is kept wet for
at least a week or till it sets after application.
Types of pointing:
1. Flush pointing
2. Recessed pointing
3. Rubbed, keyed or grooved pointing
4. Beaded pointing
5. Struck pointing
6. Tuck pointing
7. V pointing
8. Weathered pointing
Flush pointing: This type of pointing is formed by pressing mortar in the raked joint and by
finishing off flush with the edges of masonry units. The edges are neatly trimmed with trowel
and straight edge.
Recessed pointing: The pointing is done by pressing the mortar back from the edges by 5mm of
more. The face of the pointing is kept vertical by a suitable tool.
Rubbed, keyed or grooved pointing: This is a modification of flush pointing by forming a groove
at its mid height, by a pointing tool.
Beaded pointing: This is special type of pointing formed by steel or ironed with a concave edge.
It gives good appearance, but is liable to damage easily.
Struck pointing: This is a modification of flush pointing in which the face of the pointing is kept
inclined, with its upper edge pressed inside the face by 10mm. This pointing drains water easily.
Tuck pointing: It is formed by first pressing the mortar in the raked joint and finishing flush with
the face while the pressed mortar is green. Groove having 5mm width and 3mm depth is cut in
the centre of the groove. This groove is then filled in or tucked in with white cement putty, kept
projecting beyond the face of the joint by 3mm.
V pointing: This type of pointing is formed by making a groove of V shaped with the help of
steel rod.
Weathered pointing: This type of pointing is made by making a projection in the form of V
shape.