Metalogénesis de la fmja & Oro, plata y cobre El indio-Pascua, ChilelArgentina:

controles geodinamicos, geomorfol6gicos y petmquimicos de la mineralisrich.

by

Thomas Bissig

A thesis subrnitted to the Department of Geologicd Sciences and

Geological Engineering in conformity with the requirements for the degree
of Doctor of Philosophy

Queen's University
Kingston. Ontario, Canada
June, 2001

Copyright O by Thomas Bissig, 200 1

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Frontispiece:
Nieves Penitentes in the upper Quebraâa Vacas Heladas, CU. 4650 m a.s.l., Chile,
February, 1999
No emprendais jamh la Gran Obra siguiendo las reglas que puedan sugeriros los
ignorantes O los libros de los sofistas, y no os apartéis Io mhs minimo de este principio: el
objeto de vuestras aspiraciones es el Oro O la Plata; el Oro y la Plata deben ser los unicos
objetivos que necesitais perseguir.
Extraidu de: Guillaume Salmon. "Biblotitèquedes Philosophes Cil iniiques". Paris. 1740.

The World hath k e n rrwh abused by the Opinion of Making of Gold: The Worke it selfe
I judge to be possible; But the Meanes (hitheno propounded) to effect it, are, in the
Ractice, full of Errour and imposture; And in the Theory, full of unsound Imaginations.
For to Say, that Nature hath an Intention to make dl Metals Gold; and that, if she were
delivered from hpedients, shee would perfonne her owne Worke; And that, if the
Crudities, Impunties, and Leprosities of Metals were cured, they would become Gold;
And that a little Quantity of the medicine, in the Worke of hjection,will turne a Sea of
the baser Meta11 into Gold, by Multiplying: Al1 these are but dreams...

Gold hath these Natures: Greatnesse of Weight; Closeness of Parts; Fixation; Pliantnesse,
or softnesse; Irnmunitie from Rust; Colour or Tincture of Yellow. Therefore the Sun
Way,(though most about,) to make Gold, is to know the Causes of the Severall Natures
before rehearsed, and the Axiomes conceming the sarne. For if a man can make a Metall,
that hath al1 these Properties, Let men dispute, whether it be Gold, or no?
From Francis Bacon "SylvaSylvarum. or a Naturall HiFtorie in ten Centuries'' iondon, 1627.

iii
 The El Icdio-Pascua Au (-Ag. Cu) Belt. straddling the Chile-Argentins border

between Latitudes 2g020' and 3O03O'S, is one of the worlds premier epithennal districts,

contaking the world class El Indio, Pascua and Veladero deposits and prospects. The

geology of the district is dominated by an entirely subaerial upper Eocene -to- Upper

Pliocene cdc-alkaline volcanic succession overlying a Paleozoic -to- Lower Jurassic

basement consisting of predominantly felsic intrusive and volcanic rocks. This transect of

the Centrai Andean orogen has been considered to have been amagmatic since the Late

Miocene as a result of flattening of the angle of subuction of the oceanic plate.

The Tertiary succession is herein subdivided into eight distinct stratigmphic units,

two of which are introduced in this study. The 30-36 Ma Bocatoma Intrusive Unit,

consisting of diontes and pnodiorites, intrudes the basement and is overlain by a

succession of predominantly dacitic ignimbrites of the 23-26 Ma Tilito Formation, local1y

exceeding 1200 m thickness. A regionally-persistent regolith horizon separates this unit

from the similarly voluminous, but andesitic, 17.5-2 1 Ma, Escabroso Group. The

petrographically similar andesites and diodes of the succeeding 14-17 Ma Cern de las

T6rtolas Formation and the Infiemillo intrusive lithodeme record a diminution in

magmatic activity. Magma output was drastically reduced and discontinuous thereafter.

The Middle -to- Upper Miocene units include the dacitic 11-12.7 Ma Vras Heladas

Formation. the very restricted dacitic -to- rhyodacitic Pascua Formation. dated at 7.5-8

Ma, and the rhyolitic tuffs of the 5.5-6.2 Ma Vailecito Formation. The latter was

previouslj; assumed to be the youngest in the district, but the newly discoverrd Cerro de

Vidrio rhyolite dome 8 km E of Veladero is herein shown to be 2 Ma in age.

iv
 Hydrothernal alteration was widespread in the district and is associated with

various magrnatic units, including the Bocatoma Intrusive Unit, the Escabroso Group, the

Infiemillo Intrusive Unit, the Vacas Heladas Formation, the Pascua Formation and the

Vallecito Formation. Economic mineralisation, however, formed only between Ca. 6 and

9.5 Ma, the only coeval igneous unit king the Pascua Formation.

Accurate geochronological data for the Middle -to- Upper Miocene volcanic and

intrusive units were a prerequisite for the delimitation of the ages of a succession of

regional pediplains, considered to be rapidly eroded planar Iandfoms. These are the 15-

17 Ma Frontera-Deidad Surface, which typicdly lies 300 m above the elevation of the

12.5-14 Ma Azufreras-Torta Surface, itself 200-400 m above the 6- 10 Ma Los Rios

Surface. Each was incised in direct response to uplift and records an episode of crustal

thickening. Non-correspondence with the landforni history of northem Chile is evidence

for a distinct iectonic evolution of the flat-slab region after 17 M a

Economic mineralisation in shallow-seated hydrothemai systems in the El Indio-

Pascua belt was directly stimulated by the incision of the Los Rios Surface. Ore

deposition was focussed at the upper extremities of the Los Rios pediment valleys and

probably induced by disturbance of the groundwater fiow regime, facilitating fluid rnixing

and boiling.

The magmas temporally, and probably genetically, associated with the ore-

deposition are dacitic and exhibit adakite-like chemical signatures, including high SrN

and Srn/Yb ratios. The melts are inferred to have k e n generated in the mafic lower crust,

through incursion of slab-âenved fluids rich in CI, S and probably Cu, Au, and Ag, rather

than in the slab itself.

 La Franja de Au (-Ag, Cu) de El Indio-Pascua, se ubica en la frontera de Chile con

Argentina entre las latitudes 29'20' y 30'30' S, es uno de los disvitos epitermaies mis

importante en el mundo, el cual incluye los yacimientos y prospectos " world-class" El

Indio, Pascua y Veladero. La geologia del distnto es dominada por una sucesibn

v o l c ~ i c acalc-alcalina enteramente subaerea del Eoceno superior a Pli6ceno Supenor,

sobreyaci~ n d o un basamento Paleozoico a Jurhico Inferior, cornpuesta

predominantemente por rocas felsicas intnisivas y volcinicas. Esta region del orogeno de

los Andes Centrales ha sido considerada de haber sido amagmiitica desde el Mioceno

Superior, corno reslutado de la horizontaiidad de la subducci6n de la placa oceinica.

La sucesion Terciaria es aqui subdividida en ocho unidades estratignficûs, entre

ellas dos son presentadas en este estudio. La Unidad Intrusiva Bocatoma (30-36 Ma),

consiste de dioritas y grandiontas, intrusions al basamento y es sobreyacida por una

serie de ignimbntas principalmente daciticas de la Formaich Tilito (13-26 Ma),

locaimente excede un espesor de 1200 m. Un horizonte regionaimente persistente de

regolita separa esta unidad del similmente voluminoso, p r o andesitico, Gmpo

Escabroso (17.5-21 Ma). Andesitas y dioritas petrograficamente parecidas de la siguiente

14-17 Ma Formaci611 Cerro de las T6rtolas y el Iitodemo intnisivo Infiemillo registran

una disminucion de la actividad magmatica. La producci6n de magma fue reducida

dramtiticamente y discontinua enseguida. Las unidades del Mioceno Medio y Superior

incluyen la 11-12.7 Ma formaci6n dacitica Vacas Heladas, la muy restringida formaci6n

dacitica a riodacftica Pascua (7.5-8 Ma), y las tobas rioliticas de la FomaciBn Vailecito

vi
(5.5-6.2 Ma). Esta iiltima fue previarnente considerada set la mis joven del distrito pero

el domo riolitico Cerro de Vidrio descubierto recientemente en este estudio 8 km al este

de Veladero, fue datado en 2 Ma, 3.5 m. a m h joven.

Alteracih hidrotermal es extensa en el distrito y est6 asociada a varias unidades

magmaticas, incluyendo la Unidad intrusivo Bocatoma, el Gmpo Escabroso, la Unidad

intrusiva Infiemillo y la Formacion Vacas Heladas, la Formacih Pascua y la Formaci6n

Vallecito. Sin embargo, la mineralizacih econ6mica se fom6 solamente entre 6 y 9.5

m.a. aproximadamente, siendo la Unica unidad ignea coethtea la Formacion Pascua.

El conocimiento de las edades de las unidades volchicas Mioceno Medio y

Superior fue esencial para definir una sucesi6n de pediplanicies regionales, consideradas

haber sido formas de terreno riipidamente erosionadas. Estos son la 15-17 Ma Superficie

Frontera-Deidad, tipicamente 300 m sobre la altura de la 13.5-14 Ma Superficie

Azufreras-Torta. Ia cud esta situada 200-400 m sobre la 6-10 Ma Superficie Los Rios.

Cada una fue incisa en respuesta directa al levantamiento, y registra un episodio de

aumento del espesor de la corteza. La discrepancia con la historia del terreno en el Norte

de Chile se evidencia por una evolucih tecthica distinta de la region dei segment0 de la

subduccih subhorizontal después 17 Ma.

Actividad hidrotermal economica de poca profundidad en el cinturh El Indio-

Pascua fue estirnulada directamente por la incisih de la Superficie Los Rios. La

depsicion la rnineralizacion de Oro, plata y cobre fue concentraâa en las extrernidades

superiores de los valle-pedimentos Los Rios, y probablemente fue inducida por una

perturbacion del régimen del flujo del agua terrestre, facilitando la ebullicion y mezcla de

los fluidos.

vii
 Los magmas asociados temporalmente. y probablemente gen6ticarnente. con la

deposicih de la mineralizacih son dacitas y tienen caracteristicas quimicas similares a

los de adûkitas, con rangos altos de SrN y Sm/Yb. Las magmas son inferidos de haber

sido generadas en la corteza mafica profundr. por incursion de fîuidos derivados de la

corteza oceanica subducida y ricos en Cl, S y pmbablemente Cu. Au y Ag, mis que

dentro de la corteza ocehnica misma.

viii
 Almost exactly four years ago I wrote the acknowledgements for my diplomr (-

MAC.) thesis for which 1 did field work on Alpe dell'oro, Valmalenco, N-Italy. 1 wrote

something about how the hiken aiways asked me whether 1 had found gold. not knowing

that this general theme, aibeit in a completely different context, would accompany me

throughout my Ph.D. as well. However, -no todo 10 que es oro brilla-, meaning that the

few small pieces of gold 1 found dunng my underground Mne-visits are wonh nothing,

compared to the "golden" experiences 1 made and things 1 lemed during the pst 3.5

years. Although at times 1 missed friends, farnily and other things from back home (skiing

around Kingston is a sad chapter!); if 1 had never left Switzerland 1 wouldn't know

anything about exploration geology, wouldn't have leamed Spanish. wouldn't be able to

write a "brochure" like this in English and probably would work for a bank by now.

This thesis would never have been possible without the support of numerous

people in Chile. Argentins, Canada and Switzerland. 1 would like to apologise for al1 the

names 1 am going to forget in the following section, rest assured 1 don't mean it personal;

it's merely an effect of my limited brain capacity.

At first I would like to thank Christoph Heinrich, who in 1997 gave me a bunch of

addresses of exploration managers and professots around the world, among which Alan

Clark's. Unlike the others, Alan answered my letter promptly and offered me the ideal

deal: first a six-month contract with Barrick Chile Ltda., followed by this Ph-D. project

under his supervision. 1didn't know Alan at the time and had only unprecise reports from

other people who have met him before, but it was worth every bit of the risk to start this
project with him. I am indebted to Alan for the great support from beginning to end of or

the project, for his socrates-like way to keep me on the right track, for his tireless editing

of the manuscripts (it was dl for the good, although, a times, it seemed a pain in ... ).

Beside Alan's support, 1 also appreciate the discussions I had with Jim Lee, my CO-

supervisor. It was always good to have r second opinion, particularly on how to present

the Ar-Ar data.

This nsearch was funded by Barrick Gold Corporation. This financial suppon is

greatly appreciated and enabled me to "get out of here" in less than four years. Funher

financial contributions to the project carne from NSERC grants to Alan Clark and Jim Lee

and an Ontario Gnduate Scholarship to the author for the 1 s t year of the project's

duration.

Not only my supervisors but also many other people from the Queen's department

of Geological Sciences deserve thanks for their technical support. Most notably these are:

Doug Archibald and Jerry Grant for the help in the Ar-lab, Al Grant for his support in

XRD matters, Dugald Carmichael for letting me use his high-tech microscope. the Robs
Renaud and Hanap for computer-related problem solving, Tom Ulrich for ail kinds of

practical advise starting from "how to set up a bank account in Canada" to "how to draw

figures and maps using CorelDraw and Autocad" and Ierzy Advent ("Um Hirnrnels

Willen was willst du schon wieder!") for the thin sections. Discussions with Gema Olivo,

Dave Love, Rob Stnisievicz, Farhad Bouzai, Amelia Rainbow, Chan Quang, Mike

Cooley, CMs Munro, Sarah Paimer were beneficial as for this study. También agraâezco

el apoyo que recibi por los eshidiantes "Latinos" del Minex Franyo Zapatta, Demetrio

Gongora, Guillemo Pensado, Marcelo Parlapiano, Enrique Garay, Antonio EgaÎia y

Alejandro Contreras, no solo para las correcciones en las traducciones de los resumenes y

otros textos. sino simplemente por ser buenos arnigos.

I also would like to thank my "Bamck bosses" Jay Hodgson, for having the initial

idea for the project and for setting up the financial support, and Dave Heberleii: for his

administrative support in the field and allowing me to visit the properties I wanted. My

understanding of the El Indio-Pascua belt benefited greatly from discussions and

collaboration with Banick exploration geologists and consultants, namely Kevin Heather,

with whom 1 familiarised myself with the geology around El Indio and from whom 1

leamed alternative ways of looking at things. Other geologists who had a positive

influence on my understanding of the belt are: Jack Hamilton, Graham Nixon, André

Tessier, Nivaldo Rojas, Silvino, Javier Vega, Raiil Guerra, Ximena Meto. Dan Diaz.

Antonio SanVicente, Gabriel Sanchéz, Dean Williams, Alistair Graeme, Glen van

Keerkvoon. Humberto Torres, Pedro Vera, Oscar NuÎiez, José Noriega, Rodrigo

Castagno, Ricardo Mutinez and many others (...whose full names I forgot). 1 funher

would like to thank "Miss Pascua", Annick Chouinard, for fruitful discussions (...and

providing accommodation in Montréal when 1 needed it) and "Miss Alunita" Cari Deyell

for the constant exchange of ideas and data.

The support staff of Bmick Chile Ltda. and B h c k Exploracihes Argentina S.A.

made my life easier when I tried to organise field visits and get maps or data. These are

namely "la mejor secretaria del mundo" Iessica Cuellar. but also Sandra Schiattino,

Claudia and Fiavia. Janet Godoy, Norita, Andres Moya, Gerardo Smith. 1 also appreciate

the Company 1 had during field work from numerous "ayudantes" and Chilean stuâents.

particularly Nata, but not less importantly Denis Diaz, Lete, Pulpo, Evelyn and Xime.
Visiting places away from the roads would have been impossible without amberoRoman

Flores. I also still remember el queso de cabra asado, it ain't swiss but it's quite OK!

I also would like to extend my thanks the guy who lives near that vicious corner of

the road leading to Iglesia, Argentina and the paramedico of Homestake for being in the

right place at the right time.

Last but not least, I am grateful to my parents and family who supponed me in al1

rny endeavours. With a little bit of luck 1 will soon be able to answer "yes" when my

sister asks me again on the phone: "are you finally a doctor?"

 Although many people have contributed to this project (see acknowledgements),

the major findings are based on the author's personal endeavours. In February, 1998.

when dedicated field-work was initiated, the project consisted of little more than general

concepts and ideas generated by C. J. Hodgson and A.H. Clark, who opined that

geomorphological relationships could be a significant aspect of the context of epithermal

mineralisation in the El bdio-Pascua M t . Alter a brief introduction into the topic by

A.H.C.. Ca. 5-6 months overall were spent in the study area, mapping geomorphology.

assessing geological relationships both regionally and in the environs of the mineral

deposits, and collecting simples for geochronology and petrochemistry. Decisions on

places to visit in the study area and the type and quantity of analytical results needed were

made by the author.

Major contributions from the author to the geological knowledge of the region

include the newly-defined Neogene landscape evolution and a better understanding of the

hydrothermal activity and mineralization. thanks to new, reliable %r-j9~r dates for

alteration. Accurate age constraints for igneous rocks permitted refinernent of the

volcanic stratigraphy, in collaboration with K. B. Heather of Banick Chile Ltda. The age

data were dso essential for a significantly revised metailogenetic rnodel, which was

established largely on the basis of new whole-rock geochernical analysis.

 ..
Frontispiece 11
..
La Gran Obra - The Making of Gold
*
111
Abstract iv
Resumen vi
Acknowledgements ix
S..

Statement of Originality Xlll

Table of Contents xiv
List of Figures xix
List of Tables xxii

1. Introduction

1.1. Epit hermai deposits

1.2. Magrnatic-hydrothemal Au-Ag-Cu deposits in the Central Andes
1.3. The econornic significance of the study area
1.4. The scientific contributions of this study
1.5. The individual chapten of this thesis

2. The Cenozoic history of magmntic activity and hydrothermal alteration in

the Central Andean flat-slab region: new a ~ r - 3 9
constraints
~r from the El
-
Indio-Pascua Au (-Ag,Cu) belt, 2g02(r 30°W S.

2.1. Abstract
2.2. Resumen
2.3. Introduction
Economic significance of the El Indio belt
2.4. ?4r-"A.r Geochronology
Sample preparation
Analytical methods
2.5. Geological setting and revised stratigraphy
Upper Pdeozoic to Lower Jurassic basement: the Pastos
Blancos Group
Oligocene - t e Upper Pliacene units
2.6. Hydrothermal activity (1): bamn Oligacene to early-Late Miocene
episodes
Alteration related to the upper Eocene Bocatoma Intrusive Unit
Early Miocene, Escabroso Grouprelated alteration
Alteration related to the Middle Miocene Cemo de las Tortolas
Formation and Infiemil10 Intrusive Unit
Late Miocene: alteration related to the Vacas Heladas Formation
2.7. Hydrothermal activity (2): economic and sub-economic mineralisation
Pascua Lama
 Veladero
Sancardn
The El Indio-Viento-Campana and Rio del Medio veins
The Tambo deposit
Vacas Heladas
2.8. Late Stage hydrothemal activity
2.9. Discussion
The Neogene volcanic stratigraphy
Neogene alteration and rnineralisation in the El Indio belt
Regional correlations
2.10. Summary

3. Cerro de Vidrio rhyolitk dome: evidence for Late Pliocene volcanism in

the central Andean fit-slab region, Lama-Veladero district, 29'2U S, San
Juan Province, Argentins
3.1. Abstract
3.2. Resumen
3.3. introduction and geological setting
3.4. Petrograph y and geochronological data
3S. Geochemical characteristics
3.6. Discussion and Conclusions

4. Miocene Landscape evolution in the Chilean Flat-Slab transect: uplift

history and geomorphological influences on epithermal processes in the El
Indio-Pascua Au (-Ag, Cu) belt.

4.1. Abstract
4.2. Resumen
4.3, Introduction
The El Indio-Pascua belt
Neogene climatic history of the 30"s transect
4.4. Geologic setting
Volcanic stratigraph y
4.5. Remanent Miocene landscape components in the El Indio-Pascua belt
Stage 1: The Frontera-Deidad Surface (15- 17 Ma)
Stage II: The Azufreras-Torta Surface (12.5-14 Ma)
Stage The Los Rios Surface (6-10 Ma)
Stage N: Valley incision and glaciation (Pliocene-Holocene)
4.6. Hydrothermal alteration events
Barren late Eocene to early-Late Miocene alteration
Age and geomorphologic setting of the principal deposits
Late Miocene to recent hydrothermai activity
4.7. Discussion of the regional and local implications of the landforni
chronology
Neogene emsional surfaces and uplift in the Centrai Andes
h m 17" - 30'30' S
xiv
 Erosion and epithemal minerdization. a mode1 for the El
Indio-Pascua belt
4.8. Conclusions

5. Epithermalore formation controlled by pediment incision: the El Indio-

Pascua Gold-Silver belt, ChüdArgentina

5.1. Abstract
5.2. Resumen
5.3. Introduction
5.4. The El Indio belt: volcanism, hydrothermal activity and Au-Ag-Cu
mineralisation
5.5. Landscape evolution
5.6. Ore deposition mechanisms
5.7. Geomorphologic evolution of the sites of ore deposition
5.8. A mode1 for the geomorphologic controls on mineralization

6. GeochedcaI evolution of Tertiary magmotism in the El Indio-Pascua Au (-

Ag, Cu) belt, ChildArgentina: petrogenetic and metaltogenic responses to
Neogene slab flattening.

6.1 Abstract
6.2. Resumen
6.3. Introduction
6.4. Geologic setting and volcanic stratigraphy
Upper Eocene -to- Lower Oligocene: the Bocatoma Intrusive
Unit
Upper Oligocene to Lower Miocene: the Tilito Formation
Lower Miocene: the Escabroso Group
Midde Miocene: the Cerro de tas Tortolas Formation and
In fierni 110 Intrusive Unit
Middle -to- Upper Miocene: the Vacas Heladûs Formation
Upper Miocene: the Pascua Unit
Upper Miocene: the Vailecito Formation
Upper Pliocene: the Cerro de Vidrio Formation
Ovemiew
6.5. The Geochernistry of the volcanic rocks
Sample material and analytical procedures
General geochemical classification
Trace element patterns
REE abundances
6.6. Discussion of the geochemical data
6.7. A geodynarnic mode1 and metallogenetic implications
6.8 Conclusions
7. Conclusions 189

7.1 Metallogenesis
7.2. Irnportant refmements of the volcanic stratigraphy
7.3. Regional aspects

Appendix 1: Field, petmgraphic and age relationships of the volcanic and

intrusive rocks of the El Indio PPseua belt

Upper Paleozoic to lower Jwassic, The Pastos Blancos Group

Upper Eocene to Upper Pliocene units
The Bocatoma Intnisive Unit
The Tilito Formation
The Escabroso Group
The Cerro de las T6rtolas Formation and Infiemillo Intrusive Unit
The Vacas Heladas Formation
The Pascua Intnisive Unit
The Vailecito Formation
The Cerro de Vidrio Formation
The Lower Miocene volcanics from Mesa Higuerita. Chile

A ppendix II: Styles and age relationships of hydrothermal alteration

Late Eocene: alteration related to the Bocatoma Unit

Late Oligocene -to- Early Miocene: alteration related to the Tilito Formation
Early Miocene: alteration relûted to the Escabroso Group
Reiïaca
Sanco
Paso Deidad
Middle Miocene: aiteration related to the Infiemillo Unit
Libra
Rio Apolinario
Lama Centrai
Middle -to- Late Miocene: alteration related to the Vacas Heladas Formation
Veladero Sur
Fabiana
Fi 10 Federico
Late Miocene: The main mineralization events between 6 and 9.5 Ma
The Pascua-Lama area
The Veladero Prospect
The Vacas Heladas Prospect

xvi
 The Veta Veronica, Tambo district
The main orebodies of the Tambo mine
Alteration in the Azufreras area
The S a n c d n project
The Rio del Medio low-sulphidation vein
El Inâio district alteration and mineralization
Late Miocene to Pliocene: Young, post-mineralization hydrothennal activity

Appendix III:Alunite ChemiPtry

Anal ytical procedures

The anal ytical data

Appendix IV: a ~ r - 3 9analytical

~r data

Appendix V: Additional geochemical data

Appendix VI: Additional field observations

Appendix VII: Abstmcts, pubüshd and submitted

xvii
Chapter 1

Fig. 1-1: The metallogenetic belts of N Chile

Chapter 2

Fig. 2- 1: Location rnap of the El Indio-Pascua belt

Fig. 2-2: Simplified geology of the El Indio-Pascua belt
Fig. 2-3: Tertiary stratigraphy
Fig. 2-4: Field photos of the Tilito Formation and Escabroso Group
Fig. 2-5: Field photos of the InfiemilIo Unit and Vacas Heladas Fm.
Fig. 2-6: The Pascua dacite, photomicrograph and age spectnim
Fig. 2-7: Field photo of the Vallecito Formation
Fig. 2-8: Map of important aiteration systems
Fig. 2-9: Escabroso gmup related alteration
Fig. 2-10: Topographic map of the Pascua-Lama-Veladero district
Fig. 2-1 1: Vacas Heladas related alteration
Fig. 2- 12: Alunite from Lama, age spectrum and field-photo
Fig. 2- 13: Brecha Central, Pascua alunite age spectmm and field photo
Fig. 2-14: Alunite from Veladero. BSE image and age spectrum
Fig. 2-15: Sûncandn, topographie rnap and age spectnim
Fig. 1- 16: Topographic rnap of the wider El Indio-Tmbo district
Fig. 2- 17: Selected sericite age-spectra from El Indio and Rio del Medio
Fig. 2-18: Field photos of the Tambo district
Fig. 2-19: Selected age spectra from Tambo and Vacas Heladas
Fig. 2-20: Cornparison between "new" and "old"stratigraphy

Chapter 3:

Fig. 3- 1: Lofation maps

Fig. 3-2: Cern de Vidrio age spectra
Fig. 3-3: Cerro de Vidrio REE spectrum

Chapter 4:

Fig. 4-1: Location rnap

Fig. 4-2: Simplified geology and major faults
Fig. 4-3: Photos of nsidual components of the Miocme landscape
Fig. 4-4: Photos of the Los Rios Pediplain
Fig. 4-5: Geomorphological rnap of Miocene paleosurfaces
Fig. 4-6: Geomorphological relationships in the Tambo district
Fig. 4-7: Geornorpholopical nlationships in the Smcarr6n area

xviii
Fig. 4-8: Geomorphologic relationships at Pascua, Lama and Veladero
Fig. 4-9: Schematic NW-SEprofile across Rio de las Taguas valley
Fig. 4-10: Compilation of the landforni chronûlogy S-Pem to N-Chile
Fig. 4-1 1: Cmstal thickening and uplift model after Molnar and England
Fig. 4-12: 3D-mode1 for the landscape evolution at El Indio-Tambo
Fig. 4-13: 3D-mode1for the landscape evolution at Pascua-Lama

Chapter 5

Fig. 5-1: Geographic overview 139

Fig. 5-2: Timing of igneous and hydrothermal activity and erosion events 141
Fig. 5-3: Landscape evolution and mineralisation at Tambo and Pascua 144
Fig. 5-4: Landscape evolution and mineralisation at El Indio 146
Fig. 5-5: Conceptual model for the Landscape evolution and mineralization 148

Chapter 6

Fig. 6-1: Location map

Fig. 6-2: Simplified geology
Fig. 6-3: Geochemistry of Tertiary volcanic suites, major elements
Fig. 6-4: Harker-type variation plots for minor elements
Fig. 6-5: Chondrite nomalised REE abundances
Fig. 6-6: S r N and SmNb ratios vs. age
Fig. 6-7: The evolution of the subduction zone at 29-30" S

Chapter 7

Fig. 7- 1: The temporal relationships between arc magrnatism, magma-source

variations, alteration and mineralization, regional pediplain incision
and crustal thickness

Fig. AI- 1: The Paleozoic to Lower Jurassic basement 213

Fig. AI-2: The Bocatoma intnisive unit 215
Fig. AI-3: The Tilito Formation 217
Fig. A I 4 The Escabroso Group 220
Fig. AI-5: The Cerro de las T6rtolas Formation and InfiemilIo Intrusive Unit 223
Fig. AI-6: Microscopie relationships T6rtolas/Infiemillo 224
Fig. AI-7: The Vacas Heladas Formation, field relationships 227
Fig. AI-8: The Vacas Heladas Formation, microscopie relationships 228
Fig. A M : The Pascua dacite 230
Fig. AI- 10: The Vailecito Formation 232
Fig. AI- 1 1: The Cern de Vidrio rhyolite dome 234
Fig. AI-12: The Mesa Higuenta volcanic rocks 236

xix
Appendix II

Fig. A[I-1: Bocatoma-related alteration

Fig. AII-2: Alteration at Sanco
Fig. AiI-3: Alteration at Paso Deidad
Fig. AiI-4: Alteration at Libra
Fig. AiI-5: Alteration at Lama Central
Fig. AiI-6: Alteration at Veladero Sur
Fig. AII-7: Alteration at Fabiana
Fig. An-8: Alteration at Fi10 Federico
Fig. An-9: Alunite-sarnple locations Lama
Fig. An-10: Brecha Central, alunites
Fig. AiI- 11: Alunite from Cerro Colorado, Veladero
Fig. AII-12: Alteration at Vacas Heladas
Fig. AII-13: Alteration at Veta Veronica
Fig. AII- 14: Alteration at Tambo
Fig. AII-15: Alteration at Azufreras
Fig. AU- 16: Alteration at Sancm6n
Fig. AII-17: Alteration at Rio del Medio
Fig. An- 18: Alteration at El Indio

Appendix III

Fig. AiII-l: K20vs. Na20for alunites from the El Indio-Pascua belt

Fig. AïII-2: log K20/Na20vs. age for Pascua-Lama-Veladero alunites
Fig. AIII-3: log KzOfNa20 vs. age for El Indio-Tambo alunites
Chapter 2

Table 2- 1: Grochronological data for igneous rocks

Table 2-2: Geochronological data for early barren alteration
Table 2-3: Geochronological data for aiteration related to mineralization

Chapter 3

Table 3- 1: 40~r-39Ardata for biotite and glass from Cerro de Vidrio

Table 3-2: Whole-rock analytical data for Cerro de Vidno rhyolite

Chapter 6

Table 6- 1: Whole-rock analytical data for volcanic and hypabyssal rocks

Appendix III

Electron microprobe data for alunites

Electron microprobe data for jarosites

Appendix V

Additional whole-rock analyses not presented in Table 6- 1

Duplicate sample
Normalisation factors used for major elernents in Table 6- 1
ICP-MSdetection limits
Appendix VI

Field-stations, locations
Observed lithologies
Observed aiteration assemblages
List of sarnples taken
 INTRODUCTION
1.1. Epithermaldeposits

The El Indio-Pascua belt, which straddles the Chile-Argentina frontier in the

southem Central Andes. is one of the world's premier epithermal Au-Ag districts. The

present thesis has as its major goai the clarification of its overall evolution and the local

and regional controls on ore formation. The focus is thus metallogenetic rather than ore-

genetic. However, the research is relevant to the genesis of epithermal mineralisation

globally, and the generai characteristics of this type of deposits are therefore bnefly

outlined below, before further general introduction to the study area.

The term "epithermal" was introduced by Lindgren (1933) as a component of a

general classification of hydrothermal ore deposits, to describe precious metal, base metal

and industrial mineral deposits formed at shallow depths, typically less than 1 km, and at

temperatures not exceeding 300" C. Such deposits widely constitute the near-surface parts

of larger, magma-related hydrothermal systems. and some are directly connected to the

deeper-seated porphyry-type environment (e.g.. Hedenquist et ai., 1998). Many

epithermal deposits are rnined for Au and Ag, elements envisaged to have k e n enriched

by fractionation processes dunng magma generation, ascent and partial crystallisation,

followed by exsolution of a brine from the magma. This hydrothermal fluid is commonly

a supercriticai single-phase system, which may exsolve into a denser bnne and low-

density vapour as it rises towards the surface, but ai low pressures (< ca. 1 kbar) the

magma will directly exsolve both saline and gaseous fluids. Au, Cu, As and Hg
fractionate into the vapour and hence have the potential to be deposited closest to the

surface (e.g., Heinrich et al., 1999).

Epithermal deposits have traditionally k e n divided into two types: hi@- and low

sulphidation systems, characterised by their ore and gangue rnineralogy and associated

alteration assemblages.

Higli-siilphidation systems exhibit the effects of intense feldspar-destructive wall-

rock alteration. which widely culminates in a vuggy quartz + alunite zone along

channelways where maximum fluid:rock ratios prevailed. Alunitequartz alteration

commonly occurs adjacent to the central intensely ieached zone, whereas argillic md

propy litic assemblages are found more distally. Ore minerals are normal 1y concentnted in

the central zone and include gold, electrum, enargite, chalcopyrite and various tellundes.

The hydrothemal fluids are markedly acidic but variably oxidised, are low in salinity and

are lûrgely magma-denved. Au is tnnsported as hydrosulphide or, where salinity is

exceptionally high, chloride complexes, and precipi tates w here the fluid loses H2S

through boiling or is cooled and diluted by mixing wi th groundwater. Detailed reviews of

the subject are provided by Ambas (1995) and Cooke and Simmons (2000).

Low-sulphidation epithennal systems are characterised by quartz, adularia and

carbonate gangue and generally less extensive wail-rock alteration. Ore minerals include

electrum, silver sulphosdts, base metal sulphides and, in some examples, tellundes. Low-

sulphidation systems are comrnonly situated distally to high-sulphiâation centres and

widely form as part of the same hydrothermal systems. The ore-forming fluids are again

low in salinity, but are near-neutnl and reduced, and have a stmng meteoric component.

Au is transported as hydrosulphide complexes and loss of H2S by boiling is inferred to be

the dominant depositional process, although mixing with groundwater is commonly also

important for metal precipitation (vide Sirnrnons, 1995; Cooke and Simmons, 2000).

The El Indio-Pascua Belt is dominated by deposits of high-sulphidation type, but

one low-sulphidation vein, Rio del Medio, has also been mined near El Indio, which itself

exhibits facies characteristic of both types of environment (e.g.. Jannas et al., 1999).

1.2 Magmatic-hydrothermdAu-ACCU deposits in the Central Andes

Intrusion-centred hydrothermal systems of epithermal and porphyry style are

related to calc-alkaline arc magmatism and, as such, form on convergent plate-margins.

where the subduction of oceanic lithosphere sets in tnin a succession of melting events

which generate magmas of the requisite composition. The Pacific rnargin of the South

Amencan continent has k e n in such a tectonic setting, undergoing eastward subduction

of oceanic lithosphcre. for much of the Paleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic.

A senes of Lower Cretaceous -to- Upper Miocene Cu-Au metallogenetic belts

with. in general, progressively younger ages towards the east, has been defined for

northem Chile (Fig. 1-1: Sillitoe. 1991; see also Camus and Dilles, 2001). These include,

most importantly: the Paleocene - Lower Eocene belt containing the Cern Colorado,
Spence and Lomas Bayas porphyry Cu-Au and the El Guanaco and Faride epithermal Au

deposits; and, immediately to the east, the upper Eocene - lower Oligocene Domeyko

Fault Zone ("West Fissure") controlling, from north to south, the enonnous Collahuasi,

Chuquicamata, Escondida and El Salvador porphyry Cu districts (Sillitoe, 1988).

 Cuajone I
Quelleveco
Toquepala (5

Central
Volcanic
Zone

Pascua Belt Flat-slab

'A
Los Pelambms (9-10)
1

Rio BIenco I

Santiago += Los Bronces (4.9)

f &El Teniente (4.7)

Southem
8
Volcanic
Zone

Mlfillogarwtick i t s O Porphyry Cu-Mo and Cu-Au

Paleocene-Early Eocene Porphyry Au
îate Eocene-Early Oligocene
Eady-Middle Miocene b Epithenal low-sulfidation
Middle-Late Miocene A Epithenal high-suifidation
Late Miocene-Pliocene

Fig. 1-1:
Map showing the principal Tertiary metallogenetic bel& of northem Chile and contigwus
Bolivia and Argentha, and xlected major porphyry and epithermal Cu-Au deposits. The map
also shows the location of the now amagmatic flat-slab segment of the Central Andes.
Minerakation ages are given in Ma.
Modified afier Sillitoe ( 1991) and Camus and Dilles (200 1).
Age consoaiats for L& ~el&bres -to- El Teniente are no& Skewes and Stern (1994), for
Bajo de la Alumbrera From Sasso and Clark ( 1998), for Collahuasi nom Clark et al. (1998),
for Cerro Colorado from Bouzari and Clark (2000), for Spence fiom M. Rowland (unpubl.
data), for Escondida fiom A. H.Clark (unpubl. data), and for the El Indio-Pascua belt fiom the
present research.
 In this transect of the Central Andes, Au and Cu mineralisation in the earliest-

Middle Miocene was focussed in the porphyry and epithermal Au-Cu deposits of the

Maricunga belt (Fig. 1-1) immediately SE of El Salvador (Sillitoe et al., 1991). whereas

Upper Miocene -to- Lower Pliocene ore deposits fomed in the Cordillera Principal in

the El indio-Pascua epithermal Au-Ag-Cu district. the subject of this thesis, ca. 250 km to

the S. and in the Los Pelambres -to- El Teniente porphyry Cu belt (Skewes and Stem,

1994). ca. 800-1000 km S of the Maricunga district. Further Upper Miocene epithermd

Au and porphyry Cu-Au mineralization. including the major Bajo de la Alumbrera centre,

was emplaced 300 km E in the Farallon Negro district (Sasso and Clark. 1998).

The more important Upper Miacene deposits of the Central Andes are therefore

located (Fig. 1-1) within or near the boundaries of the now arnagmatic plate boundary

segment between 27"3û' and 33' S, sepivating the Central and Southem Volcanic Zones

of the Andes. The Iack of recent volcanism is generally attributed to the subhorizontal

subduction of the Nazca plate in this region (Barazangi and Isacks. 1976). The evolution

of this striking tectonic feature is widely considered to have implications for

metallogenesis in the spatially and probably temporally related mineral belts. Thus.

several metallogenetic models have been proposed for the individual domains for the flat-

slab province and its borders (Kay et al.. 1999; Kay and Mpodozis. 2001; Skewes and

Stem, 1994; Sasso and Clark, 1998). and will be discussed herein specifically for the El

Indio be1t.
 1.3 The economic significance of the study arcci

The El Indio-Pascua Au (-Ag, Cu) belt, situated between Lats. 29'20 and 30' S

dong the Chile-Argentins border (Fig. L I ) , has been the focus of intensive Mning and

exploration activity since 1978, when St. Joe Minerais initiated large-scale development

of the El Indio epithermd Au-Ag-Cu vein deposit, now owned and operated by Barrick

Gold Corporation. Exploration efforts in the district led to the subsequent discovery and

exploitation of several breccia-hosted acid-sulphate Au-Ag ore-bodies in the Tambo

district some 6 km SE of El Indio. and the Rio del Medio low-sulphidation vein ca. 3 km

to the N. The total metal production from the distnct to date has been Ca. 10 Moz (311 t)

of Au, 100 Moz (31,100 t) of Ag and over 1 Mt of Cu. Mining activity in the El Indio

district is however diminishing, and the Tarnbo mine closed in 2000.

In addition to El Indio and Tambo, numerous bmen and mineralised alteration

zones in the region have been investigated over the past three decades. Exploration

activity is currently focussed around the Pascua-Lama and Veladero diatreme-hosted

epithemal Au-Ag prospects at the nonhem limit of the district, some 50 km N of Ei

Indio. Proven-plus-probable nserves for the Barrick Gold Corporation-owned Pascua-

h a prospect are 269 Mt rt 1.95 g/t Au and 66 g/t Ag at a 1.1 g/t Au cut-off grade. and

for Veladero, owned by Homestake Mining (60%) and B h c k Gold ~orporation',194

Mt at 1.46 glt Au and 21 glt Ag at a cut-off grade of 0.5 g/t Au (data from Mining

Journal, London, April, 200 1).

t
These companies completed a merger in lune, 300 1.

6
 1.4 The scientific contributions of this study

In parallel with the exploration activity in the area. several important geological
investigations have been carried out. albeit predominantly on the Chilean dope of the

physiographic divide of the Cordillera Principal. The results of these studies provide a

basis for the investigations and results presented herein.

The general Tertiary stratigraphy was first established by Thiele (1964) and

subsequently refined by Maksaev et al. (1984) and Martin et al. (1995). The last-named

study draws extensively on conventional K-Ar age data, provided in part by Rex (1987),

Mpodozis and Comejo (1988) and Nasi et al. (1990). The K-Ar method of dnting is

robust in unaltered. young volcanic rocks, if K-bearing minenls are analysed. but h u

serious limitations when slightiy altered rocks or minerals are dated because the analysed

material may have lost radiogenic argon. Despite these problems, the stratigraphy

established by Martin et al. (1995) has k e n found to be correct in many areas of the belt

and is hence largely maintained in this study. However, it requires significant refinement

where more detailed geological information (Heather and Diaz, 2000) and * ~ r - step-
~ ~ ~ r

heating data provide new better consiraints on the ages of specific formations. Moreover,

the Argentinian half of the El Indio-Pascua belt has not received detailed and

comprehensive geological study, although large-sale relationships are discussed by

Groeber (1951) and Aparicio (1984). and isolated aspects of the local geology are

addressed by Ramos et al. (1989) and Limarino et al. (1999). The present study

contributes field observations and %r-39~r step-heating data on a reconnaissance scale

which irnprove geological understanding of the area. but do not elirninate the need for

detailed geological investigations.

 Only limited data on aiteration and ore-forming events in the belt were available

pnor to this study. Thus. Jannas (1995), Martin et al. (1995) and Clavero et al. (1997)

report alunite, sericite and whole-rock K-Ar ages for alteration assemblages, but almost

exclusively from the vicinity of the El Indio and Tambo deposits. * ~ r - step-heating
~ ~ ~ r

dates are presented herein for a large nurnber of alteration systems, both barren and

minerdised and covering much of the district. The new data are genenlly more accurate.

and in part differ significantly from previous age determinations. permitting the

development of a firm chronology integrating magmatic. tectonic and hydrothermal

events.

Despite the consensus that epithemal deposits forrn at shallow depths (e.g..

Cooke and Simmons, 2000), surprisingly little attention has been paid to the paleo-

geomorphological aspects of mi neralised areas. Sub-planar landfoms, widespread in the

El indio-Pascua district but previously unrecognised. are herein interpreted as remnants of

sevenl generations of interconnected pedirnents or pediplains, in the sense of Maxson

and Anderson (1935), and are inferred to have formed under semi-arid climatic

conditions, broadly at the time of mineralisation. Enormous, and less dissected, pediplains

are well documented from northern Chile and southem Pem (Galli-Olivier, 1967; Clark et

al., 1967, Mortimer, 1973; Mortimer and Saric, 1975; Tosdai et al., 1984). Such planar

surfaces are interpreted to have been incised rapidly, within 1-2 m.y., as a direct response

to Neogene uplift. Remnants of several surfaces were mapped in this study and age

constraints for these erosional events, each recording an episode of uplift. ;ire provided by

the new % r J 9 ~ r data. The author discusses the regional tectonic implications of these

uplift events as well as, on a deposit scale, the possible modification of fluid pathways

and, hence, potential ore deposition directiy due to erosion.

8
 A new set of geochemical anaiyses, predominantly for Eocene and younger rocks,

was obtained in this research. The stratigraphic context for these samples is well

established and ?4r-39Ar ages are available for most specimens. The new data

complement 44 analyses presented by Kay et al. (1987) and discussed by Kay et al.

(1988, 1991, 1999,2001) and Kay and Abnizzi (1996). Trace element chemistry has k e n

used in the cited studies to clarify the evolution of the site of partiai melting in the lower

crust. The changing REE-signature, in particular, has been considered to refiect an

increasing depth of anatexis in the lower crust, which has been plausibly related to cnistal

thickening (Kay et al., opera cit.). The new data presented herein are not fundarnentally

different from those of Kay et al. (1987), but the stratigraphic constnints are more

reliable. and the independent data for the landscape evolution provide a firm foundation

for the correlation of petrochemistry with processes of crustal thickening and uplift in the

Middle and Late Miocene. As a result, the author's interpretation of the metallogenetic

significance of the petrochernical data differs significantly from that proposed by Kay et

al. (1999) and Kay and Mpodozis (2001), and a new integrative mode1 is presented to

explain the areai and temporal occurrence of major rnineralisation.

1.5 The individual chapters of this thesis

This dissertation is cast in a Manuscript Format which fulfills the requirements of

the Queen's University School of Graduate Studies and Research. Five manuscripts were

prepared for publication and form the body of this thesis. Their titles and brief outlines

are listed below. At the time of submission, Chapters 2, 3 , 4 and 5 have been submitted

for peer review for publication in major geological jomals.

Chapter 2:

Bissig, TeTLee, J. K. W., Clark. A. H. and Heather, K. B.. The Cenozoic history of

magrnatic activity and hydrothennal alteration in the Central Andean flat-slab region:

New constraints from the El Indio-Pascua Au (-Ag, Cu) belt, 2g02û' - 30°3û' S:

International Geology Review.

The airn of this paper is to comrnunicate more than 90 new M ~ r - 3 9step-heating

~r

dates and to provide a refined stratigmphy and strict age constraints for alteration and

mineralisation. The results presented in this chapter provide a basis for the findings

discussed in Chapters 4.5 md 6.

Cliapter 3:

Bissig, T., Clark, A. H. and Lee, I. K. W., Cerro de Vidno rhyolitic dome:

evidence for Late Pliocene volcanism in the central Andean flat-slab region. L m a -

Veladero district, 29" 2 0 S, San Juan Province, Argentina: Scientific Communication:

Journal of South American Eartli Sciences.

The unexpected discovery of an Upper Pliocene rhyolite dome. 3 m.y. younger

than the previously assumed youngest volcanic unit in the district. is reported in this

scientific communication.
Chapter 4:

Bissig, T. Clark, A. H., Lee, J. K. W., and Hodgson. C. J.. submitted, Miocene

landscape evolution in the Chilean flat-slab transect: upiift history and geomorphologic

influences on epithermal processes in the El Indio-Pascua Au (-Ag, Cu) belt: Economic

Geology.

This paper fofusses on the landscape evolution of the El Indio belt. Regional and

local implications are discussed and potential professes for ore deposition related to

pediment incision are addressed.

Chapter 5:

Bissig, T. Clark, A. H., Lee, I. K. W. and Hodgson. C. J., Epithennal ore

formation controlled b y pediment incision: the El Indio-Pascua gold-silver Mt,

Chilekgentina: Geology.

This paper presents a conceptual model for how pedirnent incision can make

h ypogene ore deposition p s i ble. It discusses the settings of the Tambo, Pascua-Lama

and El Indio deposits from this radical point of view.

Chapter 6:

Bissig. T.,Clark, A. H., Lee, J. K. W. and Heather, K. B., Geochernical evolution

of Tertiary magmatisrn in the El Indio-Pascua Au (-Ag, Cu) belt, ChileIArgentina:

petrogenetic and metallogenic responses to Neogene slab flattening: Economic Geology.

The focus of this papa is on the link between the geochemical characteristics of

Tertiary magmas and the metallogenesis of the El Indio belt deposits. The data yield a

model diffenng extcnsively from that of Kay et al. (1999).

1i
 T'FIE CENOZOIC HISTORY OF VOLCAMSM AND HYDROTHERMAL
ALTERATION IN THE CENTRAL ANDEANFLAT-SLAB REGION: NEW 4 0 ~ ~ -
3 9 CONSTRAINTS
~ ~ FROM THE ELINDIO-PASCUA AU(-AG, CU)BELT,
29'20' - 30'30' S
LAH..IsToEUA DEL VOLCAMSMO Y LA ALTERACI~NHIDROTERMAL DEL CENOZOICO EN LA
R E G I ~ N"KAT-SLAB" DE LOS ANDES CENTRALES:NUEVOSANTECEDENTES %R-%R DE
9,g020' - 30°30'S
LA FRANIA AU (-AG, CU)EL ~IO-PASCUA,

2.1. Abstract
Ninety-three new J O ~ r - 3 9laser
~ r step-heating plateau dates for igneous rocks and

alteration minerals from the El Indio-Pascua Au-Ag belt permit significant refinement of

the Tertiary volcanic stratigraphy and the definition of a succession of alteration events in

this major minenlised district.

Eight distinct Tertiary stratigraphic units are now recognised. two newly defined

in this research: the 30-36 Ma Bocatoma Unit, comprising dioritic and granodioritic

shallow-level intrusions; the voluminous 23-26 Ma Tiiito Formation, consisting

predorninantly of dacitic tuffs; the 17.5-21 Ma Escabroso Group made up of extensive

successions of andesitic flows and coeval hypabyssal intrusions; the 14-17 Ma, andesitic,

Cerro de las Tortoias Formation and its intrusive lithodeme, the Infiernillo Unit; the

dacitic, 11.0-12.7 Ma, Vacas Heladas Formation; the rhyodacitic 7.5-8 Ma Pascua

Fomation, defined in this study; the 5.5-6.2 Ma rhyolitic Vallecito Formation; and the

recently-defined rhyolitic 2 Ma Cerro de Vidrio Formation. Magrnatic activity decreased

markedly following the eruption of the Cerro de las T6rtolas Fomation.

Hydrothermal activity occumd at lest from the late Eucene to the Late Miocene,

-
but economic Au-Ag-Cu mineralisation was confined to the 6 9.5 Ma interval, the only
observed contemporaneous igneous unit king the restricted Pascua Formation.

Epithemal Au-Ag-Cu deposits and major prospects emplaced in this period include, from

north to south, Pascua-Lama, Veladero, Sancarrh, Rio del Medio, El hdio, Tambo, and

Vacas Heladas.

The widespread, albeit barren, alteration associated with the Bocatoma,

Escabroso. Infiemillo and Vacas Heladas mûgmatism indicates that the availability of

hydrothermal fluid was not the controlling factor for ore formation, emphasising instead

the role of the metai content of the magmas associated with epithermal mineralisation,

andor the requirement for favourable physographic conditions at the site of ore depsition.

2.2. Resumen
Noventa y tres nuevas edades %r-"~r "laser step-heating" de rocas magrniticas

y minerales de alteracih de la franja Au-Ag El Indio-Pascua permiten un refinarniento

significante de la estratigrafia volciinica Terciaria y la definicion de una sucesion de

eventos de alteracion en este distrito de mayor tnineralizacih

Ocho unidades estratigrificas Tercimias distintas son reconocidas, dos de ellas

recientemente definidas en esta investigation: la Unidad Intrusiva Bocatoma de 30-36

Ma, cornpuesta por intrusiones dionticas y granodionticas de poca profundidad; la

voluminosû Formaci6n Tilito de 23-26 Ma, cornpuesta principalmenie por tobas daciticas;

el Grupo Escabroso de 17.5-21 Ma, compuesto de flujos andesiticos e intmsivos

hipabisaies contemporheas; la formaci6n andesitica Cerro de las T6rtolas y su litodemo

1a Unidad hfiemillo, ambos de 14- 17 Ma, formacion dacitica Vacas Heladas de 11.O21.7

Ma; la formacih riodacitica Pascua de 7.5-8 Ma, definida en este estudio; formacih
riolitica Vallecito de 5.5-6.2 Ma; y Iû fonnaci6n riolitica Cerro de Vidrio de 2 Ma,

definida recientemente. La actividad magmitica disrninuy6 marcadamente después de la

erupcidn de la Fornacion Ceno de las T6rtolas.

Actividad hidrotermal ocum6 al menos desde el Eoceno tard0 hasta el Mioceno

Superior, pero la mineralizaci6n econ6rnica de Au. Ag y Cu era limitada entre los 6 y 9.5

Ma. siendo la unica unidad magrnhtica contemporanea la restringida formacion Pascua.

Los dephitos y prospectos m5s importantes que se fomaron en este periodo inch yen, de

not-te a sur, Pascua-Lama. Veladero, Sancardn, Rio del Medio, El Indio. Tambo y Vacas

Heladas.

Extensa. pero estéril, la alteracion se asocia con el magmatismo Bocatoma,

Escabroso. Infiemillo y Vacas Heladas y indica que la disponibilidad de fluido

hidrotemal no fue el factor controlador de la formacion de los yacimientos, poniendo

énfasis al rol del contenido de métales de los magmas asociados con la mineralizacidn

epitmm! y ! ~el requerimiento de condiciones fisiogrificas favorables en el lugar de la

depositacion.

2.3. Introduction
The Cenual Andean flat-slab region, an magrnatic segment of the orogen

separating the Central and Southem Volcanic Zones between Latitudes 28" and 33 O S

(Fig. 2-L), is of both geological and economic interest because it hosts several world-class

Miocene and Pliocene precious- and base-metal minerai districts. These include the

Maricunga Au-Ag belt at CU. 27' 30' in the Cordillera Principal at the northem limii of

the flat-slab, the Farall6n Negro Cu-Au district 300 km to the E, and the Los Pelarnbres-

El Pachh and Rio Blanco-Disputa& porphyry Cu districts at the southem boundary. The
 Average elevation
a3 kilometres
Sierras Psrnpeanas
BasementUplifb
Depth contours to the
1W&ü-BsniofT * MioPlioane depsb
Zone (km) 0 and minefal districts

Fig. 2- 1:
Location map ofthe El Indio-Pascua belt. Depthcontour lines on the Wadati-Benioffzone are taken from
Cahill and Isacks (1992). and outline the segment of flat subduction. Note that the El indio-Pascua belt is
located in the centre of this segment, whereas the other majcr Mio-Pliocene minera1 districts are situated
close to its northem and southern boundaries.
subject of the present discussion, the El Indio-Pascua Au (-Ag, Cu) belt, is situated in the

centre of the flat-slab segment at the crest of the Cordillera Principal (Fig. 2-1).

The Neogene tectonic, volcanologicd, and hence geodynaMc evolution of the

region have been discussed in a number of studies (Kay et al., 1988, 1991. Kay and

Abmzzi, 1996, Gutscher et al., 2000), and metallogenetic aspects, linking petrochemical

changes in the volcanic arc to the formation of the ore deposits in the region, are

addressed by Kay et al. (1999) and Kay and Mpodozis (2001). It has k e n generally

recognised that reliable stratigraphie and geochronological data for the volcanic and

intrusive rocks, as well as accurate age constraints on hydrothemal activity, are

prerequisites for meaningful geological and, pxticularly, metallogenetic models. The

aforementioned studies were extensively underpinned by K-Ar mineral and whole-rock

dates presented by Maksaev et al. (1984). Jannas (1995), Martin et al. (1995, 1997) and

Clavero et al. (1997). However, the conventional K-Ar method has some important

acknowledged disadvantages in an area such as the El Indio-Pascua belt. which has

experienced widespread and multi-stage hydrothemal activity. For instance, whole-rock

K-Ar ages for even slightly altered volcanic rocks may be inaccurate becüuse the minenls

are likely to have lost Ar, while alteration minerals may be overprinted by younger

hydrothermal activity, yielding arbitrarily mixed ages.

In the present context we comrnunicate the results of a new geochronological

study, involving the " ~ r - laser

~ ~ stepheating
~ r technique. considered more robust than

the K-Ar method, and undertaken alongside detailed field investigations of the volcanic

stratigraphy (Heather and Diaz, 2000). More than 90 w~r-39Ar

plateau ages refine the

volcanic and hypabyssal chronology in the El Indio-Pascua belt and establish a new

history of hydrothermal aiteration and ore deposition which significantly modifies eatlier
16
accounts. The new data were obtained from specimens from carefully documented

outcrops or underground mine exposures on the Chilean and Argentinian fianks of the

Cordillera Principal, and will be discussed together with the previously available K-Ar

dates. The geochronological data presented herein further provide a foundation for

clarification of the geomorphological development of the region (Bissig et al., submitted,

chapter 4), and have important implications for both metallogenetic and ore-genetic

mode! ling.

Economic significance of the El Indio belt

Following the discovery and development of the world-class El Indio epithermal

Au, (-Cu, Ag) vein deposit (ca. 10 Moz Au) in the Cordillen Principal in 1976.

exploration companies have investigated a luge number of alteration systems between

29" and 30'30' S, north and south of the El Indio mine. Additional oreMies, al1 of

epithermal type, with CU. 1 Moz contained Au overall, were soon found within 10 km of

El M o , and have subsequently been mined. These include the acid-sulphate type

Kimberly and Wendy breccia pipes of the Tmbo district and the Rio del Medio low-

sulphidation vein (Fig. 2-2). Several other alteration systems in the region. such as

Sancarr6n and Vacas Heladas, have proven Au rninedisation but are subeconomic at this

stage. However, the giant Pascua-Lama (ca. 18.6 Moz Au, 630 Moz Ag) and Veladero

(CU. 15.6 Moz Au, 230 Moz Ag) projects some 50 km further north are cunently under

development by Barrick Gold Corporation and Homestake Mining, respectively, and are

expected eventually to replace El lndio as the focus of mining activity in the region.

Genetic aspects of the El Indio and Tambo deposits are documented by Jannas et al.
Fin 2-2:
~ i k ~ l i f i geology
ed and the major faults of the El indio-Pascua belt Oligocene -to- Middle Miocene
volcanic and intrusive unis are undifferentiated (see Fig. 3), whereas units younger than late-Middle
Miocene are shown in more detail, Geological information largely lrom Martin et al. (1995) for Chile; no
comprehensive regional map at an appropriate scale is availabb for Argentina, for which infonnation was
taken fiom Ramos et al. (1989). our field observations, and Iandsat TM interpretation.
LatitudJLongitudeand üTMcoordinates (Zone 19)are indicated
Ages obtiiined for igneous rocks are indicated(see Table 1 for cornplete listing).
Abbreviations: BdTF: B a b del Toro fauit; PdlD: Portezuelode los Despoblados.
(1990, 1995, 1999) and Deyell et al. (2000, submitted), while the e;ionnous Pascua

deposit is currentl y under investigation (Chouinard, 200 1).

2.4. m ~ r . 3 9geochronology
~r
Sample preparation

For the igneous units, fresh magmatic biotite, homblende, plagioclase or sanidine

were hand-picked from crushed, 0.25-0.5 mm materid. Hydrothermal alteration

assemblages and hence rnineralisation, were dated using sericite. illite, hydrothermal

biotite and, more widely, clearly hypogene alunite. The alteration minerals were separated

from crushed rocks in site-fractions typically less than 0.25 mm, but pure alunite was

extracted directly from the uncrushed rock where possible in order to maintain the

microscopie context. Ali rninenl separates were exarnined by petrographic and X-ray

powder diffraction methods, and were, apart from some quartz-bearing sencite and

alunite samples. more than 95 % pure. In addition, most dated alunites were also analysed

by electron microprobe.

Analytkaf Methods

Al1 analyses were c k e d out in the Queen's University m ~ r - 3 9Laboratory.

~r For

each mineral separate, ca. 10 mg of material were wrapped in Al-foi1 and stacked

vertically inio 11.5 cm long x 2.0 cm diameter containen, which were then irradiated

with fast neutrons for 7.5 hours in the McMaster University Nuciear Reactor in Hamilton,

~ r monitors, MAC-83 biotite with a published age of 24.36 f 0.17

Canada. J O ~ r - 3 9flux

Ma (20) (Sandeman et al., 1999), were inserted at ca. 0.5 cm intervals dong the
irradiation containers. Following irradiation, the samples and monitors were placed in

small pits, ca. 2 mm in diameter, dnlled in a Cu sample-holder. This was placed beneath

the sapphire view-port of a small, bakeable, stainless-steel chamber connected to an ultra-

high vacuum purification system. Monitors were fused in a single step, using a focused

LEXEL 3500 argon-ion laser-bearn. The J-values for individual samples were

subsequenily determineci by second-order polynornial interpolation. These values vûned

for the samples discussed herein from ca. 2.04 x 1oe3to 1.60 x IO", with errors of

typically less than 1.3 1 (20). For step-heating expenments on silicate minerais, the

bearn was defocused to heat the entire sarnple. but refocused to fuse the sample in the

final step. Smples were heated for ca. 3 minutes for each step at incnasing power

settings (0.25 to 7.0 W). Alunite samples were, however, herted only to 3 -to- 4 W.

thereby precluding fusion and hence sulphur contamination of the analflical system.

These power settings were generally adequate to release over 80% of the Ar.

The evolved gases were purified using a cold-trap with liquid N2 and a SAES

C50 getter for ca. 5 minutes. Argon isotopes were measured using a MAP 716 mass

spectrometer, with a Baur Signer source and an electron multiplier. Al1 data were

comcted for blanks, atmospheric contamination and neutron-induced interference

(Onstott and Peacock, 1987; Roddick, 1983). Al1 ermrs are reported as * 2a, and dates
were calculated using the decay constants recommended by Steiger and Jager (1977).

2.5. Geologicai setting and reviseà volcanic stratigraphy

The Cenozoic hydrothermal systems of the El Indio-Pascua belt were emplaced

within a NNE-SSW suiking tectonic depression bounded by high-angle reverse and

normal faults (Fig. 2-2). The western limit of the study area is represented by the
approximately N-S striking BaÎios del Toro fault, 5 -10 km W of the El Indio and Tambo

deposits. and the less well defined eastem boundary by the Cordilleras Colangüil and de

la Brea. ca. 30- 40 km E of the Chile-Argentina border (Fig. 2-2). The majority of the

known alteration centres, whether rnineralised or barren, are hosted by a succession of

Oligocene -to- Upper Miocene, subaerial, volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks. which are

widely preserved in the southem parts of the El indio belt. where they overlie an Upper

Paleozoic -to- Lower Jurassic basement. However, mineralisation at Pascua-Lama and

Veladero at the apparent northem lirnit of the belt is hosted by hydrothermal breccias

i ntruding basement granitoid rocks.

The first comprehensive geological study of the region was canied out over 35

years ago (Thiele, 1964). and the volcanic stratigraphy of the district is now relatively

weil known from stucües by Maksaev et al. (1984) and Martin et al. (1995). carried out in

the Chilean part of the study area. Recent 1:10,000 regional rnapping by Banick Gold

Corporation geologists in the wider El Indio area (e.g. Heather and Diaz, 2000) provide,

together with the new *AP'~A~data presented here, a basis for a significant refinement

of the volcanic stratigraphy. In contrast to that of the Chilean side of the Cordillera, the

geology of contiguous Argentina is spanely documented (Groeber, 1951; Aparicio. 1984;

Rarnos et al., 1989; Limarino et al., 1999). For this area we present reconnaissance-scale

age constraints for volcanic rocks which are tentatively integrated into the stratigraphie

scheme established for the western part of the region.

Upper Paleozoic -to- Lower Jurussic basement: The Pastos Blancos Group

The Pastos Blancos Group is subdivided into two volcanic seqwnces and at lest

two distinct intrusive units. and constitutes, together with minor Paleozoic gneisses, a
21
composite basement for the Mesozoic and Tertiary strata in the El Indio belt (Martin et

al., 1999). The individual sub-units proposed by Matin et al. (op. cit.) are described

below .

The Permian Guanaco-Sonso Sequence consists of red-to-brown, welded. rhyolitic

-to- dacitic ash-flow tuffs, volcaniclastic sediments and minor lava flows. The rocks are

almost everywhere slightly altered. The Pemiian -to- Lower Triassic intrusive Chollay-El

Lebn Unit consists of medium- to coarse-grained granites, monzonites, diorites and

dacitic porphyries and is assigned to the Chollay Bathlith, the nonherly equivalent of the

Elqui-Liman' BatItolitIi. The granitoid rocks of the Chollay-El Leon unit intrude the

Guanaco-Sonso Sequence, and abundant mafic dikes cut both the Guanaco-Sonso

volcmic and Chollay intmsive rocks.

The Los Tilos Sequence comprises a wide variety of rock-types, including bimodal

basaltic/rhyolitic lava flows, hypabyssal intrusive rocks and rhyodacitic welded ash-flow

tuffs, as well as partly calcareous and gypsiferous volcaniclastic sandstones and

conglomerates. This unit rests on, and intnides, the Paleozoic units and is assigned a

Middle Triassic -to- Early Jurassic age. The Upper Triassic -to- Lower Jurassic Colorado

Unit represents an intrusive complex consisting of reddish -to- orange, fine- to coarse-

grained granitoiâs and quartz-feldspm porphyries. These felsic intrusive rocks are locally

commingled with mafic dykes and hypabyssal bodies and clearly intmde the Chollay unit.

The Colorado intmsive rocks are probably directly related to the similarly bimodal Los

Tilos volcanic sequence and are assumed to constitute much of the basement in the

Pascua area.
 Midde hrassic -20- Eocene units are very rare in the irnmediate El Indio k l t

itself, but have been recognised to the West of the Baiios del Toro Fault. They are not

further discussed herein.

O1igocene -to- Upper Pliocene units

The modern Andean subduction cycle is assumed to have started at Ca. 26 Ma, in

the latest-Oligocene, with the transition from oblique, and relatively slow, convergence to

orthogonal subduction and rapid convergence (Pi lger, 1984) when the Farall6n Plate

broke up into the Cocos and Nazca Plates. The lower Oligocene Bocatoma intmsive unit

(Martin et al. 1995) pre-dates this plate tectonic remangement, while the inception of the

new convergence pattern is represented in the region by the voluminous volcanism of the

upper Oligocene - Lower Miocene Tilito Formation (Martin et al., 1995). The subsequent

evolution of the volcanic arc was chancterized by markedly decreasing magma volumes.

Detailed descriptions of the Oligocene -to- Upper Pliocene volcanic units, largely

following the stratigraphie subdivisions suggested by Martin et al. (1995), are given

below (see also Figs. 2-2 and 2-3). The location. of the dated samples are recorded in

Table 3- 1.

Middle -to- upper Oligocene: the Bocaîma lntmsive Unit. This entirely intmsive

assemblage consists of stocks approximately 1.5 km in diameter, most commonly

exposed in the area north of Rio Potrerillos, in the wider Pascua - Lama area, where

Oligo-Miocene volcanic units do not completely cover the basement. The intrusive rocks

range from fine-grained -to- coarsely porph @tic diorites and granodiorites and

characterisùcally enhibit 1-2 cm poikilitic homblende and biotite phenocrysts. Manin et

23
 Cerro de Vidrio Formation
2.0 +. 0.2 Ma,

Vallecito Formation, 5.5 2 0.1 40- 6.1 5 0.4 Ma,

Rhyolitic crystal- and lithic tufi, volcaniclastic Wiments
Pascua Formation, 7.8 2 0.3 Ma, dacitic dyke
Vacas Heladas Formation, 11$02 0.2 40- 12.7 2 0.9 Ma,
Dacitic crystal tufis and block-and ash deposits. locally fluvial sediments.
Cerro de las Tortolas Formation and InfiemilIo Unit,
14.9 2 0.7 40- 16.0 2 0.2 Ma,
Andesitic flows, dioritic and grandiontic hypabyssal intrusions,
minor volcaniclastic sedimenls
Escabroso Group,
17.6 2 0.5 40- 21.9 2 0.9 Ma,
Andesiîic flows, volcanidastic sediments,
hypabyssaldiorite and granodiorite intrusions

Tilito Formation,
23.1 2 0.4 40- 25.1 5 0.4 Ma,
Daciüc tu&, volcanidastic sedimentS.
minor basaltic-andesitic flows

Bocatoma Intrusive Unit,

30.0 2 1.9 40- 35.9 2 1.2 Ma,
Dioriüc and g r a n d M c intrusions, andesitic
îiows (7, lobas Valle del Cura Formation, Limarino et al. t 999)

Fig. 2-3:
Oligocene - t e Upper Pliocene volcanic stratigraphy of the El lndio belt. Age ranges
indicated are h m ' Oh-' 'kdata fiom this study. Note that the enipted volumes decraseci
afler the eruption of the Escabmm Group volcanics and the thicknesses are not to scale.
00ihb265i DerpobtPdos N 41782W6746560 hyolitc pym~IJKap 261.0 +1- 5.4 second o f 3 stcps mtcrn ovalood lut stm Ion
h l o a u mit
99ihb184a Potmilloi 40026616747049 Jioriic/hbl 35.9 +1- 1.2 4.01 76.9 % 13 o f 7 ~ i r p s
99thb213a Lunr 40286 116756152 diorikhbl 30.0 +l- I.Y 3.73 34.2 YI 12 of 12 steps k t seps h m 2 diquotr
OOtbb38a Lama 405601/6755208 gmnodioriw'bi 35.5 +/- 1.Z 6.75 8 I.O % 15 o f 7 N p s
TiUto Fonutioa
99thb1460 ~ ~ ~ 4 1 , - A p a l i i u r402900J6728575
io dacitc p y m f l h i -3.1 +/- 0.4 10.3 918 % 1 3 o f 7 stcps
99thb196a Cod. Soncar. N 4?1626/6740170 h i i c pymdhi 25.1 +f- 0.4 28.79 93.2 % / 4 of9 sicp~
99thbE Ir V. Del C m 42946716690292 &cite pymclhi 23.9 +1- 0.3 46.96 96.4 Yi 17 o f 19 sims
E w i b m Croup
981hb41r SE Co. Torta 40923416710486 andcriic lovdptig 2 1.9 +l. 0.9 1246 32.4 % 1 4 o f 9 sicps T rliquou cxceu
98thb42c SE Co. Tom 409393/6710573 anduitc bvdplng 21.7 +I 1.5
- 10.61 38.9 % / 5 o f 9 stcpr 2 aliquau u t c a r mAr
98thbSJb N o f P. Dcidod 4 1275516709911 gmmdioriiclbi 18.7 +1- O.? 48.27 6 1.6 % 14 o f 14 stcps
98thb57a P. Deidad 41360716707811 udcsitc porphihbl 18.0 -1- 0.7 5.77 775 K 12 o f 5 srcpr most "Ar in 2 sirpr
98hb570 P. DciW 4 136071670781 1 Yulcsitc porphhi 17.6 +l- 0.5 6.30 93.8 % 1b a i o f 3 srcps
98thb74r 3 km W. E1 Indio 40399416708579 &iic &vrrpln$ 22.I+1- 2.5 12.46 23.4 % 14 of 7 skps 2 aliquou. cxccss 4OAI
9 W b 1 IOb Q. Vacas Hclrrdnr 4 1353 116696900 MdeJiu: lavdplag 19.1 -1- 1.2 6.80 !of 7 skps bat stcps from 2 d i q w u
80.9 # 1 :
99ihb l97î Cord. Sancar. N 42548316755170 sndcsitc dykcrbi 18.6 +/- 0.9 5.36 87.4 % 14 of 7 stcps
9 9 t h 197a Cod. Soncor. N 4348316734170 anûaitc dykchbl 18.9 4- 1.3 2.62 80.9 % 12 o f 5 rteps
99thb10 Ir Cord. S w w . N 4208136736333 andaite Iawhbl 19.0 1' - 1.1 5.20 9 1.0 % / 4 o f 5 *teps
Cern de luT6rtolu Formathi idInlkriiilb Urlt
98thb89a 1ndia Solitaria 40614216711074 gmnodioritdbi 15.4 +1- 0.2 38.68 77.4 ./.16 o f 10 stcps
98ihbS9b India Soliwin 40624U6712074 uidcJitc porphhi 15.7 *!- 0.3 1.45 total fiuion ope
99thbllh Libn 4055526716128 mdaitc porphhi 5 1 15 6.91 total gns irgc moi1 l o s of "AS
99îhb163b Apolinario 40297516735000 andaitc porphfl~bl 14.9 4-0.7 5.07 92.7 K 13 of 5 sicps
99ihb185a PotcriIlos 40067516746175 uidaitc lavahi 16.0 +1- 0.2 20. 17 914 YD14 o f 8 stcps
OOthô253a Lorm 10610016757650 dioriiuûi t 5.7 -1- 0.4 10.69 93.9 '/r 14 of6 stcps

âiuiic pyroclhi 91.7Yl70110stcps

dacitc pymclhi rotai fusion rgc
dacitc porphhi 994 % 1 8 a f I O stcps
drciic pyroclhi total fusion agc
d r i t c pyroclhi 97.9 Yi 18 of 10 stcps
âacitc pyroclibi 65.6 % 1 5 of 9 seps
dacirc potphhi Totai gor agc
h i i ep y t ~ ~ l h i 65.5 YDI 9 0 f 16 $1-
OOthbZb ûupoblados N 41362016750075 d r i t c pymclhi t 1.0 -1- 0.2 5.39 95.5 % 16 of 6 stcpr
Piuoa F ~ m t i o a
Inca47 Pascua, DDH-IO8 186.5-186.75 rn kitcdykchi 7.8 */- 0.3 14.77 100 % 17 of7 stcps
99thb13Oû Pasma 40160516757059 k i t c dykdi 7. t +L 2.3 13.89 r a d JEU
rec irr~climblc.r a o i l l o s of1'&
V û k i i o Fotaulloa
98thb29b SE o f Anificnr 40864716700112 rhpiiic pyrocWbi 6.0 4- 0.3 16.30 85.7% !6 o f 8 sups
98thb29b SE o f A n i h 408647167W1122 i 1 O1
rhyotitc p y ~ ~ ~ W w5.5 6.78 l o d fusion rgc
981hbfl b W of El lodio JOM6 f /6708714 hyolitc pymclJplag 6.1 cl- 0.4 7.12 93.8 % / 3 of 4 rtrps
98thb71b W o f El Indio 40506 116708724 hyolitc pymcybi 5.7 4- 0.3 51.02 54.5 % :5 of 1 Istcps accss "Ar at low b
99hb143a P. Vaus Hclder 41489916696800 rhyolitc p l J b i 6.2 +/- 1.2 8.42 58.1 % 16 o f 8 sieps al1 stcps > 80 YS;itmosr'r
99ihb143b P. Vaas Hc1w.h 51489916696800 p i t e clerubi 5.5 +1- 0.5 10.62 78.6 Y. 13 of8 $reps
00ihb267a V. Del Cura 425220/6690000 rhyolitie pymclhi 5.8 +!- 0.2 64.94 85.9 % 1 6 o f 8 stcps
C e r n de Vidrio Forniadoci
OOUibZSh DapablPdbs N 415820/6749370 ibyoiitc Iinibi 11 -1- 0 5 20.88 83.8 Yi 14 of8 s?qs ~ fBirrigaaL
. 2001
OOihbUOo DapobladosN 4 15820/6749370 rfiyoiitc lavdd 2.0 -1- 0.2 28.3 1 95.2 % 3 o f 4 stcps tcC Biaip aLI 2001

Table 2- 1:
' 'k data for ignnw rocks &ted in this study.
Mineral abbreviations: bi: biotite, hbl: homblende, KM:pot;issium feldspar, plag: plagioclase, m:sanidine,
gl: glass.
Full documentationofthe &ta by Bissig (200 1, Appendix IV).
al. (1995) reponed K-Ar biotite and whole-rock dates ranging from 31 to 39.5 Ma for

Bocatoma stocks. This age range is supported herein by three new aAr-39~rplateau ages

(Table. 2-1; Fig. 2-2). A date of 35.9 f 1.2 Ma was obtained for homblende from a diorite

at Potrerillos, 7 km S of Pascua, and a granodiorite from the Lama prospect yielded a

biotite age of 35.5 f 1.2 Ma. A sirnilar homblende date of 30.0 2 1.9 Ma was determined

for relatively fresh dionte from the Lama prospect area, but the age spectrum shows

evidence of some Ar-loss.

Upper Oligocene -to- Lower Mioce~ie:the Tilito Formation. This unit consists

mainly of variably welded dacitic, and less abundant andesitic and rhyolitic, ash-flow and

lithicîrystal tuffs. as well as associated volcaniclastic sediments. Minor basalts have rlso

been assigned to this unit (Martin a al., 1995). It is the most voluminous Cenozoic

formation in the region, attaining thicknesses of more than 1200 m. A more distal

sedimentary facies is represented by few hundred meters of conglomerates and

sandstones intercalated with subordinate dacitic tuffs, in the Valle del Cura uea on the

Argentinian slope. Plagioclase and biotite phenocrysts are associated in the Tilito

Formation volcanic rocks with variable proportions of quartz, augite, homblende and,

locally, sanidine, embedded in a comrnonly devitrified andor argillized aphanitic matrîx.

The felsic units of the Tilito Formation are very similnr in petrography to the Paleozoic

Guanaco-Sonso rhyolitic tuffs, but the latter contain more abundant brownish quartz

phenocrysts and generally lack transiucent feidspan, fresh biotite, clinopyroxene and

homblende. Tilito Fonnation strata have been folded inio open, N-S suiking, anticlines

and synclines a few hundred m in wavelength the Valle del Cura and Cordillera
S a n c d n areas in Argentins (Fig. 2-4A). as well as the Rio Apolinario area no& of

Sancarr6n in Chile (Martinet al., 1995).

K-Ar ages ranging from 27.2 ?r 1.0 to 21.0 + 1.5 Ma were reported by Martin et
al. (1995, 1997, and references therein) who, however, prefened a narrower age range of

23-27 Ma for the eruption of the dacites. Three new " ~ r - dates ~ r 2-1, Fig. 2-2)
~ ~ (Table

obtained in this study support the interpretation that this volcanic episode terminated at

ca. 23 Ma. Biotite from a non-welded dacitic tuff near Despoblados in the Cordillera

Sancarhn, 15 km E of Veladero, yielded an age of 25.1 t 0.3 Ma, whereas that from a

similar tuff from Valle del Cura was dated at 23.9 k 0.3 Ma. A welded tuff, exposed in a

higher stratignphic position between the Rio Apolinario and Sancardn valleys in Chile

gave a slightly younger biotite age of 23.1 f 0.4 Ma.

Lower Miocene: the Escabroso Group. Maksaev et al. (1984) and Martin et al.

(1995) defined a suite of intemediate volcanic rocks overlying the Tilito Formation as

the Escabroso Formation itself assigned to the now-obsolete Doria Ana Group. On the

basis of detailed mapping in the wider El Indio mine area, however, Heather and Diaz

(2000) subdivided this package, elevating the formation to group status. The volcanic and

sedimentary rocks of the Escabroso Group are separated from the Tilito Formation by an

important angular unconformity and a persistent regolith horizon, and can be subdivided

locally into up to five lithostratigraphic formations (Heather and Diaz, 2000). On the

bais of a petrographic similarities to a 18.6 i 0.9 Ma dike in a comparable geologic

setting Ca. 5 km to the SE, a basaltic andesite dike is herein assigned to the Escabroso

Group; it cuts a N-Sstriking anticline developed in Tilito Formation tuffs in the northern
3.2-4:
ie Tilito Formationand Escabroso Group:
Looking S towards Cerro El Jardin (4048 m a.s.l.), tiom the Rio Blanco vdley, Sepuitura,
Valle del Cura.Tilito Formation conglomerates are intercalated with dacitictuffs @der) and
folded. One tuffaceous horizon is outlined by the stippled lines to show the N-Sstriking
anticline.
Looking N fiom the northem part of Cordillera S a n c h n . An anticline developed in Tilito
Fonnation hiffs (T) is outlined.The fold is intersected by a basaltic andesite dike assignedto
the Escabroso Group @: coord UTM-19: 420.640/6738.480). Escabroso Volcanic rocks
(E) unconformablyoverliethe Tilito Formation Tuffs.The CordilietaOrtiga (5648 m a d . )
is visible in the background-
Cordillera Sancarrdn (Fig. 248). We take this as evidence for a regional defonnation

event between the deposition of the two volcanic series.

The Escabroso Group comprises andesitic -to- dacitic lava flows, autoclastic

breccias, subordinate volcaniclastic sediments ranging from breccia to sandstone, and

minor dacitic ash-flow tuffs. Small granodioritic -to- dioritic intrusive bodies are

associated with this volcanic episode. Remnants of large volcanic edifices representing

plausible sources for the Escabroso Group rocks are recognised on Cerro Dona Ana and

the type-locality Cerro Escabroso, West of the Bailos del Toro Fault near El Indio. and on

the lower and intemediate slopes of Cerro de las T6rtolas (6380 m a.s.1.). as well as in

the Cordillera Sancardn in Argentins (Fig. 2-2). The charactenstic extmsive rocks are

massive or flow-banded, augite- and plagioclase-phyric andesites. with homblende and

biotite as minor constituents. Distinctive andesite fiows exhibi ting glomeroporphyritic

phgioclase occur locally. Granodiontic intrusive rocks exhibit the same mineral

assemblage as the extrusive rocks. but contain more abundant biotite and interstitial

quartz and K-feldspar.

The Early Miocene age range of 17 to 21 Ma inferred by Martin et al. (1995,

1997) is slightly modified herein to 17.5 - 21 Ma on the basis of new U ) ~ r - 3 9 ~ r

geochronological data. Locally, in the m a of Cerro Tona, N and E of the El Indio mine,

andesitic rocks previously included in the younger Cerro de las T6nolas Formation and

Infiemillo Unit arc now assigned to this group. Whereas Martin et al. (1995) repoited K-

Ar whole-rock ages of between 13.1 t 1.0 and 16.9 I 0.6 Ma fiom the area. unaltered

plagioclases from massive andesitic flows occurring near the base of the Escabroso Group

yield distincily older ages. Although the spectra exhibit excess ?4.r, indicated by U-
shaped configurations with apparent ages of eu. 40-60 Ma at the lowest and highest

power-settings, geologically reasonable ages of 22.4 f 0.8, 21.7 t 1.5 and 21.7 f 2.2 Ma

were obtained from two aliquots of each sample at intermediate laser powen. Five

further, less disturbed ages from the Cordillera S a n c d n and areas near the border E and

+
SE of El Indio range from 19.1 1.2 to 17.6 t 0.5 Ma (see Tab. 2-1, Fig. 2-2).

Middle Miocene: The Cerro de lus T6rtolas Formation und Infiemillu Intrusive

Unit. The volcanic and hypabyssd rocks of this magmatic episode are volumetncally

subordinate to those of the Escabroso Group. They originate from several eruptive centres

and compose the upper part of Cerro de las T6rtolas (6380 m), the type locality (Maksaev

et al., 1984).

The Cerro de las T6rtolas Formation consists mainly of biotite, augite, homblende

and plagioclase-phyric andesite flows, commonly with relatively large phenocrysts in a

fine-grained to aphanitic matrix. The intrusive bodies assigned to the InfiemilIo Unit

include relatively corne plagioclase-porphyritic and equigranular, and fine-grained

porphyritic granodiorites and diorites, with abundûnt green homblende and biotite and

minor augite. Bioti te and homblende are generally mon abundant, and augite rarer, than

in the older Escabroso Group, but it is difficult to distinguish these units in outcrop or thin

section. An angular unconformity is recognised between these two predominantly

andesitic units West of Cern de las T6rtolas (Martin et al., 1995), but the K-Ar nges of

13.3 k 1. 1 to 18.2 t 0.6 Ma detennined for apparent Cern de las T6rtolas and uifiemillo

rocks by Martin et al. (op. cit.) overlap with those recorded for the Escabrcro Group

volcanism. in this study, due to the general lack of unambiguous field relationships
between these two rarely juxtaposed stratigraphic units, we assign rocks to the Infiemillo

Unit and Cerro de las Tortolas Formation if they yield ages between 14 and 17 Ma, the

range suggested by Martin et al. (1995, 1997). Our age constraints were obtained from

several small dioritic and granodioritic intrusive bodies from the Lama property and the

Rio Apolinario valley, which d l yield dates of between 15.7 I0.4 and 14.9 t 0.7 Ma. A

dacite flow from Potrerillos, 7 km S of Pascua, was dated at 16.0 f 0.2 Ma and a

hypabyssal andesite, in gradational contact with a coeval granodiorite (Fig. 2-5). from

India Solitaria at 15.7 t 0.3 Ma. Elsewhere partly chloritised biotite from a dacitic

porphyry spatially related to 16.8 Ma potassic alteration ai the Libn prospect (described

later in this article), yielded a totai-gas age of 15.2 f 2.5 Ma. but no reliable plateau was

obtained (Table 2-1). On the basis of our new data, a very bnef eruptive hiatus of Ca. 0.5

m.y. is inferred to have occurred at the Escabroso Group - Cerro de las Thtolas

Formation stratigraphic boundary.

Upper Miocene: the Vacas Hefudas Formation. Re1ativel y smal1 vol urnes of

dacitic, and subordinate andesitic, ignimbrites, as well as local domes and block-and-ash

deposits crop out at sevenl locations including Azufreras (W of Tambo), the ara S and

NE of Pascua, and the Fabiana prospect 10 km SE of Piwua. Small outcrops of non-

welded tuffs preserved in the Valle del Cura are also assigned to this unit, but probably

represent a landslide deposit.

The nomenclature of the rocks described in this section has been inconsistent.

They were onginally included in the Cerro de las T6rtolas Formation by Maksaev et al.

(1984). but because of iheir distinctive trace-element chernical composition, were referred
Fig. 2-5:
The Cerro de lu TMtolas Formation, MiemilIo Unit and Vaeas Heladas Formation:
A) Gradationai contact ofequignulargrandonte with biotite-besring,hombleadeand
plagioclase-phMc andcsite porphyry. india Solitaria, Ca. 6 km N of El Indio,
smple-siteof 98thb89a andb(Tab. 1).
B)Outlierofa Vacas Heladas Formation ignimbrite deposit (chff ca. 20 high) overlying
Paleomic volcanic rocks of the Guanaco-Sonso Sequence. Ca. 4 km SW of Pascua,
looking S.
to as the "Cern de las Tdrtolas II Formation" by Kay et al. (1999). The term b'Vacas

Heladas Formation" was introduced by Martin et al. (1995) because tuffs of this unit crop

out N W of Anoyo Vacas Heladas. S of Tambo, but Martin et al. (1997) employed yet

another name, Tambo Formation. Although none of these designations reflect a precise

type-locality, we maintain herein the usage "Vacas Heladas Fonnation", which is current

arnong the majority of geologists working in the m a .

The formation is largely made up of amphibole- and quartz-bearing, biotite and

plagioclase-ph yric, dacitic -to- andesitic, welded ignimbrites and air-fa11 tuffs. Lithic

fragments are rare. Augite has been observed as an accessory phase in one sample. Rocks

of the Vacas Heladas Formation can be readily distinguished from those of the Cerro de

las T6rtolas Formation and older uni& by the presence of quartz phenocrysts. a normally

fresh appemnce, a general absence of pyroxene and the high proportion of biotite.

An overail age range from 9.7 + 0.5 to 12.8 10.7 Ma was suggested by Martin et
al. (1995). and is broadly supported herein. The " ~ r - ' ~data
~ r obtained in this study (see

Table 2-1, Fig. 2-2) pemiits the recognition of sevenl centres of eruption. Thus, the tuff

and block-and-ash deposits on the hi@-plain of Azufreras, SW of Tambo,range in age

from 11.5 k 0.3 to 12.0 t 0.2 Ma, whereas the ignimbrite CU. 3 km S of Pascua (Fig. 2-5)

and the texturally-sirnilar rocks near Fabiana. probably originating from the s m e source,

were dated at 11.3 k 0.1 and 11.0 + 0.2 Ma, respectively. The unwelded tuff near the
Porfiada exploration zone. eu. 2.5 km NE of Pascua, yielded a biotite age of 12.7 f 0.9

+
Ma, similar to the 12.4 0.5 M a age of a sample collected in the Valle del Cura.
 Mid-Upper Miocene: the Pascua formation. A dacitic dike cutting the main

Brecha Central onbody at Pascua and intersected by diamond-drilling is herein dated at

7.8 f 0.3 Ma (biotite: Fig. 2-6). The dike therefore significantly postdated the Vacas

Heladas Formation and is also older than the oldest Vailecito Fomation tuff (see below).

The dated sample is a relatively coarse, biotite, quartz and plagioclase-phyric dacite, the

large, subhedral, quartz phenocrysts exhibiting embayed margins (Fig. 2-6). The

abundance of quartz (-10%) and the lack of homblende pheonocrysts distinguishes this

rock from the Vacas Heladas Formation ash-flows.

This dike is the only igneous unit sensibly coeval with the rnineralisation in the El

Indio-Pascua district confinned in the present study. However, Martin et al. (1995) report

a biotite K-Ar age of 7.6 + 0.7 Ma for a volcanic rock from Paso Chollay, 12 km NE of
Pascua. This dacitic tuff was originally assigned to the Vallecito Formation by Martin et

al. (op. cit.), but its affiliation with that sequence was already questioned by those

authors. We therefore suggest that these rocks, despite their restricted occurrence. be

included in a sepante, newly defined, Pascua Formation, reflecting their apparent

metallogenetic significance.

Upper Miocene: the Vallecito Formation. The poorly- to moderately-welded

rhyolitic tuffs of the Vallecito Fomation represent the youngest previously recognised

volcanic rocks in the El Indio belt. These ash-flow tuffs, locally covering reâ- and yellow-

weathering volcaniclastic sandstones. conglomerates and breccias assigned to the s m e

unit (Fig. 2-7; Martin et al.. 1995). are biotite, sanidine, quartz and plagioclase-
~)~hotornierogra~h of the Fascua Fornation &cite. Large phenocrysts of clear, euhedral
plagioclase @la& and embayed quartz (qtz), as well as mialler biotite flakes @i), are
embedded in a fine-graine4 partly argillised, matrix (sampie Inca 47, DDH-108,
1 86.5 m) see Tab. 1 ;plane-polarisedtransmiaed iight),
8) Argon release pattern of the biotite of the Pascua Formation dacite dike which cuis the
rnineralisation at Pascua. The pattern is not disturbed and the age is assurned to be
diable.
Fig. 2-7:
The Vdlecito Formation: Reddish conglomerates (sed) are overlain by pale-grey rhyolitic
tuffs. A brecciated base-surge deposit (rubbly outcrop immediately above sediments) occurs
between the two unis. Lmking NW fiom Paso Vacas Heladas (4800 m a.s.1.); sample site of
99thb 143a, b (Table 1).
phyric. Lithic fragments compose up to ca. 5% of the rocks and are usually derived from

altered units, but fresh fragments of quartz, sanidine, and plagioclase-porphyritic granite

occumng locally in the tuffs at Paso Vacas Heladas are considered to represent an

unexposed intrusive facies of the unit. Distinguishing features are the large, bipyramidal

quartz euhedra. the lack of homblende and the presence of phenocrystic sanidine.

K-Ar ages for welded and non-welded tuffs in the El Indio-Tambo area range

from 5.4 f 0.4 to 6.6 & 0.4 Ma (Martin et al., 1995). Our " ~ r - data
~ ~ (Tab.
~ r 2-1, Fig.

2-2) suggest a more restncted age range of 5.5 f 0.1 to 6.0 f 0.3 Ma. An additional biotite

age of 6.16 f 1.18 Ma was determined for the tuffs at Paso Vacas Heladas, the large error

king due to a high content of atmospheric Ar. Biotite from a granitic clast in the tuffs at

Paso Vacas Heladas was dated a1 5.5 k 0.5 Ma. which implies that it represent an

unexposed intrusive lithoderne of the formation.

A large (- 40 km') ignimbrite sheet in the upper Valle del Cura on the

Argentinian side of the frontier, originally termed the "Vacas Heladas ignimbrite" by

Ramos et al. (1989), is herein assigned to the Vallecito Formation. It originated from a

small caldera east of Cern Vacas Heladas (sic) and yielded a biotite K-Ar age 6.0 + 0.4
Ma (Ramos et al., op. cit.), which has k e n confirmed herein by a biotite age of

5.8 f 0.2 Ma.

U'pper Pliocene: Cerro de Vidrio Formation. An upper Pliocene age has k e n

obtained for a rhyolite dome located 15 km SE of Pascua (Bissig et al., submitted.

Chapter 3). but sirnilady young volcanic rocks may also occur in small volumes

elsewhere in the El Indio-Pascua district. The rock assigned to the Cern de Vidrio
Formation consists of generally undevitrified glass of variable porosity containing 5 5

vol.% of plagioclase, quartz, sanidine and biotite phenocrysts, and yielded ages of 2.1 f

0.5 (biotite) and 2.0 t 0.2 Ma (glass) (Bissig et al., submined, Chapter 3).

2.6. Hydrothermalactivity (1): barren Oligoecne to early-Late Miocene episodes

The stratigraphie and geochronological relationships documented above provide a

rigorous context for the numerous hydrothermal aiteration zones delimited in the El Indio

belt.

Alteration related to the Oligocene Bocatoma Intrusive Unit

Alteration of Oligocene age was identified in the area of the Potrerillos prospect.

Ca. 7 km south of Pascua (Fig. 2-8). where a weakly propylitically-altered, corne-

grained, Bocatoma Unit diode cuts fine-grained diorites and felsic volcanics of the

Pastos Blancos group. The alteration in the latter rocks is dominated by a quartz-sericite-

pyrite (phyllic) assemblage, although potassic alteration occurs locally. Narrow, mostly E

- W trending, locally "sheeted", steeply-dipping quartz-tourmaline-pyrite veins, crop out

on the eastem flanks of "Cerro Potrerillos" (unnarned P. 5494 m on the 1: 50,000

topographic map of the lnstituto Geografi~coMilitar de Chile). Sencite from pervasively

altered dionte on the southem slopes of this peak yielded a plateau age of 36.2 t 1.2 Ma.

Hydrothermal biotite dispened in fine-grained Paleozoic diorite imrnediately north of the

outcrop of the Bocatoma Unit dionte yields a sensibly identical age of 36.1 t 1.3 Ma,

which dso coincides with that of the Oligocene intrusion (Tab. 2-2).

Alteration clearly related to the Bocatoma Unit is not widely recogised elsewhere

in the belt, probably reflecting the relatively restricted occurrence of these intrusions and

38
 Aiteration

Zones of moderate
and stfong alteration

1 /.International border
'Chite-Argentins

Datecl alteration (Ma)

apparentiy bamn
(complete listing Tab. 2)

Fig,2-8:
Map of important alterationsystems in the El indio belt. Alteration has been delimited on the basis of field
observations and colour anomalies on the Landsat TM images. Major faults are shown as in Fig. 2. ' '~r-
3 9
Ar step-heating ages forappamitly banm aiterationzones are recorded.(see Tab.2 for list of the data).
99thb l40. Lbra 40SJZf167f6.064 Bi (K-alt) 16.8 +1- 0.4 15.57 91.4 % 17 of 8 stcps
99ihbl4lo Lih 40-=.38916716.403 Ser 16.6 -1- 0.5 20.28 60.7 K 14 o f 15 stcps high o m s illow T.
Oûthb275a Vcladno Sur 510.60016739.190 AI (HY) 15.7 -1- 0.8 0.58 42.4 % 12 of5 stcpr conL with youngcr jiuosiic
99thb163a Rio Aplinvio 402.97516735.000 AI (HY) 14.9 4-0.5 9.34 95% / 4 o f 6 sicps
00thb233a L a m Ccnml 406. t0016754.l85 A l (HY) 13.6 +/- 0.8 6.56 83.9 % 1 2 of 5 stqm m l 1 volume o f "Ar

Vciadm Sur 5 10.58W6743.UO 35.19 98.0 % 13 of 6 stcps

Campana W 405.31W6710.100 13.3 1~%/7~1cp%
Filo Fedcrico 505.86016752.670 59.94 97.0 % 13 of 5 slcpa
Filo Fcdcrico 406.58216752.133 50.88 97.5 % 1 3 of 5 srcps
Co. Color., VcIadno 409.4 1 Ol67U.f 00 59.48 11.1 O/. 1 /lut of 5 s ~ c p rmixcd spcctnrm WC Fig. 14, Tab. ?.
BK Silvcsm, Tuab0 4û8.2526702.487 39.19 48.L%l2of9stcps minorAr-losr.noguinriepI4
Fobîann 5 l?.3OOi67!lO.600 105.8 1 99.5 % 14 of 5 stcpr
Fabian8 4i2.30016750.600 61.88 65.9%13ofSsiepr

Table 2-2:
4 O
~ r -''~ age
r data for alteration minerals related to early barren hydrothermal systems.
Abbreviations:
Al: alunite, Ser: sericite, Bi: biotite, HV: hypogene, SH: Stem-heated, K-alt: potassic aiteration.
Full documentation of the data is provided in Bissig (200 1 , Appendix IV).
widespread overprinting by later episoâes of epithermal activity. However, "early

sericite" as reported by Pascua project geologists could be associated with this early

alteration event (Clavero et al. 1997).

Early Miocene. Escabroso Group-relatedalteration

No significant epithermal activity has been confirmed to be directiy related to the

upper Oligocene -to- Lower Miocene Tilito Formation, but alteration associated with

shallow-level intrusions of the succeeding Early Miocene Escabroso Group is common in

the region. The alteration assemblages locally include topaz (Fig. 2-9), pyrophyllite and

zunyite, evidence for relatively high temperatures of formation at a depth. inferred from

geomorphological constraints, of 500-900 m (Bissig et al., submitted, Chapter 4). Two

sericites from Reiiaca, a small aiteration system hosted by Tilito Formation tuffs Ca. 6 km

NW of Paso Sancmh, yield plateau ages of 19.1 f 0.4 and 19.7 t 0.8 Ma, (Fig. 2-8;

Tab. 2-2). A simila.plateau age of 20.1 f 1.2 Ma was obtained for hypogene alunite from

Sanco, a large (> 3 km2) alteration system c a 5 km W of Paso Sancarrh. This zone

exhibits many of the aforementioned high-temperature minerals (Fig. 2-9) and is spatially

related to a dacitic -to- andesitic shallow-level intrusion. The dated alunite is finely

crystalline and occurs with smdl amounts of topa as disseminations in strongly silicified

tuffs of the Tilito Formation. In the area of Paso Deidad, CU. 7 km east of El Indio, severd

small hypabyssal andesitic intrusive bodies (homblende: 18.0 I0.7 Ma) are spatially

associated with strongly silicified and quartz-dunite - aitered Tilito Formation dacitic
lithic tuffs. Medium-grained, yellowish, hypogene alunite occurring with topaz in vugs

(Fig. 2-9) and as veins, was &ted at 17.2 2 0.2 Ma, and is considered to represent the

youngest alteration related to Escabroso Group rnagmatism.

41
Fig. 2-9:
Escabroso Group- related alteration.
A) Feldspar-porphyritic dacite at the Sanco prospect, sirongly altered CO quartz-topa and Iocnlly
foliaied, probably by shear-defocmation, as indicated by the stippled line (foliation stnkes
32980). MicrocrystalIine topa occurs in white bands parallel to the foliation. Note scale on
hammer handle is in cm.
B) Back-scattered electron image of t o p a (top) and alunitc(al) growing in cavity of strongly altered
dacitic M s . Paso Deidad (Fig. 8); sample 98thb57c (Tab. 2). Alunite appears to cernent the
topaz grains.
Middle Miocene cilteration related to the Cerro de lus Tdrtoks Fornation and Infiemillo

Intrusive Unit

As with the hypabyssal rocks of the Escabroso and Infiemillo Intrusive Units,

distinction between the two comsponding episodes of aiteration can be difficult and is

based largely on geochronology. However, the aiteration assemblages reveal a temporal

change towards lower temperatures and a shallower depth of formation. The age of the

major, but barren, episode of alteration associated with the Infiemillo Unit is constrained

by new ' * ~ r - " ~ rdates from throughout the district, supported by K-Ar ages (Martin et

al. 1995; Clavero et al. 1997) previously obtained in the El Indio-Tambo area.

Widespread, weak -to- moderate propylitic and argillic alteration in the El Indio-Pascua

belt is also attnbuted to InfiemilIo intrusions (Martin er of., 1995; Jannas et al., 1999).

The Libra aiteration system, 2-3 km2 in area, is exposed ca. 7 km N of El Indio on

the eastern flank of the Rio del Medio valley. The higher levels of the zone, at Ca. 4350 m

a.s.1. exhibit strong silicification, whereas weak potassic alteration (hydrothermal biotite)

and tourmaline (Gallardo, 1997) occur at 4000 m a.s.1.. within 200 rn of the valley-

bottom. The presence of t o p and andalusite, occumng at intermediate levels CU. 100 m

higher than the hydrothermal biotite. points to assemblages comparable to those in the

older Sanco system. The potassic aiteration is associated with a hornblende, biotite and

plagioclase-porphyritic hypabyssal andesitic intrusion. Age consvaints for hydrothermal

activity (Tab. 2-2; 2- 8) are provided by hydrothermal biotite and sericite dated at 16.8 t

0.4 Ma and 16.6 t 0.5 Ma.respective1y.

 Slightly younger alteration ages were obtained from a site in the upper Rio

Apolinario valley, ca. 8 km NNW of Sancarr6n (alunite, 14.9 f 0.5 Ma, spatially related

to a 14.9 k 0.7 Ma andesitic porphyry), and from Veladero Sur, 10 km S of Veladero

proper in Argentina (alunite, 15.7 f 0.8 Ma: a minimum age due to contamination with

late jarosite). The alteration assemblages in these areas do not exhibit diagnostically

high-temperature minerals but are dominated by pervasive silicification and more local

advanced argillic alteration. with coarse, hypogene alunite. Lama Central. a small

alteration system Ca. 5 km SE of the main orebody of the Pascua project, is characterized

by intensely silicified granites and fine-grained lithic tuffs and volcaniclastic sediments of

the Paleozoic -to- Lower Jurassic basement. The silicified rocks host a stockwork of

medium-grained yellow alunite veins and bodies of crackle breccia with an alunite

matrix. Later generations of breccias exhibit a rock-flour matrix and rounded fragments.

Corne, pink alunite veins locally cut the second generation of breccia and exhibit native

sulphur in their centres. The yellow and pink alunites yield sirnilar ages of. respeîtively,

13.3 I0.3 and 13.6 f 0.8 Ma. The native sulphur growing in the pink alunite veins

represents the oldest stem-heated and, hence, shallow-seated alteration known to be

preserved in the district.

Late Miocene: alteration related to the Vacas Heladas Fornation

Appanntly barren alteration between 10.0 and 12.8 Ma in age, and therefore

conternporaneous with the volcanism of the Vacas Heladas Formation, is comrnonly

found in the vicinity of the major deposits of ihe district. However, local high. but

incoherent, Au and Ag values of this age are known only from the Fi10 Federico
exploration target at the northem rim of the Veladero deposit (Fig. 2-10). Alunites from

this area have been dated at 10.7 f 0.2 Ma, from a ca. 2 m wide vein of corne-grained

alunite (Fig. 2-1 1), and 10.9 f 0.1 Ma, from a zone of pervasive feldspar replacement in

felsic lithic-crystal tuff. However, the context of these alunites with respect to the major

Veladero rnineralised zones is not clear.

Additional dates for apparcntly barren, Vacas Heladas Formation-related alteration

in the wider Pascua-Lama-Veladero area have been obtained from two other locations as

listed in Table 2-2. Alunite replacing feldspan in an andesitic -to- dacitic tuff from a

small alteration zone at Veladero Sur, 8 km S of Veladero proper (Fig. 2-8), yielded an

age of 12.8 k 0.3 Ma, and medium-grained yellow aiunite filling the pore-spaces of a

coarse volcaniclastic sandstone at Fabiana, 3 km E of Veladero (Fig. 2-10), was dated at

10.4 f 0.1 Ma. Porcelaneous alunite veins, inferred to be of stem-heated origin, are also

widespread at Fabirna and two were dated at 10.3 f 0.2 and 10.0 t 0.4 Mû (Fig. 2-1 1).

Barren alteration of this episode has also been recognised in the El Indio and

Tarnbo districts, typicaily in close vicinity to the later mineraiised systems. Thus, coarse

alunite has k e n dated from the cernent of Brecha Silvestre near the economic Wendy

Breccia of the Tambo mine (10.4 I0.3 Ma), while on the upper dopes of Cerro la

Campana near the El Indio mine, pervasive powdery dunite, infened to be of stem-

heated origin, was dated at 12.1 t 0.4 Ma.

The alteration assemblages of this episode lack higher-temperature minerais such as

tourmaline, t o p and andalusite, but the abundant stem-heated alunite and native

sulphur occurring immediately beneath the high plains comrnon in the region reveal lower
Fie.
--w 2-10:
-

Topographie map of the Pascua-Lama-Veladero district showhg the location of

prospects. Aiunite ages obtained in this study are indicated (UTM coordinates are
given, contour interval 100 m).
Fig. 2- 1 1 :Vacas Heladas Formation-relatedalteration.
A) Coarsely-crystalline, massive alunite h m Fib Federico, bctween the Pascua-Lama and
Veladero properties (see Fig. 10). Sample-siteof ûûthb245a (Tab. 2).
B) Porcelaneous dunite vein (v) at the Fabiana prospect (Fig. 10). br indicates a zone wbere
similar alunite forms a h y d r o t h e d breccia matrix. Photo takm in the northern part of the
prospect, looking NE. Samplesiteof ûûthb280a
temperatures of formation and a generally shallower setting than for the previous phases

of hydrothermal activity.

2.7. Hydrothernrol activity (2): economic and sub-economic mineralisation

Detailed * ~ r - ' ~ A rage constraints for the major ore deposits of the district are

now available from the Pascua and Lama prospects as well as for the El Indio district.

including the Rio del Medio low-sulphidation vein, and for the Tarnbo district. Data from

Velrdero and the apparently smaller Sancarrh and Vacas Heladas prospects complete the

database for the Au- Ag mineralisation. Al1 econornically significant precious-metai

enrichment in this region may now be assigned to a single episode between Ca. 6 and 9.5

Ma. The geochronological results and the geological context of the individual samples are

described below for the various mines and prospects from N to S; the analytical chta and

sample locations are listed in Table 2-3.

Pascua and Lama

The Pascua-Lama district embraces several orebodies. exhibiting different styles of

high-sulphidation epithermal alteration and mineralisation. In the Argenthian. i.e.. Lama,

half of the deposit it is difficult to relate dateable alteration minerais, such as alunite, to

specific ore-zones. because Au is hosted by strongly silicified rocks. However, alunite is

clearly contemporaneous with the mineralisation in the Brecha Central, the main Pascua

orebody.

Two samples of alunite from veins cutting Chollay basement granites were

collected from the Lama prospect at ca. 4500 m a.s.l., 1.5 km E of the Chile-Argentins

border (Fig. 2-10). Microcrystalline, yellowish alunite from a N-Svein was dated ai 9.4 t
0.2 Ma (Fig. 2-12), and a sirnilar but less precise age of 9.54 1: 0.85 Ma was obtained

from a NW-SE striking, coarse, pinkish vein from the southem flank of the Rio Turbio

valley running through the Lama prospect area (Fig. 2-10). Further West, in the

"Caracoles Norte" sector (Fig. 2-10). ca. 1 km NE of Brecha Central, a 9.0 ir 0.2 Ma date

was obtained for medium-grained alunite pervasively replacing the feldspars of a coarse-

grained Chollay granite.

A series of six alunite plateau ages were obtained for magmatic-hydrothermai

alunite from Brecha Central and its immediate envelope. Although the altention,

brecciation and mineralisation occurred in several distinct stages (A. Chouinard, written

commun.,2000), plateau dates for alunites belonging to different episodes of alteration

span a relatively narrow range between 8.7 + 0.2 and 8.1 + 0.2 Ma. The alunite most
cleariy related to Au-Ag-Cu rnineralisation was from an enargite-alunite vein cutting the

breccia and yielded an age of 8.6 t 0.4 Ma (Fig. 2-13). The 7.8 Ma dacitic dike of the

Pascua Formation described above, the only igneous rock similar in age to the

minerdisation in the district, cuts the Brecha Centrai.

Veladero

Only one sarnple from the Veladero prospect was dated in this study. Collected at

an elevation of 4200 m in the SE part of the exploration arer in the mineralised Cerro

Colorado zone (Fig. 2-10), the dated corne-grained alunite occupies a vein cutting

pervasively quartz-alunite altered quartz-phyric crystal tuffs, probably belonging to the

Guanaco-Sonso sequence of the basement. The age spectrum obtained is complex (2-

14A). Two heating-steps released 78.8 % of the 3 9 ~atr intermediate laser-powers and
 Alunite, Lama

9.4 +0.2 Ma, 97.7 % of' Ar

0 .O 1.O
Fraction "Ar

Fig. 2-12:
Alunite fiom Lama.
A) A ca. 2 cm wide vein (striking 1 7S0, steeply-dipping)of fme-grained alunite (immediately a b v e scale)
cutting fuic-grained granite. Sample site ot99thb214a (Tab. 3), collected at 4500 m below the Penelope
zone.
B) The age spectrum for 99thb214a The plateau iacludes4 steps and the spcetmmis not disturbed.
 30 9
4

B) 1nca33

20
n

saa
w
Alunite, Pascua
8.6 + 0.4 Ma, 97.7 % of Ar
3 10
I
C

1 -

l
,
,

O *
O .O t *O
Fraction "Ar

Fig. 2- 13:
Brecha Central, Pascua.
A) Outcrop of Brecha Centrai (BC) at ca. 4950 m a d . , above the main mineralised zone. The
breccia intersects granite (G) and is associated with a stockwork zone (not clearly visible in this
view) with veins of alunite and gypsum at the contact, The breccia matrix contains abundant
coarse alunite (sample site of PS-26c).
B) The age spectrum for sample inca33, a syn-mineralisation alunite h m an enargite-alunite vein
cutting Brecha Centraiat Pascua (4860 m ievel). Minor Ar Ioss is apparent in the first heating-
increments, but a reliabie plateau of 5 steps is attained.
 -
Natroalunite
IO.? '0.9 Ma, 11.1% "Ar

'
O5
0.0
Fraction "Ar
1.O

Fig. 2-14:
Alunite fiom Veladero.
A) The complex agc specmun of sample OOthb282a bom Ccno Colorado, Veladem, showing
*
the two steps that yielded a combined age of 8.0 0.2 Ma and the l u t step with a distinaly
older age. This may be an effectof the two generationsofalunitein this sample (see B).
B) Back-scattered electron image of sample ûûthb281a The Na-rich cores appear slightly
darker, and containto 0.53 Na per fonndaunit, whereas the rims are Na p r (0.02Na ph).
yielded ages of 7.8 I0.3 and 8.1 f 0.3 Ma. However, the highest-temperature step.

comprising 11 % of the 39Ar,yielded an age of 10.7 f 0.9 Ma. Electron microprobe

analysis of this sample revealed a strong zoning of the alunite: Na-rich cores, containing

more Na than K per formula unit, ûre overgrown by alunite with distinctly higher K-

contents (Fig. 2-14B). The age specmim. therefore. may represent a mixture and iwo

episoâes of alunite growth. It remains unclear, however. which, if either. of the two

generations was associated with the main Au-Ag rnineralisation at Cerro Colorado.

Sancarrbn

Small-scale mineralisation is found on either side of the Chile-Argentina border in

the Sancarr6n district. situated half-way between El Indio and Pascua (Figs. 3-2 and 2-8;

Williams, 1998; Heresmann and Davicino, 1990). Two samples have been dated from the

Chilean part of the prospect ("Sancarhn Chileno"), Ca. 2 km N of Paso Sancarr6n (Fig. 2-

15A). The main exploration targets in that area are two 4500 m hills, Cerro Tio Pepe and

Cern Don Lucho. Coarsely crystalline alunite cementing a breccia of strongly silicified

felsic tuff clasts, cropping out on the West fiank of Cerro Tio Pepe at an elevation of 4290

m a. S. l., was dated at 7.7 + 0.2 M a (Fig. 2-15B).Scorodite veins. up to 30-40 cm wide
and representing oxidised enargite minerdisation, are observed in the vicinity of the

sarnple site. On the summit of Cerro Don Lucho, slightly finer-grained alunite from the

cernent of a similar hydrothermal breccia yielded an age of 7.9 f 0.2 Ma.

 4 km Aunite age (Ma)
I ~ r p ~ ~ a tzones
ion

Alunite, Saneanon

7.7 + 0.2 Ma, 98.4 % of ''Ar

0.0 1.O

Fraction 3gAr

Fig. 2- I 5:
A) Topogaphic map of the Sancarrh prospect. The locations of the dated alunites are indicated.
Dashed Iines outline the streams. UTM coordinates are given, contour interval is 50 m.
8) Age spectrum for 99thb1 73a. For locationsee A). The plateau includes 4 steps.
The El Indio-Viento-Campanaand Rio del Medio veins

The El Indio-Viento-CampanaAu (-Ag, Cu) deposit (Fig. 2-16) comprises a senes

of major veins, attaining widths of up to 20 m wide and largely NNE-SSW striking,

hosted by Tilito Formation tuffs (''Amiga Tuff', in Iannas et ai., 1999). The alteration is

predorninantly argillic and phyllic (Jannas et al., 1999), advanced argillic facies occumng

only at the shallowest levels. The mineralised structures have traditionally k e n assigned

to enargite f pyrite-nch, "copper-stage", and younger quartz-rich "gold-stage" veins on

the basis of cross-cutting relationships (Jannas et al., 1990. 1999). However, more recent

work by mine geologists and our new age data suggest that this is oversimplified. Some

veins, e.g. Qumo Uno, adjacent to the Cu-rich Viento Vein. and Jalene. 500 m E of

Viento (Fig. 2-16). exhibit minera1 assemblages typicai of low-sulphidation deposits, and

including sphalerite, chalcopyrite. tennantite and, locally. rhodochrosite. For many of the

veins, direct age constraints must be based on sericite from wall-rock alteration zones

immediately adjacent to the mineralised structures. The Jalene Vein was thereby daied at

7.8 f 0.4 Ma, Viento at 7.0 t 0.2 Ma, the copper-rich Mula Muerta vein at 7.6 f 0.3 and

the quartz- and gold-rich Paihuano Vein (between the Viento Vein and the main El Indio

veins) at 6.6 f 0.3 Ma (Fig. 2-17). A slightly younger K-Ar sericite age of 6.4 f 0.2 Ma is

reported by Jannas et al. (1999) for the Indio Sur 3500 Vein, representing by far the

richest part of the deposit.

The E-W oriented Campana B Vein, the only major mineralised structure in the

hanging-wall of the Inca Norte fault (see Jannas et al., 1999), exhibits bands of medium-

grained alunite intercalated with enargite. The alunite yielded an age of 6.2 t 0.3 Ma (Fig.
 Alunite age
10km
( - Sericite age
Mineralized veins and breccias

Fig. 2- 16:
T'opographic map of the mdet El Indio-Tambo district. Locations of &ted alteration minerais are
indicated. UTM coordinates are given, contour interval is 50 m.
 g 1 Sericite. Rio del Medio
I Sericite, Mula Muerta

1 7.6 + 0.4 Ma, 85.7 % of * Ar 1 7.7 + 0.3 Ma, 97.4 % of Ar

/ Sericite. Paihuano 20.

Alunite. Campana 6

1 6.2 + 0.3 Ma, 95.0 % of " Ar 1

0.0 1.O

Fraction Ar Fraction ' hr

Fig. 2- 17:
Selected age spectra for sericite and alunite fiom EI indio and Rio del Medio. The samples were collected
from within, or in the immediate vicinity of, the mineralised veins. From upper-lefi to lower-right: Rio del
Medio low sulphidation vein; Mula Muerta enargite vein; Paihuano quartz-gold vein; and Campana B
enargite alunite vein. The minor disturbance in the hi@-T steps of Inca 15 is probably due to outgassing
of fluid inclusions in contaminating quartz.
2-17), the youngest for an alteration mineral clearly related to econornic mineralisation in

the district.

The exploited Rio del Medio low-sulphidation vein, hosted by Escabroso Group

andesites, crops out at Ca. 3950 m a. S. l.,3 km to the N of the El Indio mine (Fig. 2-16).

Sencite from an altered wall-rock fragment within the vein yielded a plateau date of 7.6 f

0.4 Ma (Fig. 2-16). An additional, but disturbed, age specmm was obtained from sericite

separated from the andesitic wall-rock, CU. L m away from the vein. This sarnple yields an

apparent total-gas age of 9.4 & 0.6 Ma, but the spectrum lacks r plateau. It is inferred that

this sericite may record an older episode of alteration partly reset during the emplacement

of the Rio del Medio vein.

n i e Tumbo deposit

A variety of small oreboâies, predominantly hosted by phreatic breccias, have

k e n mined in the ares of Cerro Elefante, CU. 6 km SSE of El Indio (Figs. 2-16 and 2-18).

The mineralised bodies al1 exhibit acid-sulphate characteristics and are generally poor in

sulphides (Jannas et al., 1999). Dates for hypogene alunite cementing the fragments or

altering the immediate wallrwk of the mineralised breccias record the age of the

rnineralisation. The emplacement of Au in the Kimberly and Wendy Breccias and the

lndigena Vein, iook place between 8.9 f 0.4 and 8.0 k 0.4 Ma (Fig. 2-19; funher data are

reported in Deyell et al., 2001). Veta Veronica (Fig. 2-18). a thin, but Au-rich? qumose

vein hosted by Tilito Formation dacitic tuffs, C a . 3 km NE of the Kimberly breccia, has

been &ted using alunite replacing feldspar from the immediate envelope of the vein. The

+
8.5 0.2 Ma date is sirnilar io the other ages obtained for Tambo district rnineralisation.
Fig. 2-18:
The Tambo district.
A) Cerro Elefante, 4521 m a. s.l., looking SW. The pale-grey zones on the NE dopes of the
peak represcnt steam-heated alteration (SH).The Tanibo mil1 is visible at the far le&
The mincd ore bodies of Kimberly and Wendy (Fig. 16) are, mpectively, situated on
the northwcsternandsoutbern rlanLsof the hi11 and not visible in this view.
B)Smdl open pit fÎom which Veta Veronica was mined (Fig. 16). Photo lookingNNE;the
pit is ca. 20 m wide in the foregound. Satnple 99thb 1 Ma was taken fiom the lefbhand
pit wall indicatedby the triangle.
 KB-08

Alunite, Kimberly Alunite, Veronica

8.0 + 0.1 Ma, 89.5 % of 40 Ar 8 . 5 + 0.2 Ma. 82.1 % of JB 1\I

Alunite, Canto Sur

9.6 + 0.2 Ma, 93.3 % of " Ar
7.1 + 0.2 Ma, 89.3 % of JO Ar

0.0 1.O 0.0 1.0

fraction Ar Fraction Ar

Fig. 2- 19:
Selected age spectra for alunites fiom the Tambo and Vacas Heladas districts. From upper-left to
lower-right: alunite fiom the cernent of the Kimberly breccia; alunite fiom the immediate vicinity of
the Veta Veronica vein (Fig. 18); alunite fiom the cernent of a mal1 breccia body at Canto Sur, and
alunite growing in voids of siliceous breccia at the Vacas Heladas prospect. The Kimberly, Veta
Veronica and Canto Sur samples show minor Ar loss at low temperatures but the plateaux are diable.
However, alunites from the vei-is and breccia bodies at Canto Sur, ca. 1.5 km NW of

Kimberly (Fig. 2-16), have k e n dated at 7.1 f 0.2 Ma and 7.3 & 0.1 (Deyell et al., 2001),

ages significantly younger than those for the other breccia bodies in the area, although

coeval with ore deposition at El Indio. On Azufreras, ca. 3 km W of the Wendy and

Kimberly orebodies (Fig. 2-16), a porceliineous alunite vein, associated with native

sulphur occumng in a fault zone, represents the steam-heated facies of aiteration in the

wider Tambo area. This yielded an age of 7.7 f 0.2 Ma, thus predating the Canto Sur

mineralisation but probably postdating the other mineralised centres.

Vacas Heladas

Situated ca. 9 km S of Tmbo (Fig. 2-16), this relatively smail aiteration system

apparently lacks economically significant mineralisation, dthough erratic high gold

grades are reported (Arcos, 1997). Pervasive acid-sulphate alteration has k e n dated from

the northeastem part of the prospect. the site of local Au anomalies (< 0.3 ppm). Two

samples of medium-grained, yellowish aiunite were dated. These occur in a strongly

silicified rhyolitic -to- dacitic quartz and feldspar-phyric tuff, probably part of the Tilito

Formation, and locally overgrow baite crystals in vugs. Sirnilar ages of 9.6 f 0.2 and 9.8

f 0.6 Ma were obtained. The weak Vacas Heladas mineralisation is therefore oider than

that at Tmbo, El Indio, Sancarrh and Pascua. However, powdery alunite collected from

the northem flank of Cerro de la Mina in the centre of the prospect, was dated at 5.1 k 0.1

Ma. This significantly younger alunite replaces rock fragments and occurs in nmow

veins in siiicified Tilito Formation dacitic tuffs, and is inferred to record a stem-heated

environment.
 2.8 Late-stage hydrothermal activity
No major alteration zone or Au, Ag or Cu mineralisation in the El Indio-Pascua

district postdates the 5.5 - 6.2 Ma Vallecito Formation volcanism. However, minor

alteration, inferred to be barren, outlasted the eruption of the Vallecito Formation. This

includes, in addition to the 5.1 Ma alunite assemblage from Vacas Heladas (see previous

section), late stage sericite/illite assemblages 3.5 10.4 Ma in age cutting the Jalene vein,

and quartz veinlets locally cutting Vallecito Formation tuffs 6 km SW of Tambo. The hot

springs of Bafios del Toro, 10 km SE of El Indio, and at Baiios de los Despoblados 10 km

E of Veladero, represent small-scale geothermal activity continuing to the present.

2,9. Discussion
The Neogene volcanic szraf igraphy

A detailed documentation of the volcanic stratigraphy of the Chilean half of the El

Indio belt, based on K-Ar geochronology and regional mapping at the 150,000 scale, hüs

been presented by Martin et al. (1995, 1997). Recent mapping at a scale of l:lO,ûûû in

the wider El Indio and Pascua areas by Barrick Gold Corporation geologists, together

with the new ' O A ~ - ~ ' A ~ data presented herein for volcanic and intrusive rocks from both

sides of the international border, partially supports the previously reported stratigraphy.

but establishes the need for the following revisions (see Fig. 2-20).

The Escabroso Group and Tilito Formation were originally identified as members

of the Dofia Ana Formation (Maksaev et al., 1984), but were aven formation status in a

Doila Ana Group by Martin et al. (1995). However, on the basis of the persistent regolith

horizon and mgular unconformity separating the two, as well as the obsewed cross-

cutting relationships (Fig. 2-4), we favour abandonment of the Dofia Ana Group
 Martin et al. (1997) Watigraphy and alteration, Distiicts
Clavero et al. (1997)
Stratiqraphy Alteration
his study
-N and S of
theFlat-Slab

0I Vallecito

4
Escabroso
Formation

Tïlito
I
Bocatoma Bocatoma

Fig. 2-20:
Cornparison of the history of volcanim and aiteration/mineralisationbased on earlier K-Ardating
(Martinet al. 1995, 1997; Clavero et al., 1997), and that deduced kom the 'hr-' 'k data of lbis study.
The third column shows the intervals of ore formation in the mineral belts at the northem and southem
b&ndaries of the flat slab segment Mar 1 and Mar 2 indicate periods of mineralisation in the Maricunga
belt (Sillitoe et al., 1991). FN refers to the Farallbn Negro district (Sasso and Clark, 1998) and ET to El
Teniente (Skewes and Stern, 1994). The giant porphyry copper deposits of the Dorneyko fault system
(DF) in northem Chile formed approximately contemporaneouslywith the emplacement of the Bocatoma
Unit in the El Indio belt (Sillitoe, 1988), and have no relation to the present flat-slab segment.
and acceptance of the Tilito Formation and Escabroso Group as independent units. The

latter was given group rather than formation status on the basis of mapping at a 1:10,ûûû

scale in the El lndio district (Heather and Diaz, 2000). However, the apparent volcanic

luIl between 21 and 23 Ma suggested by Martin et al. (1997)is supported by Our new

M ~ r - 3 9data.
~r

Although Martin et al. (1995) report clear evidence for a deformation event

separating the Escabroso Formation (now Group) from the Cern de las T6nolas volcanic

suite, distinction in the field is difficult, particularly between their intrusive counterparts.

Previous K-Ar data for the units (Martin et al., 1995, 1997)overlap and it was therefore

suggested that volcanism continued during the regional deformation. The '%r-"~r data.

however, suggest a short volcanic full between CU. 17 and 17.5 Ma.

The " ~ r - ages

~ ~ of~ the
r Vacas Heladas Formation volcanic units range from I l to

12.7 Ma, a slightly n m w e r range than that implied by the previous K-Ar dates, i-e., 12.8

to 9.7 Ma (Martin et al. 1995, 1997).At leut three different sub-units, inferred to have

been derived from distinct volcanic vents at CU, 12.5, 11.8 and 11.2 Ma, cm be

distinguished.

We introduce a new Pascua Formation and tentatively suggest an age range of 7.5 -

8 Ma. Although the outcrop extent of this unit is very limited, and only two isolated

radiometic dates are available, we consider it important in that it represents the only

igneous unit coincident with the period in which Mneralisation occurred.

The age range for the Vdlecito Formation is herein restricted to the interval

between 5.5 and 6.2 Ma. The previously unrecognised Late Pliocene volcanism of the

Cern de Vidrio Formation, represented by a large, but isolated, 2 Ma rhyolitic dome,

constitutes the youngest volcanic unit in the district (Bissig et al., submitted, Chapter 3).
65
Neogene alteration and mineralisation in the Ef lndio beft

The alteration systems hosting significant economic or sub-economic

mineralisation have traditionally received more attention than the numerous, apparently

barren, alteration zones widely exposed in the El Indio belt. The previous K-Ar age

constraints (Maksaev et al. 1984; Jannas, 1995; Martin et al., 1995; Clavero et al., 1997)

for the economic minerakation were obtained from the El Indio-Tambo district in the

southem part of the study area and were interpreted as evidence for an earlier episoâe (9-

12 Ma). related to the Vacas Heladas Formation, followed by û later event (5-7 Ma)

linked to Vallecito Formation volcanism (Fig. 2-20). Many of the K-Ar dates, however,

are for strongly altered whole-rock samples, or for rocks with no clear relationship with

~ r from Pascua-Lama, Veladero, S a n c d n ,

proven mineralisation. The new a ~ r - 3 9data

El Indio, Rio del Medio and Tarnbo were obtained from specific hypogene alteration

minerals with good -to- excellent fieid and petrographic contexts. They indicate that

significant ore deposition was restricted to a single episoâe between Ca. 6 and 9.5 Ma,

clearly pst-dating the Vacas Heladas Formation but predating the Vallecito Formation

(Fig. 2-20). We infer that hypabyssal intrusions similar in age to the Pascua Formation

played a major role in the rnineralised systems, but are generally either unexposed or

unrecognised. At El Indio proper, no overall, district-scale, distinction between an early

Cu-stage and a late Au stage, as suggested by Jannas et al. (1999), cm be made on a

geochronological bais. The * ~ r - age

~ ~data
~ rinstead indicate that the vein system may

have fonned in severai cycles altemating between hi&-sulphidation, enargite-rich, and

low suiphidation, Auquartz - rich mineralisation.

 Three Neogene stages of planar erosion, each generating an extensive pediplain.

and vertically separated by 200-400 m, are recognised in the district. These are: Stage 1,

the 15-17 Ma Frontera-Deidad Surface; Stage II, the 12.5-14 Ma Azufreras-Torta

Surface; and Stage II?,the 6-10 Ma Los Rios Surface (Bissig et al., 2000; subrnitted.

Chapter 4). Each erosional event is inferred to record a distinct pulse of uplift and hence

crustal thickening. Economic mineralisation throughout the belt fonned

contemporaneously with the Stage iIl landforms. but at shallow levels beneath the Stage

II pediplain (Bissig et al.. op. cit.). Steam-heated alteration in the district is generally
located on, or slightly below, the Azufreras-Torta Surface, and for that reason must be

younger than the erosion of this pediplain (Le.. < Ca. 13.5 Ma). The original depth-range

of the Early -to- Middle Miocene altention systems. as indicated by the alteration

mineralogy, matches the depth-estimates deduced from the landscape development and

indicates that hydrothennal activity occurred at progressively shallower levels through

time.

data demonstrate that economic mineralisation in the belt was

The new MAr-39~r

preceded by the development of numerous and widespread barren alteration systems,

some of considerable size. The early barren alteration can be subdivided into several

separate stages, each temporally. and probably genetically, related to a specific

volcanic/in~siveepisode. Alteration related to the Vacas Heladas Formation generated

stem-heated assemblages on the Azufreras-Torta Surface but, apart from erntic elevated

Au and Ag values near the Fi10 Federico exploration zone at the northem boundary of the

Veladero prospect, does not exhibit significant precious metal anomalies. However.

alteration of this age has been confirmed from the vicinity of the Tambo, El Indio and

Veladero deposits. It may have increased the pomsity of the rocks by fracturing or
67
leaching and hence acted as an important ground preparation stage for the subsequent ore

deposition .

The hypabyssal intrusions assigned to the older Infiemillo Unit exhibit extensive

alteration haloes, dated in this study at between 13.3 I0.3 and 16.8 f 0.4 Ma. which have

been previously recorded by Martin et al. (1995) and Clavero et al. (1997). The

assemblages locdly contain topaz, tourmaline andor andalusite, rninerals typical of

relatively high-temperature hydrothermal systems, but with the exception of the youngest

alteration zone assigned to this magmatic phase (Lama Central: 13.3 t 0.3 Ma), lack

evidence for stem-heated alteration. The alteration rnineralogy and the contemporaneous

landscape development predicate a trend from deep (ca. 800 m) to shdlower (ca. 10-300

rn) Ievels of exposure during the incision of the Stage 1 and iI pediplains between 17 and
12.5 Ma (Bissig et ai.. submitted, Chapter 4). Propylitic assemblages are widely found in

the El Indio-Pascua district and represent weak -to- modente alteration which has

cornmonly k e n attributed to Infiemillo intrusive bodies (Martin et al., 1995; Clavero et

al., 1997).

A previously unrecognised phase of alteration related to the Escabroso hypabyssal

diorites shms many characteristics with the initial stages of hydrothermal activity related

to the succeeding Infiemillo Unit. These dteration systems are eroded to depths of 500-

1ûûû m (Bissig et al., submitted, Chapter 4) and the dates obtained range between 17.2 f

0.2 and 20.1 k 1.2 Ma.

The oldest-recognised alteration in the El Indio-Pascua district is related to the

Bocûtorna Intrusive Unit and exhibits no related mineralisation. Two ages around 36 Ma

have been obtained from potassic and sericitic alteration. The narrow, sheeted veins of
quartz-pyrite f tourmaline suggest that the alteration took place at a depth of more than 1

km in a setting typical for porphyry-style alteration.

Hydrothennal alteration in this region therefore occurred at least from the earliest-

Oligocene until the early-Late Miocene, but only a relatively bief period of epithermal

activity in the Late Miocene was associated with economic mineralisation. This implies

an important change in the metal content of the fluids andor a change in the physical

environment at potential sites of ore deposition occurred at ca. 10 Ma. The presence of

large alteration zones, which formed long before the large Au. Ag and Cu deposits,

suggests that voluminous hydrothemal fluid was episodically evolved in the shallow

cmst through the Early and Middle Miocene, but that its metal content seems to have

been limited. This contrasts with ewlier metallogenetic models (Kay et al.. 1999), which

propose that a lack of fiuid was a critical limiting factor for ore deposition in the belt.

Reg ional correlations

Ages for economic mineraiisation similar to those recorded herein for the El

Indio-Pascua belt are reported from the southem boundûry of the flat slab domain where a

migration of the Cu mineralisation from Los Pelambres-El Pachon (9-10 Ma) in the north

to El Teniente (4.9 Ma), ca. 100 km further south has long been recognised (Quin et al.,

1971) and interpreted as recording the southward progression of slab shallowing (Skewes

and Stem, 1994). The Cu-Au deposits of the Faralkn Negro volcanic complex (m. 6-7

Ma, Sasso and Clark, 1998) are also similar in age to the Au-Ag-Cu deposits of the El

Indio-Pascua bek. The mineralisation in that district, situated Ca. 300 km E of the

Cordillera Principal at the gradational northem boundary of the flat-slab, formed during a
sensibly instantaneous broadening of the magmatic arc (Sasso and Clark, 1998). K-Ar

data from the Maricunga belt at this latitude define two intervals for the formation of

epithermal and porphyry Au deposits, at 22 -to- 25 Ma and 11 -to- 13 Ma (Sillitoe et al.,

1991). These events do not coincide with ore deposition in the El Indio belt but are

contemporaneous with, respectively, Tilito Formation and Vacas Heladas Formation

volcanism in the district. The 36 Ma porphyry style alteration exposed near Pascua

coincided temporally with the youngest porphyry Cu deposits emplaced along the

Domeyko fault sysiem in northem Chile (Sillitoe, 1988). the southemmost of which, the

La Fortuna (El Morro) deposit. is situated only 65 km NNW of Pascua (Perello et al.,
1994).

The shallowing angle of subduction in the Laie Miocene inferred to have played

an important role in the metallogenetic evolution of the region. This is indicated by the

coincidence between the ore deposition at its southem boundary, at El Indio in the centre,

and in the Farall6n Negro district at its northem limit, although, in the latter case. a tear in

the subducting slab may have induced the volcanism and associated hydrothemal activity

far to the east of the main arc (Sasso and Clark, 1998). The earlier episode of

mineralisation in the Maricunga belt, however. predated the shallowing of the slab and

therefore cannot be linked to the sarne geodynamic professes as the other mineral

districts.

2.10. Sunniory
1) The volcanic stratignphy of the El Indio-Pascua district has k e n refined. A

new Pascua Formation comprising small volumes of dacitic intrusive and

extmsive rocks with a suggested age range of 7.5-8 Ma has k e n inuoduced.

 This unit is infemd to have k e n contempormeous with. and genetically linked

to, the epithemal ore deposits in the region. From the new " ~ r - &ta.
~ ~ ~wer

recommend the following age ranges for the Oligocene -to- Pliocene rocks:

Bocatoma Intrusive Unit, 30-36 Ma; Tilito Formation, 23-26 Ma; Escabroso

Group, 17.5 - 21 Ma; Cern de las T6rtolas Formation and InfiemilIo Intrusive

Unit, 14-17 Ma; Vacas Heladas Formation. 11-12.7 Ma; Pascua Formation, 7.5-

8 Ma; Vallecito Forrnation, 5.5-6.2 Ma; and Cerro de Vidrio Formation, 2 Ma.

2) Metallogenetic conditions favourable for economic Au-Ag (-Cu)

minenlisation

were restricted to a brief interval between 6 and 9.5 Ma. the only confirmed

coeval igneous unit king the Pascua Formation. Deposits and prospects that

formed in this interval include Pascua-Lama, Veladero, S a n c d n , Rio del

Medio, El Indio, Tmbo and Vacas Heladas.

3) Barren epithemal alteration is widespread in the region and largely predated the

economic mineraiisation. Several such alteration stages. extending from the

Oligocene to the Late Miocene, have k e n defined herein. These early barren

episodes are genetically related to the Bocatorna Unit, the Escabroso Group, the

InfiemilIo Unit and the Vacas Heladas Formation.

4) The peaistence of epithemal activity through the Miocene indicates that

economic mineralisation was not primarily a function of the availability of

hydrothermal fluid: a lack of dissolved metals andor of favourable physical

conditions at potential sites of deposition may rather have limited the extent of

mineralisation.
 CERRODE VIDlUO RHYOLITIC DOME: EVIDENCE FOR LATEPLNOCENE
VOLCANISM IN THE CENTRAL MEAN FLAT-SLAB REGION, LAMA-
VELADERODISTRICT, 29' 20' S, SANJUAN PROVINCE, ARGENTINA

EL DOMO R I O L ~ ~ CCERRO
O DE VIDRIO:EVTDENCIA
PARA VOLCAMSMO EN EL PLIOCENO
29' 20' S, PROVINICA
TARD^ EN EL DISTRICTO LAMA-VELADERO, SAN JUAN, ARGENTINA

Volcanism in the El Indio-Pascua M t , situated in the Cordillen Principal at 29-

30" S within the southem Central Andean flat subduction regime, did not, as previously

assumed, cease in the Late Miocene at 5 6 Ma, but continued locally untii the Late

Pliocene. Two new and essentially identical ' ' ~ r - ' ~ ~laser
r step-heating ages of 2.1 i 0.5

Ma (biotite) and 2.0 t 0.2 (glas) Ma were obtained from a rhyolitic dome in the northern

Valle del Cura near the Veladero Au (-Ag) property. The rhyolite is geochemically

distinct from the metaluminous Upper Miocene volcanics as it is slightly perduminous,

and does not exhibit significant REE fractionation apart from a pronounced negative Eu

anomaly, a feature also shown by the basement units of the area. This suggests that

magma generation ofcurred at depths where plagioclase nther than gamet was

fractionated, implying anatexis at shallower levels than for the Upper Miocene rocks.

3.2. Resumen

El volcanisme en la Franja El Indio-Pascua, ubicada en la Cordillera Principal

entre los 29" y 30' S, dentro de un sector de los Andes con régimen & subduccih
subhorizontal, no ha cesado en el Mioceno Tardio (5-6 Ma), pero ha continuado

localmente hasta el Plioceno Tardio. Se obtuvieron dos edades nuevas y bhicamente

idénticos de un domo nolitico en el norte del Valle del Cura cerca del proyecto aurifero

Veladero, de 2.1 f 0.5 Ma (biotita) y 2 f 0.2 Ma (vidrio), aplicando la técnica M ~ r - 3 9 ~ r

"laser step-heating". La riolita es geoquimicarnente distinta o las rocas volcûnicas del

Mioceno Superior por su caricter ligemente peraluminoso y la ausencia de un clam

fraccionamiento de los elementos tierras raras. con la excepcion de una anomalfa negativa

de Eu importante, 10 que tarnbién se observa en las rocas del basarnento de esta zona. Esto

indica generacion de magmas donde ocumo fraccionamiento de plagioclasa, pero no de

granate, en un nive1 menos profundo que para las rocas volcin~casdel Mioceno.

3.3. Introduction and geological setting

The Cern de Vidno rhyolite dome is situated at ca. 29" 20' S, 69' 50' W in the

northem part of the El Indio-Pascua Au (-Ag, Cu) belt, approximately in the centre of the

southern Central Andean magrnatic, flat-slab segment (Fig. 3-1). The Iack of recent

volcanism in this region is generally attributed to the sub-horizontal subduction of the

Nazca plate beneath the South Amencan continent (Barazangi and Isacks, 1976). The

local history of volcanism since the late Oligocene constrains the Late Miocene transition

from "normal" to flat subduction (Kay et al., 1999, and references therein).

Neogene continental volcanic rocks in this region lie in a tectonic depression

delimited by N-S stnking high-angle reverse and normal faults (Maksaev et al.. 1984;

Martin et al., 1995). and overlie a Paleozoic -to- Middle Jurassic basement, dominated by
 1- Average elevaüon Depth contours to the
>3 kilornetres Wadati-Benioff Zone (km)

Fin. 3-1:
~ ï T h Central
e Andean segment of flat subduction. Depth contours to the Wadati-
Benioff zone are draw afler Cahill ruid Isacks (1992). The maIl box indicates the
study area, enlarged in B).
B) Location map of the Cerro de Vidrio rhyoiite dome. Major fadt trends as
interpreted from Landsat ï M images are outlined by the stippled lines.
 felsic intrusive and volcanic rocks (Martin et al., 1999). The upper Oligocene -to-

Upper Miocene volcanic units are, with the exception of the rhyodacitic and rhyolitic

Upper Miocene Vallecito Formation, predominantly andesitic -to- dacitic in composition.

Large andesitic stratovolcanoes are resuicted to the Lower and Middle Miocene

successions. the rate of eruption decreasing markedly at 12-14 Ma, coincident with the

inferred initial shallowing of the subducted slab (Piiger, 1984). Volcanism has generally

k e n assumed to have ceased with the eruption of the Vallecito Formation Volcanics at 6

Ma (Martin et al., 1995; the "Vacas Heladas ignimbrite" of Ramos et al.. 1989).

Evidence for major cnistal thickening, probably related to the flattening of the

subduction, is provided by the changing trace element signature of the volcanic rocks,

particulad y with respect to the REE (Kayet al., 1999, and references therein; Bissig et al.

2000). Thus, the Vallecito Formation is strongly depleted in HREE, a feature attributed to

a source in the lower cmst where gamet was stable in the residuum (Kay et al. L999),

whereas the Lower -to- Middle Miocene igneous rocks exhibit a less fractionated REE

signature.

In this article we present new Late Pliocene m~r-39Ar

dates for a rhyolitic dome

constituting Cerro de Vidrio in the nonhem Vaile del Cura, 8 km E of the Veladero and

15 km SE of Pascua-Lama Au -Ag deposits (Fig. 3-lb). The dome covers an m a of

approximately 3.25 krnhnd is thought to overlie Lower Mimene volcanic units. It is

situated, according to Landsat TM image interpretation, on a major structural intersection

of the NW-SE striking Pascua Trend and the NNE-SSW - stnking El Indidiavilin

"structural comdor", of which the Rio Taguas valley is the northem continuation. The

latter is interpreted as a graben to which the Veladen, and Pascua-Lama deposits are

spatially related.
 3.4. Petrography and geochronologid data

The dome exhibits a flow-banding recorded by dark- and pale- grry bands of

variable porosity. The dated sample was taken at coord. 24 15.69016749.870 (Gauss

Kmeger; 415.82016749.370, UTM zone 19). It contains approximately 5-8 vol.%

phenocrysts in a dark-grey glass matrix. Euhedral, weakly -to- moderately zoned

plagioclase, to 0.5 mm, is the most cornrnon phenocryst phase. Also present are euhednl

sanidine (to 2 mm), slightly rounded to euhedral quartz (to 0.3 mm) and euhedral biotite

flakes (to 0.5 mm). Amygdules occur locally and are filled with fine-gnined aggregates

of quartz, but significant open-spitce survives. The glass matrix is clear and largely

undevitrified.

For M ~ r - 3 9geochronology.
~r biotite and volcanic glass were separated from the

sample. Laser step-heating analyses of both specimens yielded undisturbed and sensibly

identical plateau ages: biotite was dated at 2.05 t 0.47 Ma (20) and the glass at 2.03 f

0.23 Ma, which corresponds to the Upper Pliocene. Analytical data are summarised in

Table 3-1, and the age spectia are show in Figure 3-2.

3.5. Geochemical characteristics

Calc-alkaline rocks of rhyolitic composition in the region are restricted to the

Paleozoic-to- Early Jurassic basement, the Vallecito Formation and the Cerro de Vidrio

rhyolitic dome; other Neogene rocks exhibit intermediate compositions. The Vallecito

Formation rocks. although falling in the rhyolitic field in the total alkali vs. silica diagram

of Le Mitre et al. (1989), have SiOmcontents of 70.3-73.2 wt.% (Ramos et al., 1989),

distinctly lower than those of the basement rocks and the Pliocene dome (Tab. 3-2). The

Cerro de Vidrio Rhyolite is slightly peralurninous, with ara Aluminium Saturation

76
 B) glass

Fig. 3-2:
A) Apparent age vs. ' k released h m sample OOthb25Oa niotite). The steps included in the
plateau are indicated, enors are given at 20.
8) Appiïrent age us. ' k released from the volcanic g l a s of the same sample. Three of four
steps are included in the plateau.
Tab. 1: Ar-dope d o s for h c datd wmplt Ouhb2Sûa h m Ceno de Vidrio

a-Ar-J%J% J7nl/m& m ~ ' A r '- f"& œilr./'l(r~ &(W.)

Brne
1 at 1.00 W 15.286d.Oy1 0.107d.231 0.05M.309 0.094îO.~11 0.1 10 0.003 96.53 0.76 0.61h7.698 2.17t27.13
ta! 2.50 W 2342 0.010 0.058 0.07 0.0100.344 0.014 0 . 3 0.01 1 0.007 80.72 5.54 0.5070.989 1-44 3.49
3 ai 3.50 W 1.731 0.009 0.054 0.099 O.W 0.324 0.011 0268 0.013 0.007 64.49 6.02 0.551 0.881 1.94 3.11
4 3t 4-50 W 1.663 0.006 0.051 0.051 0.005 0.3435 0.007 0.11 1 0.007 0.007 57.38 10.86 0.658 0.472 2.32 1.66
5 at 5-50W 1.3200.ûl6 0.048 0.043 0.0040.251 0.005 0.197 0.011 0.007 53.94 18.76 0.5440.283 1.99 1.00
6 3t 6.75 W 1.178 0.009 0.048 0.030 0.003 0.171 0.003 0.162 0.015 0.007 49.22 32.64 05600.163 1.98 0.57
7 at 7.70 W 1.004 0.005 0.0500.037 0.005 0.238 0.003 0.301 0.020 0 . W 36.06 21.54 0.5920.304 309 l.M
8 3t 9.00 W fùs. 1.3760.016 0.068 0.108 0.0200.229 0.013 0.337 0.065 0.009 JI.45 3.87 0.609 1.373 3.15 4.U
Gks
1 3~ 1.00 W ZlUI0.008 O,O33d. 100 O.OI6iO. 175 0.01 1tO.227 0.084 0.002 4.82
68. tg O.W&.758 2.27d.68
2 3t 3.00 W 0.6500.W O.V? 0.030 0.0120.037 0.001 0.361 0.085 0.002 4.73 36.01 0.577 0.102 3040.36
3~ 6 . 0W 0 0.643 0 . W 0.025 0.036 0.0120.038 0.001 0.328 0.088 0.002 4.81 35.69 0.571 0.095 2020.34
4 at 9.00 W fiu. 0.823 0.005 0.027 O.W9 0.0160.044 0.0020.257 0.114 0.002 3.25 3.47 0.571 0.156 2020.55

Table 3- 1:
Geochronologicrtldata for the Cern de Vidrio rhyolite:
The Ywlyses w m c h e d out in the Queen's University a ~ r - 3 9 ~Iaboratory.
r For both smples co. 8 mg of
gnins or fragments 0.25 - 0.5 mm in size were inadiated with fast neutrons for 7.5 hours at the McMrister
nucles reactor in Hamilton, Canada The simples wcrc stcpheated using a LEXEL 3500 Ar-ion laser-beam
with increasing power. The standard (e.g. flux-monitor) uscd is Mac-83 biotite with a published age of 24.36
0.17 Ma (2a;Sûndemui et al. 1999). Ages are calculated using the decay-constants suggestcd by Steiger and
JYger (1977) and dl errors arc given at 2a. *
 Tab. 2: Whole-rock analysis for Cerro de Vidrio Glass
sample 001hb2SOo
Major elements 1rmce elements (con&)
4.38% Cs 8.3
t

1
w
Tmce elemenls (pprn)

II

Table 3-2:
Whole-rock geochemicd composition of the Cerro de Vidrio rhyolite:
Andysis was cmied out by Actlabs, Ancaster, Canach. All elements were
determined by fusion ICP-MS except Cu. Zn and Pb for which total digestion ICP-
MS was applied. Detection limits arc typically 0.018 for major, 0.1 ppm for uace
elements and 0.01 ppm for REE (see http://www.actlabs.com for details).
Index of 1.08, and has molal contents of albite, orthoclase and quartz of, respectively,

34.2. 24.3 and 4L.5%, approaching those expected for low-pressure granitic minimum

melts. The rhyolite does not exhibit pronounced REE fractionation apart from a marked

negative Eu anomdy (Fig. 3-3). This contrasts with the Upper Miocene rocks of the

ngion, which Iack negative Eu anomalies but exhibit significant heavy-REE

fractionations (e.g. Kay et al., 1987). The W contents of the basement rocks analysed

in this study are similar to those of the Upper Pliocene rhyolite, in that they also show a

pronounced negative Eu anomaly, but have somewhat higher overdl abundances of REE

(Fig. 3-3).

3.6. Discussion and Conclusions

The rhyolitic dome at Cerro de Vicirio represents the only confirmed evidence for

Late Pliocene volcanism in the El Indio-Pascua belt and is 3-3.5 m.y. younger than al1

previously dated volcanic rocks in the area. However, small bodies of phreatic breccias

and felsic volcaniclastic rocks from the vicinities of the Pascua and El Indio deposits rnay

also postdate the Vailecito Formation (K. B. Heather, wntten commun., 2001), suggesting

that such Young, low volume, volcanic activity rnay have occurred regionally.

The geochemical signature of the Cerro de Vidno rhyolite is distinct from those

of the Upper Miocene Vallecito Formation and older Neogene volcanic rocks, but is in

some respects (e.g. Eu) similar to that of the basement. This, together with its weakly

perduminous character, implies that the magma was not generated by partial melting in

the mafic lower crust, as for the Miocene rocks (e-g. Kay et al., 1999), but through

anatexis of felsic granitoid andior pelitic material at shailower levels.

 -+Vallecito Formation

1 I T 1 r

La Ce Pt Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
REE

Fig. 3-3:
ïhe REE spectnim of the Cerro de Vidrio rhyolite compared with thiose of a basement granite
fiom near the Pascua prospect (Bissig, unpubl. data, 2001) and an Upper Miocene Rhyolite fiom
the ignimbrite in the Valle del Cura (sanple 1 : Ramos et al., 1989). Note the pronounced Eu
anomaly of the rhyolite and the basement as well as the moderate fractionation of the heavy REE
compared to that shown bythe VaIlecito Formation. Values have k e n normalized to chondrite
(Taylor and McLennan, 1985).
A possible mechanism for generating such melts would be the insertion of warm, mafic,

lower cnistal materiai from the Precordillera into the rniddle crust below the Corâillera

Principal, cornplementary to the thrusting occumng in the Precordillera (Kay and

Abnuzi. 1996). Tectonic compression of the middle crust was probably instrumental in

expelling the small volumes of granitic melt from the residuum. while its rise to the

surface w u presumably contmlled by steep. cmstal scale faults dong the NNE-striking

El Indio-Gavilin-Rio de las Taguas structural corridor.

MIOCENE LANDSCAPE EVOLUTION IN THE CH~LEANFLAT-SLAB TRANSECI':
UPLWT HISTORY AND GEOMORPHOLOGIC INFLllENCE ON EPITHERMAL
PROCESSES IN THE ELINDIO-PASCUAAU (-AG,CU)BELT.

LAEVOLUCI~NDEL TERRENO DüRANTE EL MIOCENO EN LA ZONA DE SUBDUCCI~N

SUBHORIZONTAL DE CHILE: HISTORIA DEL LEVANTAMIENT0 Y iNFLUENCIA
A PRWESOS EPITERMALES EN LA FRANJADE AU (-AG,CU)EL INDIo-
GEOMORFOL~GICA
PASCUA

4.1, Abstract
Miocene pediplains are extensively presewed in the El Indio-Pascua Au (-Ag Cu)

belt in the cordilleran zone of the central Andean Rat-Slab segment at Latitudes 2g02û'-

30°3û'S. The pre-glacial landscape incorporates three major, planar erosional Imdforms:

1. the 15-17 Ma Frontera-Deidad Surface; II: the 13.5- 14 Ma Azufreras-Torta Surface;

and m. the 6-10 Ma Los Rios Surface. These pediplains are vertically sepuated by 200-

400 m and, by analogy with the enonnous planar erosion surfaces of the Atacama Desett

of notzhern Chile and southern Peru, are considered to have formed in a semi-arid ciimate

in direct response to uplift events. However, the post-Oligocene physiographic history of

the flai-slab region apparently differed from that in the Chiiean Norte Grande in thai no

major erosiond event took place N of Ca. 28' S between ca. 13 and 20 Ma. This contrat

is inferred to record compressive tectonism resulting from the initial shailowing of the

subducting slab, leading to increased mstal thickening and uplift in the southern Cenval

Andes after ca. 17 Ma.

 The El Indio-Pascua district hosis the world-class El Indio deposit (-10 Moz Au)

and the giant Pascua-Lama (-17 Moz Au, 560 Moz Ag) and Veladero (-15 Moz Au, 230

Moz Ag) prospects, as well as the smaller deposits of Tambo and Rio del Medio.

Economic mineralisation, al1 of epithermal type, was confined to a restricted interval

between 6 and 9.5 Ma, during which time only minor magrnatism occurred. Although the

Azufreras-Torta pediplain immediately overlay the majonty of the major hydrothermd

systerns, and hence controlled their hydrodynamic evolution. ore formation coincided

with the development of the younger Los Rios Pediplain. Mineralisation is rnost

commonly iocated near the upper extremities of Stage iII pediment valleys. where they

incise the Stage II landforrns. In the absence of major volcanism at the time of ore

deposition, changes in the hydrodynamic environment, and particularly the rapid lowering

of the water-table, were induced by regional pediment incision and partial destruction of

previous planar landforrns, which played a major role in focussing economic

mineralisation.

4.2. Resumen
Las pediplanicies del Mioceno esth exrensrunente preservadas en la franja de Au (-

Ag, Cu) de El Indio-Pascua, ubicada en la zona cordillerana del segment0 Centro-Andino

con subduction subhorizontal en las latitudes 29'20' - 30' 30' S. La geomorfologia pre-

glacial incorpora tres formas de terreno erosional planas: 1. la Superficie Frontera-Deidad

(15-17 Ma); CI. la Superficie Azufreras-Torta (12.5-14); y m.la Superficie Los Rios (6-
10Ma). Estas pediplanicies e s t h separadas verticalmente por 200 a 400 m. y por analogia

con las enonnes superficies planas del desierto Atacama en el norte de Chile y el sur de
Peru, son consideradas haber sido fomadas en un clima semihido en respuesta directa a

los eventos de levantamiento. Sin embargo la historia fisiogmcr pst-Oligocenica de la

region de subducci6n subhorizontal aparentemente es distinta a la del None Grande en

Chile en donde ningun un evento principal de erosi6n ocum6 entre aproximadamente 13

y 20 Ma al norte de 28" S. Se infiere que este contraste registra un aumento del espesor de

la corteza y un levantamiento en el sur de los Andes Centrales después de las 17 Ma.

El disirito El hdio-Pascua contiene el yacimiento "world-class" El Indio (-10 Moz

Au), los prospectos gigantes de Pascua-Lama (17 Moz Au, 560 Moz Ag,) y Veladero (15

Moz Au, 330 Moz Ag). y tmbién los yacimientos menores de Tambo y Rio del Medio.

La mineralizacih econ6mica. todo del tipo epitermd, lue limitada a un intervalo

restringido entre 6 y 9.5 Ma. durante el cual solamente ocum6 una menor actividad

magrnitica. Ahque la Superficie Azufreras-Torta inmediatamente sobreyace la mayonû

de los sistemas hidrotermales. y por tanto control6 la evolucih hidrodinhica de ellos, la

formacion de la minenlizaci6n coincidi6 con el desarrollo de la pediplanicie m5s joven

Los Rios. La mineralizaci6n se localiza cornunmente cerca de las extrernidades superiores

de los valle-pedimentos de la Fase III. donde cortan en las formas de la Fase U. En la falta

de volcanisme mayor contemporiineo a la ripida deposicion de la mineralizaci6n.

cambios en el ambiente hidrodinhico, como la depresion de la tabla de agua, fueron

inducidos por incision de pedimentos regionales y la destruccion parcial de anteriores

formas planas de terreno, 10 que tuvo una importancia mayor para concentra la

mineralizacih econtirnica.
 4.3. Intraduction
Regionally extensive sub-planar erosion surfaces have long been recognised dong

much of the desertic Pacific slope of the central Andes of Peni and Chile (Bowman, 1916;

BcUggen, 1950), as well as on the Puna and eastem piedmont in northwestem Argentina

(Penck, 1920, 1924). Such erosion surfaces and their associated aggradational

counterparts record the interaction of tectonic processes and climatic conditions.

Hollingworth (1964) was the first to interpret the paleosurfaces of the Atacama Desert of

nonhem Chile as pediments or, in extenso. pediplains in the sense of Maxson and

Anderson ( 1935), landfonns chmcteristic of semi-arid environments. Major erosion was

considered to have occurred episodically as a direct response to uplift pulses (Clark et al.,

1967; Galli-Olivier. 1967). While geochronologic studies of ignimbtite flows overlying

and intercalated in pediment-asswiated grave1 accumulations provided evidence for rapid

rates of uplift and erosion (Clark et al.. op. cit.). integrated geomorphologic and

geochronologic studies (Mortimer, 1969, 1973; Tosdal, 1978; Tosdal et al. 1984)

extended the history of central Andean cordilleran uplift and, hence, crustal thickening at

least back to the late Oligocene. This is only made possible by the remarkable

preservation of the early-Neogene landforms owing to the onset of hyperand conditions

in the Middle Miocene (Briiggen, 1950; Mortimer, 1969; Alpers and Brimhall, 1988).

To the north of Latitude 28' S. the younger pediplains may be traced into the

Cordillera Principal (or Occidental) where they constitute the foundation for the

stratovolcanoes of the Central Volcanic Zone, but further south Plio-Pleistocene alpine

glaciation has k e n considered to have obliterated any such features in the high cordillen.

In this contribution, however, we document a previously unrecognised succession of

Micicene planar landforms in the El Indio-Pascua gold belt at ca. 30" S (Fig. 4-1). Despite

86
partial destruction by glaciation and young fluvial valley incision, these preserve a

detailed record of tectonic uplift, overlapping temporaily with the emplacement of the

world-class epithenal Au (-Ag, Cu) centres of this region.

The importance of geomorphologic mapping and andysis in clarifying the controls

on supergene processes in northern Chile and southem Peru has long been recognised

(e.g., Segentrom, 1963; Sillitoe et al., 1968; Mortimer, 1973; Clark et al., 1990). In

contrast, less attention has k e n paid to the potential influence of surface feûtures on the

localisation of hypogene rnineralisation, and here the role of volcanic edifices has been

emphasised (e.g.. Sillitoe and Bonham, 1983; Sillitoe, 1994) at the expense of that of

regional erosional landforms. However, because pediment incision and hydrothemd

activity are both related to tectonic events, and surface landforms. moreover, must

invariably have an influence on shallow epithemnl systerns, it is plausible that

pedimentation may play a direct role in focusing ore deposition in such environments. We

provide herein an assessrnent of this genetic model on the basis of a comprehensive laser

step-heating J O ~ r - 3 9geochronologic
~r study of igneous rocks and alteration minerais in

the broader El Indio district and an analysis of its pre-glacial physiographic record. More

than M new ages of alteration minerais, the gent rnajority derived from reliable plateaus

representing more thm 75% of the 39Arreleased, claxify some of the uncertainties in the

exlier accounts by Jannas et al. (1995, 1999), Martin et al. (1995) and Clavero et al.

(1997) which formed the basis for the metallogenic model of Kay et al. (1999). Although
the general findings of this study are reported here and in Bissig et al. ( 2 0 ) . a more

detailed presentation of the geochronologic data will be included in a separate article.

 Flat subduction,
amagmatic zone

0 Average etevation
>3 kilometres
Sierras Pampeanas
Basement UpMI
Oepm antours 10 the
\ ~adati-~anioff
ZOM (km) -Ir Mia-Pliocenedeposiîs
and mineral districts

Fig. 4- 1 : Location map of the El Indio-Pascua klt. Depth contour lines (in km) to the Wadati-Benioff
zone are taken from Cahill and Isacks (1992), and oudine the segment of flat subduction. Note that the El
Indio-Pascua belt is located in the centre of this segment, whereas the other major Neogene mineral
districts are situated close to its northern and southem boundaries.
The El Indio-Pascua belt

The El Indo-Pascua belt (Fig. 4- 1) straddles the Chile-Argentina border between

Lats. 29O2U and 30" S. All economic mineralisation is of epithermal type. predominantly

high-sulphidation in mineralogy but including the modest low-sulphidation Rio del Medio

vein system. Gold and silver production to date has been entirely from the El Indio. Rio

del Medio and Tambo deposits at the southem extremity of the belt. with mined and

proven resources of 10 M oz. of Au. However resources of 17 M oz. Au and 560 M oz.

Ag, and 15 M oz. Au and 230 M oz. Ag. have been delimited ai, respectively. the Pascua-

Lama and Veladero prospects at the apparent nonhem limit of the belt. Al1 economic and

sub-econornic precious metal mineralisation is of Miocene age.

The 27" -to- 34" S segment of the Central Andes is at present amagrnatic, a feature

directly associated with a "flat" subduction regime (Barazangi and Isacks, 1976) which

separates the Central and Southern Volcanic Zones (Fig. 4-1). In contnst to the El Indio-

Pascua M t . the uppermost-Oligocene -to- Middle Miocene epithemal Au-Ag and

porphyry Au deposits of the Maricunga district (Kay et al., 1994), as well as a cluster

Upper Miocene porphyry Cu-Au (-Mo, Ag) deposits and epithemal Au-Ag veins of the

Farallbn Negro-Agua Rica area (Sasso and Clark,1998). lie on the transition from "steep"

(CU. 30") to "flat" subduction at CU. 27 O S (Fig. 4-1). The Upper Miocene -to- Lower

Pliocene supergiant porphyry Cu (-Mo) deposits of the Los Pelarnbres/El Pach6n -to- El

Teniente belt overlie the abrupt southward steepening of the subduction zone at 32O-33"

S.
Neogene climafic history of the 30" S transect

The Pacific flank of the Central Andes at 30' S is now characterised by a dry

Mediterranean climate, precipitation occurring mainly in the winter (Veit, 1996). Plate

reconstruction (Pilger, 1984) indicates that the location of the study area relative to the

Equator, and hence to global climatic zones, has not changed significantly since the Early

Miocene. However, precipitation on the westem Andes is strongly influenced by the

temperature of the Pacific Ocean and decreased radically after 13-15 Ma (Alpen and

Bnmhall. 1988). when the potency of the cold Humboldt Current increased due to the

fornation of the Antarctic icesap (Shackleton and Kenneth, 1975). As discussed herein,

cordilleran upiift occurred in several phases throughout the Miocene, progressively

isolating the eastem Andean slope from the influence of the westerlies. The climate on

the eastem slope of the Andes contrasts with that on the Pacific slope, as it is influenced

by the subtropical northeastem trade winds which bring precipitation in the summer (the

"Inviemo Boliviano").

The El Indio-Pascua belt is situated in a climatic boundary zone represented by the

Cordillera Principal and includes the upperrnost parts of the western and eastem Andean

slopes. On both sides of the study m a the climate becme tw arid in the Pliocene for

pediment erosion and, particularly on the Pacific slope. vailey incision began to dominate.

A similar transition from semi-arid to arid or hyperarid conditions, and hence from

pediment erosion to canyon incision. is recorded by the geomorphologic record in

norihem Chile (Stage IV: Mortimer, 1973) and southem Peru (Valley and Temce Stage:

Tosdal et al., 1984). The eastem part of the study m a , which incorporates the high

plateau between the Cordilleru Principcil and the Cordilleras Colangüil and de la Brea, al1

attaining altitudes of well over 5000 m, is affected by recent valley incision to a lesser
90
d e p . This dry m a is largely cut off from both easterly and westerly winds and has

experienced only minimal degradation of the Miocene landscape. Moreover. valley

incision in the El Indio area is lirnited by the fact that the sparse precipitation

predominantly falls as snow at elevations of more than 4000 m.

Although Pleistocene -to- Holocene periods of glaciation in the Centnl Andes are

widely recognised (Brüggen, 1929; Clapperton. 1993). glacial sediments occur only

above 3000-350 m in the study area (Veit, 1996), and glaciers are now restricted to a

few peaks with elevations exceeding Ca. 5400 m. Glacial erosion played only a minor role

in generating the recent landxape; the wide upper Valle del Cun, for instance, hosts

several glacial moraines, but is clearly not a U-shaped trough. Glacial erosion may have

reshaped some vaileys. such as Rio del Medio or Rio Potrerillos in the Chilean slope, but

the higher ground exhibits no large-scale cirques or other glacial features. Glacial striae

have been observed on Upper Miocene or younger conglornerates near the Lama

propeny, but are restricted to the valley-floor.

4.4. Geologic setting

The present-day physiographic axis of the Cordillera Principal in the El hdio

region is located in a tectonic depression delimited to the West by the approximately N-S

striking, high-angle reverse Bailos del Toro fault (Maksaev et al.. 1984). and with a less

well defined eastem boundary in the Valle del Cun and Cordillera de la Brea (Fig. 4-2).

Within this block, an Upper Paleozoic -to- Lower Jurassic basement, predominantly

composed of felsic and rninor mafic intrusive and volcanic rocks (Martin et al., 1999). is

intmded by the hypabyssal diontes of the 30-36 Ma Bocatoma Unit (Martin et al., 1995;

Bissig, unpubl. data), which were in tum eroded and overlain by up to 1500 m of upper
 Eocrm ta Y lddk Y iomo
C*. de tas Tbltolor Formation:
prsdominanüy andmitic ibw&
Inhrnilio intrushm unit;
Grnodiontic to dioritic
intrusives

Escabma Gmp:
Andedüc nows and

hypabysat diarites
and gnnodioriîes

U
I
Bocatoma intrusive unit:
diontes and gtanodiodîes

Pikotdc lo Jw#rlc
Prsdominanîiy klsic intrusive
and volcanic rodu

FauL

, . lntsmrtionai borda
Chilakgsntinr 1

Fig 4-2:
Siniplifieci geology and major faults of the El indio-Pascua belt. Oligocene -to- Middle Miocene volcanic
and hmisive unils arc undifferentiateà, whereas units younger than late-~iddleMiocene are show in more
detail because they provide important age constraints on the landscape evolution. The Upper Miocene
Pascua Formation is not shown due to its very restricted occurrence (see text).
Geological information largely h m Martin et aI. (1995) for Chile; no comprehensive regional map at an
appropriate scale is available for Argentha, for which information was taken fiom Ramos et al. (1989) and
our field observations and landsat TM interpretation.
Abbreviations for minor alteration systems and exploration projects mentioned in the text: VH: Vacas
HeIadas, L: Libra, S: Sanco, SR: Sancarr611, R: Rehca, RA: Rio Apolhario. P: Potrerillos, F: Fabiana, VS:
Veldero Sur.
Other abbreviations: BdTF: Brinos del Toro fault; PD: Paso Deidad; M Pm: PortenieIo de los
Despoblados.
Oligocene-to-Upper Miocene subaeriai volcanic strata. The latter are extensively

preserved in the southem part of the Mt, but are less widespread in the Pascua-Veladero

area (Fig. 4-2). The Tertiary volcanic stratigraphy has been well documented on the

Chilean side of the border (Thiele, 1964; Maksaev et al., 1984, Martin et al., 1995), but

less comprehensive information is available for contiguous Argentins (Groeber, 1951;

Aparicio, 1984, Rarnos et al., 1989).

The mid-Tertiary inception of voluminous volcanism in this area at CO. 26 Ma

coincided with the break-up of the Farall6n oceanic plate to form the present-ciay Cocos

and Nazca plates (Pilger, 1984), and with the onset of relatively fast (CU. 10 cdyr) and

sensibly orthogonal convergence of the latter with the South Amencan plate. The

subsequent shallowing of the angle of subduction is generrlly attnbuted to initial

underthrusting of the Juan Femandez Ridge, inferred to have occurred at 13-14 Ma

(Pilger, 1984), an event associated with a clearcut decrease in volcanic activity at these

latitudes.

Volcanic Stratigraphy

The Tilito Formation, the major host for mineraiisation in the El Indio-Tambo

district, is a I 1200 m succession of dacitic and rhyodacitic welded tuffs with

volcaniclastic sediments and minor basaltic lavas, disconformably overlying Bocatoma

Unit intrusions and older rocks. A late Oligocene eruption age of between 23 and 27 Ma

is defmed by K-Ar (Martin et al., 1995) and " ~ r - ~ ~ages

A r (Bissig, unpubl. data).

The Escnbroso Croup, 17.5 to 2 1 Ma in age ( " ~ r - . ' ~ages:

~ r Bissig et al., 1000;

confirming K-Ar ages presented by Martin et al., 1995, 1997), consists of a Slûûû m
succession of andesitic flows, breccias and volcaniclastic sediments separated from the

Tilito Formation by a persistent regolith horizon. Hypabyssal stocks with dioritic - to -

granodioritic compositions constitute intrusive lithodemes of the formation. An angular

unconformity separates the Escabroso Group from the sirnilarly andesitic. but less

voluminous, Cewo de las Tbrtolas Fornuifion. A Middle Miocene ûge of 14.9 f 0.7 -to-

16.0 f 0.2 Ma (Bissig et al., 2000) has ken determined for this formation and the diorites

and granodiorites of the associated hypabyssal intrusive Infiemil10 Unit.

The intensity of volcanism thereafter decreased markedly throaghout the transect.

The 1 1.0 f 0.2 to 12.7 f 0.9 Ma (Bissig et al., 2000) Vucas Heladas Formation

(nomenclature of Martin et al., 1995; "Cerro de las T6rtolas iI" in Kay et al.. 1999) is

dominated by dacitic ignimbrites and is restricted to isolated centres (Fig. 4-2). A

subsequent, Late Miocene, phase of magmatism is represented only by a dacitic dike from

the Pascua prospect, dated at 7.8 f 0.3 Ma (40Ar-3g~r

for biotite: Bissig et al., 2000). and

a dacitic -to- rhyolitic tuff from 10 km NNE of Pascua, which yielded an identical date of

7.6 1:0.7 Ma (K-Ar on biotite: Martin et d 1995). These volcanic and hypabyassal units

irnmediately pst-dated the emplacement of the giant Pascua Au (-Ag. Cu) deposit and

are distinguished herein as the Pascua Formation. Slightly younger rh yodacitic-to-

rhyolitic ignimbrites and air-faIl tuffs exposed S of the Tarnbo Mine and in the Valle del

Cura (Fig. 4-2) have been dated at 5.6-6.2 Ma and are herein, for consistency, assigned to

the Vallecito Formution, although the large ignimbrite sheet in the Valle del Cura was

termed "Vacas Heladas Ignimbrite" by Ramos et al. (1989). The Vallecito Formation h a

traditionally k e n assumed to represent the last magmatic activity More the cessation of

volcanism resulting from the fiattening of the subduction at the end of the Miocene.
However, Pliocene " ~ r - ~plateau
~ ~ rages of 2.0 f 0.2 and 2.1 f 0.5 Ma have k e n

determined (Bissig et al., submitted, Chapter 3) for, respectively. obsidian and biotite

from a rhyolitic flow-dome at Cerro de Vidrio, 15 km SE of Pascua (Fig. 4-2).

4.5. Remnent Miocene landscape components in the El Indio-Pascua belt

Previously undocumented flat or gently-dipping plains, flat-topped ridges and

valley benches constitute important elements of the landscape in the El Indio-Pascua belt

(Fig. 4-3). and are interpreted herein as remnants of once extensive planar landfoms. now

incised by Pliocene or younger fluvial and glacial processes. Features such as back-scarps

and locdly preserved gravels or congiomerates (Fig. 4-4). as well as the large-scde

correlative relationships between the subplanar landforms, are taken as evidence that they

represent pediplûin relics, much like those described from the Pacific dope funher nonh

(Mortimer, 1973; Tosdai et aL, 1984). A succession of three plana surfaces has been

defined on the basis of their mutual physiographic interfaces and relative elevations

within structurdly confined areas where block-faulting has not occurred (Fig.4-3). Field

observations, supported by topognphic maps, were a prerequisite for the preparation of a

geomorphologic map showing the regional remanent distribution of the pediplains and,

through interpolation and extrapolation, for a reconstruction of the Late Miocene

landscape (Fig. 4-5).

The timing of pediment incision is genedly constrained by the youngest rock-unit

eroded and the oldest volcanic unit covering a panicular surface (e.g., Fig. 44). The ages

cited in the following documentation are based on " ~ r - ~laser

~ ~step-heating
r data

obtained in the Queen's University facilities (details to be reported formaily elsewhere).

The individual pediment levels and their age constraints are described herein in sequence
-
Fig.4-3:
Re2ridual coxnponents ofthe Miocene landscape in the El indio belt:
A) Vtnv fiom the intemational border at ~ascua(eu. 5000 m a. S. 1.) to the east, across the Rio de las Taguas
valley. The remnants of the landscape elements are labeled as follows. 1: Frontera-Deidad Surface, U:
Amfieras-Torta Surface, III: Los Rios Surface. The Cordillera Ortiga, with a well-pteserved back-scarp
of the Frontera-Deidad surface, is visibk at toplefi. The ridgesin the foreground, the exploration zones of
Pofiada to the left and Penelope to the right, are remnants of the Azufrrras-Torta Surface, o f k t stepwise
downwards towards the E.
B) tooking east fiom a point Ca. 5 km West of Et Indio. Hills and ridges in the middle-ground are of similar
elevation and are assigned to the Amfieras-Torta surface ("II"; note the type-Iocality Cerro Torta). The
higher Frontera-Deidad Surface ("1"; type-locality Deidad, on the international border) is visible in the
distance. SmaH offsets due to pst-erosional block-faulting are apparent, particularly in the case of the
somewhat hi* Cerro Canto, which is thetefore interpreted ro be part of the Anifkas-Torta Surface.
The El bdio vein-system is situated beneath the strongest alteration visible in the middle-ground @aie
area). Dashedlines are ârawn to indicate the paleodace Ievels.
Fig. 4-4:
The Los Rios Pediplain
A) h â s c a p e of the upper Valle del Cura looking E: The peak in the background is Cmo
de las Tortolas (6380 m), and the plain in the foreground cepresents part of the Los
Rios pedipiain. The ignimbrite was &ted at 5.8 0+2Ma, constraining the minimum
age for the Los Rios Surface.
B) The Arroyo de las Vacas Helaâas, upper-Valle del Cura, looking NW. GraveIs
constituting the aggradational facies of a Los Rios pediment are covered by the same
ignimbrite as in A.
 Miocene
Palaosurfaces

Los Rios Surface

Remnants

lnfened extent at 6 Ma

Azufretas Torta Surface

Remnants

lnfened extent at 6 Ma
Frontera Deidad Surface
Remnants
............ lnferred extent at 6 Ma

*-.,.*'**.,lmpartant faults

* Internationalborder
Chile-Argetntina

Major prospect

Mine

~~omorpholo~ical map showing present areal extents of the Miocene palcosUrfaces. The closely hatched
patterns indicate the well constraùied rernnants, whereas the comsponding more open patterns delirnit the
inferred extents of the individuai pediplaias at 6 Ma. Major faults are shown. Abbreviations (see also Fig.
2): VH: Vacas Heladas, T:Tamùo, EI: El Indio, RdM: Rio del Medio, L: Libra, S: Sanco, SR:Sancanh,
R: Reüaca, RA: Eüo Apolinario, PO: Pomrillos, P: Pascua, LA: Lama, V: Veladero. BdW: Baiios del Tom
fault.
from the highest, and hence oldest, to the lowest and youngest well preserved landform

elements.

Stage 1: nie Frontera-Deidad Su*face (25-1 7 Ma)

This surface, the earliest clearly-defined planar landforni in the region. is best

preserved dong the ciest of the Cordillera Principal from Pascua to the latitude of

Tambo, and in the Cordilleras Sancarrh and Ortiga in the nonheastem part of the study

area (Fig. 4-5). It can probably also be traced into the Cordillera de Colangüil to the east

of the Valle del Cura. The n m e of the surface was chosen because it constitutes much of

the a m dong the international frontera and was first recognised at Deidad e s t of the

Tambo mine (Fig. 4-3).

The present elevation of this surface ranges from 4650 to 5250 m a. S. 1. as a result

of post-erosional blockfaulting dong generally steeply-dipping Ni-trending and W -

trending faults (Maksaev et al., 1984; Martin et of., 1995). Only a few peaks rise above

ihis surface and severd of these may be assigned to an older. vestigidly preserved

Cumbre ("summit") Surface, as on Cern de Pascua (5400 m) and Cerro Nevado (5524

m), respectively immediately S and N of the Pascua-Lama exploration zone, and on Cerro

Ortiga (5648 m), ca. 15 km to the NE. In addition, remnants of Lower -to- Middle

Miocene volcanic edifices, such as Cerro de las T6rtolas (6380 m) and Cerro Doiia Ana

(5648 m), nse above the Frontera-Deidad Surface. The Cumbre Surface peaks constitute a

local back-scarp to the Frontera-Deidad Surface and imply that the latter is a uue

Intrusive bodies, assigned to the Escabmso Group, that are truncated by this surface

have ken dated at 18.0 i 0.7 Ma (homblende h m dionte, Paso Deidad: Fig. 4-3) and
99
18.7 t 0.2 Ma (biotite from granodiorite cropping out on a nmow bench 7 km E of El

Indio), and provide a maximum age for the erosion event. The major stratocones of Ceno

DoÏia Ana and Cern de las Tdnolas (Figs. 4-2 and 4-9, consisting mainly of plagioclase

+ homblende and augite - phyric andesites, largely pre-dated this surface. but are well
preserved, whereas other volcanic edifices of the same volcanic phase, as in the nonhem

Cordillera Sancan6n, have been much more extensive1y degraded by the pediplain.

Volcanic activity outlasted the erosion event and is represented by the Cerro de las

T6nolas Formation proper ( a ~ r - 3 9 ~ages +

r of between 14.9 f 0.7 and 16.0 0.2 Ma). The

minimum age for the Frontera-Deidad Surface is less strictly constrained, but a 16.0 f 0.2

Ma andesitic lava at Potrerillos, co. 7 km S of Pascua (see Fig. 4-2), is deposited on r

high peak assigned to the "Cumbre Surface" at Ca. 5400 m, 150 m above this pediplain,

and may be only slightly older than the pedimentation. Moreover, the Frontera-Deidad

surface must be older than the succeeding stage of erosion, for which a maximum age of

14.6 k 0.9 Ma is inferred from K-Ar data (Martin et af., 1995: see following section).

An episoâe of reverse displacement dong the N-S striking Bûnos del Toro and

other faults further east pst-dated the etuption of the Escabroso Group and was assigned

an age range of 17 -to- 14 M a by Martin es al. (1995). This phase of deformation was, we

infer, probably responsible for the regional uplift which initiated incision of the Frontera-

Deidad Surface. No coeval aggradationd sediments are found on this pediplain. They

rnay not have accumulated in the preserved erosional regime or, in view of the high

altitude of the Surface in the Plio-Pleistocene, may have been removed by glaciation.
Stage II: The Azufieras-Torta Surface (12.5-14 Ma)

The Azufreras-Torta Surface has a present elevation of 4300-4950 m a. S. i. e..

1.. -

generally 300-450 m lower than the Frontera-Deidad Surface. It was clearly incised into

the latter following an uplift pulse (Fig. 4-3). Although the slope-angle at the back-scq

has been reduced by later erosion at many locations, as along the eastem side of the

international border, the two pediplains are readily distinguished in many areas.

The Azufreras-Torta Surface is best preserved near the t ype-localities, Azufreras,

SW of Tarnbo, and Cerro Tona. imrnediately to the NE of the El Indio-Viento vein-

system (Fig. 4-3), where it constitutes extensive tlat areas. It is also an important

landscape element throughout much of the Argentinian part of the El Indio-Pascua belt.

but is progressive1y more poorly defined to the NNW beiween Sancmon and Pascua,. In

these areas. as around the Refiaca prospect, ca. 4 km MN of Sancarrh (Figs.4-2 and 4-

5), it may comprise two closely-spaced emsional levels, but block-faulting and later
erosion make it difficult to correlate the possible sub-levels, and they are herein conflated.

Along the Chile-Argentins border, components of the Azufreras-Torta pediplain

intempt the continuity of the Frontera-Deidad surface at Paso Sancmh, ai Paso los

Bafiitos NE of El Indio and, possibly. at Paso Guanaco-Sonso near the Potrerillos

prospect, 10 km S of El Indio, where they fom pediment passes as defined by Howard

(1942).

Moderately consolidaied conglomerates intercalated with sand- and siltstones,

locdly exhibiting cross-bedding, fonn generaily gently-dipping accumulations on the

Azufreras plain proper and were probably deposited in a moderdte-energy fluvial

environment. A minimum age for those sediments of 12.0 f 0.2 Ma is given by the
overlying dacitic tuffs of the Vacas Heladas Formation. The sediments were, from the age

constraints, probably deposited on the lowermost extensions of the Azufreras-Torta

pediment.

NNE- and NW-trending, generally steeply west- or east-dipping faults, widely

offset the pediment surface in a nomal sense. The observed vertical displacements are of

the order of 50 to 200 m, but in the case of the reactivated Baiïos del Toro fault and

several NNE-SSW trending structures to the e s t of Pascua, locally exceed 400 m.

Intrusive InfiemilIo porphyry plugs with ages of 15.4 f 0.2 Ma. at India Solitaria.

co. 3 km N of El Indio (Bissig et al., 2000), and 14.6 k 0.9, at Campana, SW of El Indio

(K-Ar date: Martin et al. 1995), are exposed on, or slightly below, this pediment and

provide a maximum age for the erosion. A minimum age is given by the dacitic crystal

tuffs of the Vacas Heladas Formation which cover the surface, as well as the sedimentûry

units at Azufreras, and locally fil1 shailow valleys incised into the surface. M~r-39Ar

biotite ages for the tuffs fa11 between 11.5 f 0.2 and 12.0 i 0.2 Ma (Bissig et al., 2000,

and unpubl. data).

A sirnilar relationship is evident at Lama and Fabiana on the Argentinian side of the

border E and SE of Pascua, where dacitic tuffs with ages of 12.7 f 0.9 and 11 f 0.2 Ma.

respectively, cover remnants of the Azufreras-Torta Surface (Fig. 4-3). A regiond

defornation event between 15 and 13 Ma, characterised by a renewed regional E-W

shortening, is proposed by Manin es al. (1995), and would be in conformity with a

Middle Miocene p e n d of uplift leading to intense and widespreaâ pedimentation.

Stage III: Los Rlos Su*face (6-10 Ma)

This erosional feature is extensively developed on the Argentinian side of the

border, where it forms valley pediments up to 10-15 km in width. in contrast. in

contiguous Chile, the surface is confined to relatively narrow apron and valley pediments.

which are strongly overprinted by glacial and fluvial erosion. The proposed name records

the fact that the headwaters of rivers such as Rio del Medio, Rio Vacas Heladas and Rio

Valle del Cura flow largely along weakly modified pediments of this age. The Los Rios

pediplain lies approximately 200-400 m below the Azufreras-Torts Surface, at ca. 3800-

4250 m a. S. 1. Locally, near the Vacas Heladas prospect, 15 km S of Tambo, it comprises

two or more, narrowly-spaced but distinct pediments, but Quatemary erosion precludes

identification of sepante erosional sub-stages on a regional scale.

Los Rios pediments were preferentially eroded along the two regiondly important

structural trends, NNE-SSW and NW-SE (Fig. 4-5). The regional NW-SE trending fault

comdors in Argentina, in particular, seem to have favoured pediment propagation (Fig. 4-

5). The limit of incision of the Los Rios Surface into pre-existing landfoms is well

constrained on its lateral slopes, but the back-scarp is generally poorly defined in the

uppermost parts of the valleys (cg., on both sides of the Portezuelo de los Despoblados,

Argentina: see Figs. 4-2 and 4-S), probably as a result of high-altitude glacial degradation.

The Vacas Heladas Formation tuffs which cover the Azufreras-Torta Surface are

nowhere observed to overlie the Los Rios pediplain, and it is inferred that it was eroded

after their erupion. A maximum age of 11.5 t 0.2 Ma can therefore be assumed for this

youngest pedimentation event. Its minimum age is defined by a aAr-39~rdate of 5.8 2

0.2 Ma determined for a Vallecito Formation ignimbrite (the "Vacas Heladas ignimbrite"
of Ramos et al., 1989) which covers the surface in the Vdle del Cura. Poorly-

consolidated gravels representing the aggradational facies of the pediment constitute part

of the Los Rios Surface covered by the Vallecito Formation Ignimbrite (Fig.4-4).Similar,

albeit better cemented, clastic units with glacial striae are widely exposed in the Lama

project area: these therefore predated at lest part of the glaciation, but lack direct age

constraints.

The " ~ r - biotite-age +

~ ~ ~ r of 6.0 0.3 Ma for a rhyolitic ignimbrite cropping out ca.

4 km south of the Tambo mine defines a simila. minimum age for the Los Rios surface on

the Chilean side of the border, supporting the correlation of the observed paleosurfaces

across the present physiographic divide in the El Indio belt.

Stage N:valley incision and glaciation (Pliocene-Holocene)

Uplift and erosion of the Central Andes continued throughout the Pliocene and

Quatemq, but the climate had now become too dry on the oceanic slope to allow

pedimentation, and valleys and canyons were incised instead. At this latitude, detailed

geomorphologic studies on the Quatemary history of the major Valle de Elqui fluvial

system were c h e d out by Paskoff (1970), who defined a series of alluvial tenaces which

demonstrate that uplift has continued episodically to the present. Glaciation has played an

important landscape modifying role in the high cordillera, locally forming U-shaped

troughs and depositing moraines at elevations as low as 3000 m a. S. 1. (Veit, 1996).

Post-Miocene erosion was less pronounced in the upper parts of Valle del Cura and

other broad valleys on the Argentinian side of the El Indio-Pascua belt. The ca. 40 -50

km wide ana between the hydrographie divide dong the international border and the
Cordillera Colangüil to the east (see Figs. 4-2 and 4-5) has so far not been strongly

dissected by the tributaries of the eastem drainage system.

4.6. Hydrothermal alteration events

The episodic landscape evolution documented in the previous section provides a

geomorphologic context for both the economic and the apparently non-economic shallow-

seated hydrothermal centres in the region. Numerous dteration systems have been

recognised in the El Indio-Pascua Belt, many of which have been investigated by Barrick

Gold Corporation, Homestake and several junior mining and exploration companies. Al1

Cenozoic volcanic successions exhibit evidence for related alteration, but Au-Ag

minerdisation was apparently restricted to the Late Miocene. The episodes of significant

hydrothermal activity are outlined below although. as mentioned previously. a detailed

discussion of the " ~ r - age

~ ~data
~w rwil be presented elsewhere.

Bamen lute Eocene ro early-Lute Miocene alreruzion

Diorites of the upper Eocene Bocafoma Unit are common in the northern part of the

investigated area and display evidence of related porphyry-style, though barren, alteration

(see dso Clavero et al., 1997). In addition to moderaie, but pervasive, biotite-magnetite f

actinolite (potassic) and quartz-sericite-pyrite (phyllic) aiteration, E-Woriented, sheeted

quartz-tourmaline i pyrite veinlets have been observed adjacent to a diontic stock at

Potrerillos, 10 km S of Pascua (Fig. 4-2). Sericite and secondary biotite yield dates of

approximately 36 Ma, sensibly contemporaneous with the coarse-grained intrusion. The

unit is exposed at altitudes of up to 5500 m a. S. 1.. while the related aiteration mineralogy
is typical of the high-temperature environments occumng in porphm centres, which

suggests that 1-2 km of erosion has taken place since hydrothermal activity.

Lower-to-Middle Miocene dioritic intrusions of the Escabroso Group are also

widespread in the belt. many intruding andesitic volcanic strata of similar age. Alteration

zones related to this unit include (Fig. 4-2) those at Reiiaca (CU. 4500 m, sencite age: 19.1

f 0.5 Ma) and Smco (4100 m, hypogene alunite: 20.1 + 1.2 Mn) in the wider Sancm6n
area. the latter exhibiting the assemblage zunyite-topaz, overprinted by pyrophyllite.

Slightly younger hypogene alunite (17.2 i 0.2 Ma) occurs together with topaz in an

alteration zone associated with a 18.0 f 0.7 Ma diorite stock at Paso Deidd (4800 m), ca.

7 km E of El tndio.

The lack of steam-heated zones, in addition to the relatively t2gh temperatures

inferred for the alteration assemblages, suggest a relatively deep level of erosion in these

apparently barren systems. The Frontera-Deidad surface had not developed at the time of

hydrothemal activity. and the exposed parts of the Sanco system may have formed as

much as 900 m below surface. whereas the depth may have been approximately 400 m at

Paso Deidad,

Alteration domains assigned to the CU. 14 to 17 Ma Infiernillo Unit. the intrusive

facies of the Cerro de las Tdrtolas Formation. include (Fig. 4-2): the Libra prospect on

the E Rank of the Rio del Medio vailey (hydrothermal biotite: 16.8 i 0.4 Ma); small

alteration zones in the Rio Apolinario vdley between Poverillos and Sancmh (alunite:

14.9 i 0.4 Ma); and Veladero Sur. 10 km S of Veladero proper (alunite, 15.7 k 0.8 Ma).

At Libn, quartz-tourmaline veins are common near the valley-floor below 4000 m.

whereas andalusite and topaz occur at ca. 4200 m and strongly silicified rocks constitute
the uppennost parts (at C a . 4350 m) of the hydrothermal centre. Potassic alteration, with

secondary biotite, is locaily present at 4000 m. Elsewhere, quartz-tourmaline veinlets are

observed around Azufreras. commonly at relatively low elevations, and may be affiliated

with In fiernillo intrusions.

The landscape at the time of Infiernillo-related alteration was dominated by the

Frontera-Deidad surface. The depth of exposure of the alteration assemblages can be

estimated using these constraints. High-temperature alteration rninerals such as

twrmaline, biotite, topaz or andalusite generally occur below 4200 m. at an inferred

depth of 700-800 m below the paleosurface, whereas strong silicification and advanced

argillic altention are more common at shallower levels.

The oldest-preserved steam-heated zone in the El Indio-Pascua Mt, probably

representing the youngest Infiernillo-related alteration. occun at Lama Central, a small,

isolated, hydrothermal system ca. 5 km SE of the main orebodies of Pascua-Lama. Two

smples of coarse vein alunite, locally overgrown by native sulphur, were dated at 13.3 t

0.3 and 13.6 f 0.8 Ma. The sulphur is concentrated at CU. 4280 m, an elevation here

corresponding to a down-faulted area of the local Azufreras-Torta Surface. The

hydrothermal system may therefore have been active during the development of this

pediplain, the stem-heated alteration probably outlasting the main stage of erosion.

Extensive hydrothermal aiteration, commonly of advanced argillic type, took place

contemporaneously with. or slightly after, the eruption of the Vacus H e l a d a s Formation

volcanics. Fine -io- medium-grained alunite replacing feldspars in a srna11 hydrothermai

centre 10 km SSE of Veladero, has been dated at 12.8 f 0.3 Ma. This aiteration is

exposed ai Ca. 4350 m a. S. I., only 150-200 m below the Azufreras-Torta Surface, which
had developed prior to the hydrothennal activity. Elsewhere, in comparable proximity to

this sucface, he-grained pewasive alunite h m W of the summit of Cern Campana near

El Indio, possibly generated in a stem-heated environment, was dated at 12.0 f 0.4 Ma,

and coarse-grained alunite fiom the cernent of the unmineralised Brecha Silvestre at Tambo

yielded an age of 10.4 f 0.4 Ma. Large volumes of fine-@ed porcelanmus and powdery

alunite, probably of stem-heated origin, are exposed on and slightly below the M e r a s -

Torta Surface at the Fabiana prospect, at the eastern limits of the Veladero exploration

zone. Two ages of 10.3 f 0.2 and 10.0 i 0.4 Ma were obtained for fine-grained alunites,

slightly post-datuig the Vacas Heladas volcanism; erratic Ag and Au anomalies of a similar

age are reported by project geologists Corn the Filo Federico exploration zone between the

Veladero and Pascua-Lama deposits.

These relationships indicate that the Anifkas-Torta Surface, a major landfonn,

played an important role in influencing the areal distribution and vertical localisation of

hydrothermal activity af?er it formed in the late-Middle Miocene. However, ail alteration

systems that formed in this context prior to ca. 10 Ma are apparently barren or ody weakly

mineralised.

Age and geomorphologic setting of the principal deposls

Proven ecoaomic and sub-economic mineralisation in the El Indio-Pascua belt took

place in a variety of epithermal styles prior to Vallecito Formation volcanism. More than 30

new " ~ r 3 ~ A ages

. r of alteration minerals (Bissig et al., 2000, and unpubl. data) corntrain

the mineralisation in the district to a single episode between CU. 6 and 9.5 M a The mioed

Tambo, El Indio-Viento-Campana and Rio del Medio deposits and the major
Pascua-Lama and Veladero and smaller Sancarrh and Vacas Heladas prospects are al1

included in this episode. The restncted interval we &limit for significant epithermal

mineralisation in the region modifies the conclusions of Martin et al. (1995, 1997) who,

on the basis of K-Ar dating, assigned epithermal ore deposition to two separate stages, at

10-12 and 5-7 Ma. The 6 to 9.5 Ma interval coincides closely with the available time

constraints on the development of the Los Rios Pediplain, the youngest of the three major

planar erosion surfaces in the area.

In the subsequent sections the geomorphologic features and their relationships to

the Au-Ag mineralisation in each major district are described.

The Tambo deposit. Several relative1y small rnineralised breccia bodies and vein-

systems have been rnined in the vicinity of Cerro Elefante (Fig. 4-6). Al1 exhibit sulphide-

poor acid-sulphate characteristics (Jannas et al., 1999, Deyell et al., 2000) and are hosted

by Tilito Formation tuffs ("Amiga Tuff" in Jannas et al., 1999). Stem-heated alunite-

kaolinite-chalcedony-native sulphur alteration is widespread at 4450 - 4650 m a. S. 1. on

the upper parts of the sumunding hills, which represent faulted remnants of the

Azufnras-Torta Surface, and hydrothermal activity is inferred to have taken place

immediately below this pediplain. Only the Veta Veronica is apparently aberrant, in that

its steam-heated alteration facies crops out between the Frontera-Deidad and Azuf'ras-

Torta Surfaces at approximately 4750 m (Fig. 4-6).

Alunites with hypogene textural habits and isotopic compositions, and

contempraneous with the Ag-Au mineralisation, have been dated from the several ore

bodies, including Veta Veronica (8.5 k 0.2 Ma), the Kimberly breccia (8.2 f 0.2 and 8.2 I
Fig. 4-6:
Geomorphologic relationships in the Tambo District.
A) Topographie sketch-map of the Tambo mine area. R m t s of the thm pedipiains are
annotated as in Fig. 3. Shaded areas delimit the mined ore-zones. Major fadts offsetting the
paleosUrfaces are indicatedby the dashed lines. A coordinate grid (UTMzone 19) is provideâ,
contourinterval is 50 m.
B) The Tambo district as seen 6om S. Stars indicate t h e of four mincd ore-zones; îhe landscapc
elexnents are indicated as in figures 3 and 6A. Note the location of Veta Veronka,at a higher
setting with respect to the paleosurfaces compareci with the 0 t h mineralised zones. Vc
indicatcsVdecito Formationrhyolites coveringthe Los Rios Surface.
0.8 Ma), the Wendy breccia (8.0 k 0.4 Ma) and the Canto Sur breccin (7.1 I0.2 Ma).

Stearn-heated alunite from the Falla Azufre on the Azufreras meseta to the SW yielded an

age of 7.7 f 0.2 Ma.

The alunite-kaolinite-solfataric alteration overprints the rnineraiisation and extends

downward along fractures (Jannas et al., 1999). suggesting a lowering of the water-table

while the hydrothermal systems were active. Ruid inclusion studies suggest extensive

boiling at inferred temperatures of 220 to 250' C at the time of ore deposition (Jannas et

al., 1999).

Geomorphologic observations (Fig. 4-6) indicate that the Tambo area is situated at

the head of a NNE-SSW trending Los Rios pediment valiey (Stage III). This valley

incises the older Azufreras-Torta Surface along two branches on either side of Cern

Elefante, which represents a nmnant of the latter (Fig. 4-6). Imponant local subvertical

fault-systems, striking NNE-SSW, NE-SWand NW-SE, controlled the mineralisation. Of

these the NW-SEand NNE-SSW striking faults were reactivated in a normal sense during

or after mineralisation, and offset the Azufreras-Torta pediplain and older landfoms. The

highest Au grades in the principal orebodies generally occur between 4300 and 4000 m,

in a position intermediate between the Los Rios and Azufreras-Torta Surfaces. The

mineralisation at Canto Sur lies at a higher elevation. ca. 4500 m (Fig. 46), as a result of

syn -to- pst-rnineralisation block-faulting, but was similarly controlled by the Azufreras-

Torta Surface. The Veta Veronica differs h m the breccias in that it is situated above the

Azufreras-Torta Surface and immediately below the Frontera-Deidad Surface. However,

at this locality incision of the Los Rios Surface appears to have elirninated the Azufreras-

Torta Surface, directly dissecting the higher Frontera-Deidad Surface. (Fig. 4-6).
 The El Indio-Viento-Campana, Rfo del Medio and Jalene veins. Au (-Ag, Cu)

mineralisation at El Indio and nearby centres is almost entirely hosted by veins, which

range from high- to low-sulphidation in mineralogy. Alunite has k e n observed in the

alteration haloes at higher levels of the El Indio veins and is widespread on surface to the

West of the mine area on Cerro la Campana (Fig. 4-3), whereas sericite, quartz, kaolinite

and pyruphylliie predominate in the assemblages at lower levels (Jannas et al., 1999). The

Rio del Medio mine, CU. 3 km N of El Indio, has exploited the only econoMc entirely

low-sulphidation vein, hosting a variety of carbonate minerals and with a relatively

narrow wallrock alteration halo. The low-grade Jalene and high-grade Q u m Uno

(adjacent to Viento) veins in the eastem pari of the main cluster of veins are of

intermediate sulphidation type. exhibiting tennantite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite and native

4

Au, as well as late rhodofhrosite at lower levels. Enargite is more abundant in the higher

levels of these veins. As in the Tambo area, the mineralisation is hosted by Tilito

Formation dacitic welded tuffs, and the veins only locally extend upwards into the

relatively impermeable andesitic lavas of the Escabroso Group covenng the tuff

succession. Only the Rio del Medio low-sulphidation vein is entirely hosted by Escabroso

andesites.

*Ar-39~rages have been obtained from the enargite-rich Mula Muerta (sericite: 7.6

I0.3 Ma), Viento (sericite: 7.0 I0.2 Ma) and Campana (alunite intercalated with

enargite: 6.2 f 0.3 Ma) veins. The quartzose and gold-nch Paihuano vein yields an age of

6.6 t 0.3 Ma (sericite), whereas the veins with intermediate to low-sulphidation

characteristics are slightly older (Jalene, sericite: 7.8 k 0.4 Ma; Rio del Medio, sericite:
7.6 f 0.4 Ma). For the El Indio Sur 3500 vein, the richest mineralised structure in the

district, only a K-Ar sericite age of 6.4 f 0.2 Ma is available (Jannas et ai.. 1999)

suggesting that it fomed late in the development of the deposit.

Jannas et al. (1990, 1999) propose, on the basis of local cross-cutting relationships.

that the mineralisation at El Indio proper comprises an early, enargite-rich Cu-stage

followed by a Au-Quartz stage. The new geochronologic data. however, do not clearly

separate a late Au from an early Cu stage overall and suggest a more complex evolution

of hydrothermal activity in the district.

The geomorphologic setting of the mineralisation of the El Indio area is comparable

to that in the Tarnbo district. The most prominent paleosurface near El Indio is the

Azufreras-Torta Surface (Fig. 4-3), at a local elevation of Ca. 4500 m a.s.1. E of the Inca

Norte fault, but down-faulted to 4350 m to the West, probably after mineralisation.

Relatively narrow Los Rios pediment valleys are cut into the Azufreras-Torta surface

from the north (Rio del Medio valley) and the south (Rio Ma10 valley: Figs. 4-5 and 4-6).

Altitudinally, economic mineralisation is largely confined between the andesitic lithocap

at 4250 m, Ca. 200 m below the Azufreras-Torta pediplain, and an elevation of ca. 3750

m, below which Au values gradually decrease. Interaction with groundwater was lirnited

and probably restricted to the later stages of the hydrothermal activity (Jannas et al.,

1999). The temperature of ore formation was Ca. 200-280 O C for both the Cu and Au

stages. The ore-fonning fluids were mildly reduced, and were boiling only in the banded

enargite-alunite Campana vein (Jannas et al., 1999). in contrast to the Tambo district

where the fluids were oxidised and evidence for boiling is widespread. The El Indio

âeposit formed at similar depths below the locaily prominent Azufreras-Torta Surface as
the Tambo breccias, but the nlatively impermeable andesitic caprock at El Indio limited

and delayed boiling and the interaction with surface waters, which ultimately accounts for

the differences in the style of rnineralisation.

The Rio del Medio vein crops out at ca. 3950 m but its upper parts were eroded

during the Plio-Pleistocene. The vein is situated close to the southem end of the Rio del

Medio valley in a position, similar to those of Tambo and El Indio, near the head of a Los

Rios pediment valley dissecting the Azufreras-Torta Surface. The outcrops of the vein lie

approximately 500 m below the summit of Cerro Torta, which represents the Stage LI

pediplain only 1-3 km SE of the Rio del Medio deposit.

The Sancarrdn prospect. This large-scale, but not demonstrably economic, aiteration

system is situated ca. 25 km N of El Indio (Figs. 4-2 and 4-5). It comprises two separaie

centres, one to the E ("Sancarr6n Argentino") and the other ca. 2 km N W ("Sancandn

Chileno") of Paso Sancm6n. Local high Au grades in breccia-hosted ore and quartz-

sulphide veins were intersected by B h c k and previous exploration companies on the

Chilean flank (D. Williams, written commun., 1998). while small-scale Au mining has

taken place at S a n c d n Argentino (Fig. 4-7), where precious metal mineralisation is

hosted by N-S striking veins (Heresmann and Davicino, 1990). The host rocks are, as at

El Indio and Tambo, Tilito Formation dacitic -to- rhyolitic lithic crystal tuffs. Pervasive

silicification and quartz-alunite alteration are widespread, and vuggy, acid-leached

siliceous rocks, powdery alunite and native suiphur, constituting a stem-heated

assemblage, crop out at the surnmit of Cern Tio Pepe (Fig. 47), which dominates the

main target area of Sancarrh Chileno, as well as at Paso Sancarcdin (Heresmann and

Davicino, 1990). Fine-temedium - grained yeliowish alunite fmm the mauU< of a breccia
114
Fig. 4-7:
Geomorphologic relationships in the Sancarrh prospect area.
A) Topographie sketch-map of the Sancarhn prospect area. kmnants of the three regional pediplains are
annotated as in figures 3 and 6, in addition, 11-2 indicates an area interpreted as an Meras-Torta
pediment erodtd kom the NW into another pencontemporaneous pediment which originally cut across
the CordilleraPrincipal h m Argentina The grey line indicates the inferreci boundary between the two
lmdscape ehents. Stars indicate mineraliscdzones. Major faults ofiaetting îhe relics of the pediplains
are shown by dashed lins. A coordinategrid (UTM zone 19) is indicated on the map, contour interval is
50 m.
B) View fiom Cmo Don Lucho ( S i l l l d n Chileno) towards the S, showing the area around Paso
Sancarrn.The lmâscapcelemcntsand mineraiisedzonesareannotatedas in A).
cropping out at ca. 4300 m a. S. 1. on the SW dope of Cern Tio Pepe has been dated at

7.7 k 0.2 Ma, and alunite from a smaller but similar breccia near the top of Cerro Don

Lucho yields an essentially identical age of 7.9 i 0.2 Ma.

Ccrros Tio Pepe and Don Lucho are interpreted as remnants of the Azufreras- Torta

Surface and Paso Sancaridn as a relict coeval pediment-pass, incised from east to West

and penconternporaneously degnded by SE-directed erosion at slightiy lower elevation

(Fig. 4-7). A subsequent, well defined, Los Rios pediment, ca. 4 km W of the main target

area of Cems Don Lucho and Tio Pepe, is interpreted to be eroded dong the a i s of

Arroyo Sancarr6n, terminating CU. 1 lan N W Cerro Don Lucho. (Fig. 4-7). The

relationship of the Los Rios surface to the older Iandforms on the Argentinian slope of

Paso S a n c d n is dificult to establish because of posterosional displacement dong

regionally important NNE-SSW faults, components of the El Indio-Gavilh-Taguas

valley structural corridor (Fig. 4-2).

P a s c u a - h a and Veladero. Situated 50 km north of El Indio on the Chile-Argentina

border, the Pascua deposit and its eastward extension in the Lama Sector contains the

largest-lcnown concentration of precious metais in the region. The Au-Ag mineralisation

is hosted by several phreatic breccia bodies which intmde granitoid rocks and subordinate

rhyolitic tuffs of the pre-Mesozoic basement, and by stockworks adjacent to the breccias.

The rnineralisation occurs below ca. 4800 m a. S. 1.. while the surface outcrops of

the breccias above that elevation are commonly crudely stratified and siiicified. Native

sulphur is observed at the surface of Brecha Central, the main ore-host, and in the

Penelope, Esperanza Sur and Frontera Norte expioration zones (Fig. 48), in intensely
Fig. 4-8:
Geomorphologic relationships in the Pascua-Lama-Veladcro District.
A) Topographie sketch-map of the Pascua-Lama and Veladero areas. Rerrmants of the three pediplains are
annotatcd as in figures 3,6 aud 7. Stars indicate major odmdies and exploration zones. Major faulu
offsetting the paleosurfàces are outlined by dnshed lines. A cmrdinate grid (UTM zone 19) is pmvided,
the contour interval is 50 m.
8) The Lama prospect area h m the E. Sian indicate the mineraliscdzones and major exploration targets and
the landscape-elementsare indicatedas in figues 5,6 and 7. The surfaces arc gcneraUymngly dissected
and the remnants are dom-faulted to the E. Pleistocent glaciation Eiiled to reshape the dey-floor
extensively, and conglomcrates represcntingconsotidatdgrave1deposits dircctiy related to the Los Rios
surface are preserved (outcrops labcled "g").
acid-leached rocks with vuggy, residual silica. Several stages of quartz- alunite alteration

and silicification have been described from Brecha Centrai and swounding areas (A.

Chouinard, pers. commun., 2000). The timing of these stages, however, is

geochronologically indistinguishable. Five " O A ~ - ' ~ A ~plateau ages for hypogene alunite,

representing both early and late alteration-mineralisation stages, range only between 8.7 t

0.2 and 8.1 f 0.2 Ma. The Lama sector incorporates several orebodies consisting of

strongly silicified breccias (e.g., Penelope: Fig. 4-8) and disseminated and stockwork

Mneralisation in silicified pre-Mesozoic granites (Mom Oeste: Fig. 4-8). Hypogene

alunite is rare in the Penelope breccia, but two samples of massive vein alunite from a

zone ca. 300 m below the outcrop of the Mneralised zone yield ages of 9.5 f 0.9 and 9.4

f 0.2 Ma. On this basis we infer that Au-Ag rnineralisation at Lama significantly predated

that in the Brecha Central at Pascua, and that the focus of hydrothennal activity migrated

to the W between 9.4 and 8.7 Ma.

Only reconnaissance studies were canied out in the Veladero area (Fig. 4-8). " ~ r -

39Ar age data were determined for a single, probably hypogene, coarse-grained alunite

sample kom a vein that cuts a strongly advanced argillically-altered, Upper Paleozoic

rhyolitic tuff at an elevation of 4200 m on the SE flank of Cerro Colorado, a mineralised

zone in the southern part of the prospect. The alunite exhibits strong intragrain zoning

with Na-rich cores and K-nch rims and yielded a complex age spectrurn. Much of the

was released in two steps at low - t e intermediate temperattues, yielding

"AI- (78.8 1)

similar ages of 7.8 f 0.3 and 8.1 f 3 Ma. However, The highest-temperature step,

compnsing 11.1 8 of the released 39~r,yields an age of 10.7 k 0.9 Ma (Bissig, unpubl.

data). The spectnun is tentatively interpreted as nflecting two phases of alunite

crystallisation at 11 and 8 Ma, respectively, but it is not clear which, if either, of these

ages records the Au-Ag mineralisation in the main Velader0 centre.

The geomorphologic context of the contiguous Pascua-Lama and Velaâero districts

is more difficult to establish than that of the deposits further south, because normal faults

more strongly offset the paleosurfaces, downdropping them to the east. However, figure

4-9, a schematic cross-section of the Pascua-Lama region, shows that the mineralisation

was probably emplaced at a level similar to that of the El hdio, Tambo and Sancarrdn

deposits with respect to the landscape elements. The Rio de las Taguas valley, separating

the Cordillera Oaiga and Pascua-Lama (Figs. 4-2 and 49), follows a major graben,

which can be traced to the El hdio district, 50 km to the S. Several NNE-trending,

steeply E-dipping faults drop the Azufreras-Torta Surface from an elevation of 4900 m

imrnediately east of the border down to 4300 m at Lama Central (Figs. 4-8 and 4-9).

Parallel W-dipping faults define the eastem limit of the graben between Despoblados and

the Fabiana project (Figs. 4-2 and 49), situated on the E side of the Rio de las Taguas

valley opposite Lama Centrai.

The Frontera-Deidad Surface is clearly defined in the Pascua-Lama district, forming

extensive flat areas at elevations of around 5250 m to the S of Pascua and as benches on

the N flank of Cerro de Pascua as well as S and E of Cern Nevado (Fig. 4-8). The Rio

Turbio valley-flmr in the Lama exploration area, although slightly glaciated, is part of the

Los Rios Surface (Fig. 4-8) as constrained by the conglomerates widely found at the

valley-bottom. These are mainly composed of silicified clasts in a siliceous femcrete

cement. The conglomerates exhibit glacial striae and, hence, must have been deposited

and consoiidated before the alpine glaciation, but, h m the silicified nature of the

fragments, after the large-scale hydmthennal activity in the area.

119
Fig. 4-9:
Schematic NW-SEprofile across the Rio de las Taguas valley graben between the Pascua and Fabiana prospects
(see also figures 2 and 8 for locations). The &et map shows the trace (continuous line) and an approximate
projection range (thindashed line) of landscape elments, exploration zones and volcanic units. Major faults are
outlined by the heavy dashed lines, as in profile. The geornorphologic context of the Veladero depoit is Iess
clear and its approximate position is projected from outside of the indicated projection range. The bed-rock
geology has not beenmapped indetaii across the entire Rio de las Taguas vdey but has kmdram from generai
field observations.
 The original extent of the intemediate Azufreras-Torta Surface is less clearcut in

the district. It is poorly preserved on the Chilean side, but can be recognised as benches

and ndges in the higher ground in the Veladero prospect area and to the W of it, as well

as around the Porfiada and Penelope zones of the Lama prospect (Fig. 4-8). A strongly

silicified horizon with significant Au and Ag anomalies at its lower lirnit parallels the

ridge, which represents a remnant of the Azufreras-Torta Surface at Penelope. Native

sulphur occurs dong the top of the Penelope ridge in barren, partly-vuggy, strongly-

silicified brecciated rock. Steam-heated alteration at Pascua affects sedimentary and felsic

volcanic rocks that are probably directly related to the emplacement of the Brecha Central

and nearby diatremes. This phreato-magmatic succession is infened to overlie the

Azufreras-Torta Surface, which is reprrsented by a depression in the ridgelim dong the

international border (Fig, 4-8), where the generally poorly soned felsic volcanic and

sedimentary rocks locally attain aggregate thicknesses of 50-100 m. An early-laie

Miocene accumulation, immediately prior to the Au, Ag and Cu mineralisation hosted by

the underlying Brechia Centrai (G. Nixon, written commun., 1998). is infemd for these

strata.

Lute Miocene to Recent hydrothermal activity

There is evidence for at least restricted hydrothermal activity and alteration younger

than 6 Ma in the El Indio-Pascua belt. This includes an occurrence of quartz veins cutting

Vallecito Formation rocks S of Tambo and a young 3.5 I0.4 Ma date for a sericitdillite

veinlet cuning the 7.8 Ma Jalene Vein E of El Indio. Moreover, hot springs, discharging

water well above body-temperature, occur on both sides of the border (e.g.Baiios de los
Despoblados near Velaâero, Baiios del Toro near El Indio), indicating that small-scale

hydrothermal activity persists. There is. however. no indication of metal enrichment in

the young hydrothermal systems.

4.7. Discussion of the regional and local implications of the landform cbronology

Neogene erosional s u ~ a c e and

s uplifr in the Central Aiidesfrom 17" to 30'303

Although incnasing precipitation to the south of 27' has caused major dissection of

the Late Tertiary landscape, relics of Neogene landforms are extensively preserved at

lower altitudes on the Pacific piedmont (Paskoff, 1970; Stiefel, 1972). Time constraints,

locally detailed, for regional pediment erosion are now available from southem Pem (CU.

17') to the Chilean Norte Chico at Ca. 30°30'S; these are surnmarised in figure 4-10. The

Altos de Carnilaca Surface (Tosdal et al., 1984), the Tarapacii Pediplain (Mortimer and

Sa&-Rendic, 1975) and. probably, the Sierra Checo del Cobre Surface (Mortimer, 1973)

al1 fomed around 22-24 Ma. A dacitic crystal tuff. deposited on an extensive pediment 20

km NE of Ovalle, 150 km SW of El Indio (Paskoff, 1970), was dated in this study, and

defines a minimum age for these relict pediplains. A sample collected at coord. UTM

zone 19: 300.50016635.800 yielded a biotite date of 23.1 f 0.3 Ma, which coincides

approximately with the age of an important regohth developed between the Tilito

Formation and Escabroso Group in the El Indio belt (K. Heather, pers. commun., 1997).

The relative1y uniform landscape history over a N-Sinterval of Ca. 2000 km dunng

this early phase of modem Andean tectonism suggests that no important tectonic or

climatic segmentation, either between north and south or between the Littotal and

cordilleran zones, occurred in the latest-Ohgocene to Early Miocene interval. The c a 25

Ma F2 (Aymari) phase of deformation (Sébrier et al, 1988, Sebrier and Soler, 1991),

recorded by a major regional unconformity in southeastem Peru (Sandeman et al., 1995).

probably imrnediately predated the planar erosion in northem Chile and southem Peru.

The Frontera-Deidad (17-15 Ma) and Azufreras-Torta (14-12.5 Ma) Surfaces in the

El Indio-Pascua M t , as inferred from the available age constraints, apparently do not

have clearly contemporaneous counterparts north of 28" (Fig. 4-9). where an age of 9.5 -

to- 13 Ma was established for the Atacama Pediplain (Clark et al., 1967; Mortimer,

1973). The Multiple Pediment Stage of southem Peni (T'osdal et al., 1984) also probably

pst-dated the Azufreras-Torta Surface (Tosdal et al., 1984), but the age constraints on

the inception of this phase of erosion are ambiguous (C. Quang, pers. commun., 2001).

The intervening central area of the Atacama Desert has probably been tw dry for intense

peùimentation since 18-15 Ma (Alpen and Brimhall, 1988): studies (Bouzari

and Clark, 2000) of the supergene profile of the Cerro Colorado porphyry Cu deposit (20'

S) suggest that only rninor plmar erosion of the upper, eastem slopes of the Pampa de

Tamamgal took place after 19 Ma and prior to Plio-Pleistocene canyon incision. We

conclude that the Los Rios pediments in the El Indio-Pascua belt record the latest planar

erosion in the cordilleran zone of the Pacific slope. They postdate al1 significant planar

paleosurfaces to the north, indicating that the climate remained favourable for

pedimentation after CU. 9 Ma only south of ca. 28" S. The more pluvial climate in

northwestem Argentina. however, permitted pediment development until at least 0.3 Ma

(Strecker et al., 1989).

A clear difference in the timing of regional erosional events in the western Central

Andes between the now amagmatic flat-slab region and the Chilean Norte G r d e (N of

ca. 28") is apparent after ca. 17 Ma (Fig. 4-10). Because the development of the Atacama
123
Fin. 4- 1O:
c&npilationof the landfom chrowlogy of the Pacific slope of the Central Andes h m southcm Peru to
30°30' S. References for the landscape elements arc: Tosdal et al. (1984) for S P a ; Mortimer and Saric
(1975) and Bouzari and Clark, (2000) for the centrai Atacama Desert; Mortimer (1973) for the southem
Atacama Desert; and this study for areas S of ca. 29% Note that the age of the Sierra Checo del Cobre
pediplain is not precisely known and only a minimum age was obtained for the Mesa Higueriîa surface
(dashd boundaries ofboxes), while the Muitiple Pediment Stage in S P a umay have beeninitiatcdbefore 14
M a Clirnate constraints for the Centrai Atacama desert are taken h m Aipers and Brimhall (1988) and
infened fiom the typesoflandscapesobserved.
Pediplain between 9.5 and 13 Ma (Mortimer, 1973) indicates that rainfall in the southem

Atacama Desert was still sufficient for pedimentation as late as the early-Late Miocene,

desiccation of that region cannot be the cause for the contrasted timing of major erosional

events beginning in the early-Middle Miocene. We suggest, therefore, that the landscape

elements of the El Indio-Pascua belt which are not represented north of 28's directly

reflect increased crustal thickening and uplift in the flat-slab region since the early-

Middle Miocene, the episodes king controlled by tectonic conditions peculiar to this

region. Geochemical studies (e.g.. Kay ûnd Abnizzi 1996) provide evidence for

increasing crustal thickness as early as 17-18 Ma, plausibly related to the initial

shallowing of the slab. This petrochemical record is in satisfactory agreement with the

independent geomorphologic-tectonic history, and specifically with the development of

the Frontera-Deidad and Azufreras-Toita Surfaces. In contrast, geophysicai (Pilger. 1984)

and fore-arc basin studies (Laursen et al., 2000) suggest that the subduction of the Juan

Fernandez ridge and the resultant flattening of the slab was initiated only after 14 Ma. It

remains unclear, therefore. to what extent the beginning of the subduction of the Juan

Femandez ridge proper can be directly linked to the shallowing of the slab in this ngion

or whether other bathymetric highs on the Nazca plate had been subducted previously.

Changes in crustal thickness can be estimated using the model for the uplift and

degradation of planar highlands proposed by Molnar and England (1990). A simple

model calculation (Fig. 4-1 1) shows that a 350 m vertical separation between two planar

erosion surfaces, such as the Azufreras-Torta and Los Rios Pediplains, records an

approximately 2.5 km thickening of the crust. Thus, assuming a crustal thickness of 55

km at 6 Ma, thicknesses of 52.5 km at 10 Ma and 45-49 km at 18 Ma would be estimated.

However, a somewhat larger aggregate increase in cnistal thickness may be required to
125
 6 MI, aftw
Loa RIoa

Fig. 4-1 1 :
Crusta1thickeriingand uplift modtl after Molnar and England (1WO), applied schematicallyto the landform
succession observed in the El Indio belt. LR: Los Rios Surface; AT: Anitieras-Torta Surface; and FD:
Frontera-Deidad Surface.
T =crusta1thickness; h= elevation; H =depth to the Moho; DT =cnrstal thickening; DH = SDTf6;Dh =DT/6
(=uplift). The exact vaIues for the calculated c d thicknesses would Vary, depending on the density
con- betweenc r u t and mande, or the buoyancy effects ofthe flat-slab(see text for more detaif).
explain the observed uplift, because the lower crust presumably experienced more

tectonic shortening than shallower levels, thereby reducing the overall density contrast

between the mantle and crust (Kay and A b m i , 1996; Jordan 2000). The record of the

iandscape evolution and tectonic activity documented herein strongly irnplies that uplift

was not continuous through the Miocene, but occurred in relatively short pulses followed

by periods of relative quiescence, dunng which the pediments were developed. Uplift

rates of 0.3 to 0.4 mm+ during the main pulses of cnistal thickening would not be

unnasonable for this region (Gregory-Wodzicki, 2000) and could generate a separation of

300-400 m between erosional surfaces over periods of 1 m. y. or less.

The estimated uplift rates since the Early Miocene can be accommodated by an only

moderate increase in cmstal thickness from CU. 45 km at ca. 18 Ma to the present 55-60

Ln.This suggests that the Andean crust was dready thicker than typical sialic crut by 18
Ma, and implies a considerable relief at that time.

Emsion and epiihemal mineralisation, a mode1for the El Indio-Pascua Belt

Ekonomic epithemal mineralisation in the El Indio-Pascua belt fonned in a well-

defined time interval between 6 and 9.5 Ma, widely overprinting preexisting, barren

alteration. Steam-heated minera1 assemblages throughout the belt are most commonly

exposed on, or slightly below, the extensive 12.5 - 14 Ma Azufreras-Torta Surface, and

were coeval with both the barren -to- weakly mineralised alteration systems active

between ce -
10 and 12.8 M, and the subsequent main phase of Au-Ag rich epithemal

mineralisation. Emplacement of the latter coincided shictly with the development of the

Los Nos pediplain at the expense of the Azufreras-Torta Surface between ca. 6 and 10

Ma.
 The Azukras-Torta Surface, therefore, widely acted as a controlling landform for

the major geothennd systems, but significant ore deposition did not occur before the Los

Rios pediments were being cut into the pre-existing landscape. The evolution from the

pre-mineralisation ph ysiograph y to the present-day landscape has been visuaiised three-

dimensionally using the constraints described above, and is shown herein for the El Indio-

Tambo district in figure 4-12 and the Pascua-Lama-Veladero area in figure 4-13. Both

illustrations show that al1 important mineralisation is located near the interface between

Stage II and Stage III landfonns. The economic ore deposits in the El Indio-Tambo area

(Fig. 4- 12). as well most orebodies at Pascua and Lama (Fig. 4- l3), are located within 1

km of the heads of important Los Nos pediments, which were being incised into the

Azufreras-Torta surface during the hydrothermai activity. Earlier mineraiised centres may

have formed downstream and are likely to have been obliterated by the continuing back-

cutting of the Las Rios pedirnents soon after their formation. Where age constraints on

hydrothermal activity in a particuiar valley are available, they indicate younger ages of

ore deposition towards the upper parts of the valleys. This is true for the weakly

mineralised Vacas Heladas alteration zone (ca. 9.5 Ma, hypogene alunite: Bissig. unpubl.

data) situated downstream h m the 8-8.5 Ma Tambo district (Fig. 4-12), as well as for

Penelope (CU. 9.4 Ma) and Brecha Central (18.7 Ma) in the Pascua-Lama district (Fig. 4-

13). We suggest, that the hydrodynamics of the hydrothermai systems in the district

changed dramaticaily in response to physiographic modification during the critical

interval €rom 9.5 to 6 Ma. The focus of ore deposition thereby moved upstrearn during the

progressive incision of the Los Rios Pediments.

Fig. 4- 12:
~)~hree-dimensional mode1of the prcsent-day Iandscap in the wider El indi0 area showing the mnnants of
the Miocme lanâscape. Young volcanic uaits that provide tirne consîraintson the planarerosionevents are
outiined.
B) The reconsttucted landscape immediately foiiowing ore deposition at El M o and Tambo. Note tbat both
depositsare situaîeâ at the heads ofLos Riospediment valleys. LR: Los Rios Surface, AE Anit'reras-Torta
Srafie, FD: Frontera-Deidad S u r f k e .
C) The reconstnicted laadscapebefote mineralisation o c c d The Los Rios pediments hwe not yet cut f8t
enougb into the Amfieras-Torta Surfiace to cause a change in the water-table at El hdio and Tambo, but
may already have had aneffect on îhe Vacas Heladas system.
 Çron<s*Ds'iSurface Late Miocsns volcanics and volcaniclastics

-
(m-11~s-1~ a-)
Atuîmras-Torta Su-
Lm Rios Sudace rn VacasHeWasFormation:
Oacitic to andesitic gnimbrite
Intemationalborder Important fauh,
Chik-Argentina alliectinq the landscape

Fig. 4-13:
~)~hmdimensional mode1 of the prrwntday -1 of the e a s m piut ofthe Pascu-Lama -Veldno district. The
ANficras-Tom Surface is suongiy dissected but pmseweû as ridges. Tfre Vacas Heladas Fornation provides time
constraints on the deveiopment of this surfice. The Rio Turbio valley floor is assurneci to represent a Los Rios
pedimmt N N E - W i n g nonnal faults are outlined and w m pmbably active during and afkr the rnineraiisation,
cnhancingthe relief in thearca.
B) The reconsmcted landscape immediately following mineralisation. As at El Indio, the kua-Lama and Veladero
hyâmtkmal centres were active immediaîely below the Andicras-Tom Surfice near the badc-scarp of Los Rios
pcdiments. Los Rios Surfse, AT: Anifietas-Torta Surface, FD:Frontera-DeidadSudice
C)The rrcorisÉnictcdlandscape prior to miaeralisation. The water table at Veldero is already infiuencinghydrothmnal
fluid tlaw, while at Pascua-Lamano hydrodynamiceffects areasyet apparent
 The following sequence of events is inferred. Between 12 and 10 Ma, a nlatively

stable water-table with balanced discharge and recharge underlay the Azufreras-Torta

Surface. This stability may have been directly responsible for the barren nature of much

of the observed alteration. because the most important mechanisms to cool the

hydrothermal fluid, Le. mixing and boiling, did not occur on a large-scde. This situation

changed when water was removed by downward-lateral flow during the lowenng of the

water-table in response to the development of the topographically lower Los Rios

pediments. Extensive boiling to considerable depths occuned when discharge began to

exceed recharge, favouring Au, Ag and Cu deposition below the Azufreras-Torta Surface

near the heads of the evolving Los Rios pediments. Observations on the Tambo and El

Indio districts by previous workers support this interpretation: steam-heated alteration

extends downward dong fractures and overprints the mineralisation at Tarnbo (Jannas et

al., 1999). indicating that the water-table was dramatically lowered during the ongoing

hydrothermal activity. Similarly, an evolution at Tmbo from deposition of magmatic-

hydrothermal alunite to stem-heated and supcrgene alunite has been reported by Deyell

et al. (2000). and fluid inclusion studies (Jannas. et al., 1999) suggest that boiling was the

major ore deposition mechanism. El Indio diffen from Tambo in that evidence for M i n g

(Jannas et al., 1999) is exhibited only by the youngest vein in the district, Campana B (6.2

t 0.3 Ma). However, a change from a non-boiling volatile-rich magmatic fluid, leading to

the Cu-rich vein mineralisation, to a low-salinity diluted fluid, exsolved in the waning

stages of hydrothermal activity, is suggested by Jannas et al. (1999). This may indicate a

transition Frorn lithostatic to hydrostatic conditions (Fournier, 1991). as similarly reported

€rom the Lepanto district (Hedenquist et al., 1998). At El Indio this rnay reflect an
evolution from a relatively volatile-nch, but overpressurised fluid beneath the andesitic

lithocap, to a low-salinity fluid under hydrostatic pressures. Boiling was important only in

the latest stages dunng decompression of the evolving system. Lateral discharge and

hence decompression occurred when the incision of the Los Rios pediment dong the Rio

Malo axis removed part of the lithocap over the SW part of the mineralised areas,

including the Campana B vein, and provided an escape route for the fluids. The main gold

mineralisation is inferred to have occurred beneath a steam-heated oxidised environment

where acidic fluids descended and destabilised Au-bisulphide complexes (Jannas et al.

1999).

No detailed paragenetic studies are available for the andesite-hosted Rio del Medio

low-sulphidation vein. However, like the other ore deposirs in the district, it is situated at

the head of a Los Rios pediment, represented locally by the Rio del Medio vailey. The

vein is exposed at an elevation of only ca. 3950 m and has been partly eroded.

The slightly younger overall age range for the El Indio mineralisation compared to

that at Tambo can be explained by the timing of the incision of the Rio Malo and Rio del

Medio valley pediments, which may have slightly postdated the Los Rios pediments in

the Tambo district. The Rio Malo pediment probably also had a major influence on the

mineralisation at Canto Sur,which is distinctly younger than the other mineralised zones

at Tambo and is situated on the upper-western flank of Cerro Canto (Fig. 4-6). at a greater

distance from the Los Rios-age pediment incised dong the proto-Rio Vacas Heladas

valley. Water-table displacement would therefore have taken place later than in the ol&r

mineralised centres of the district.

The geomorphologic context of the Sancarrh prospect on the Chilean side of the
borâer is similar to that at Tamim. Although no detailed studies of fluid inclusions or
132
alteration parageneses are available, it is inferred h m the distribution of the known

mineralisation and steam-heated alteration assemblages that the erosion of the Los Rios

pediment dong the Rio Sancarhn valley led to the lowering of the water-table in the

vicinity of Cerros Tio Pepe and Don Lucho, favouring mineralisation in those areas.

Several facies of the mineralisation at Lama yielded slightly ol&r ages than for El

Indio, Tmbo and Sancadn. This may be due to an earlier onset of water-table lowering,

induced by erosion enhanced by the faulting associated with the Rio de las Taguas valley

graben. A Los Rios pediment is inferred to have been cut into the Lama m a from E to W

coeval with hydrothermal activity. Evidence for magmatism related to the formation of

the major Au-Ag deposits of the El Indio-Pascua belt is very restricted. The

mineralisation is commonly hosted by diatreme complexes or veins, but nowhere are

large volcanic edifices or caldera complexes evident. In the volcanic-hosted epithemal

environment, rapid changes of the topography, such as would attend the collapse of

volcanic edifices or calderas, may lower the water table dramatically (e.g.. Sillitoe, 1994;

Sasada and Goff, 1994), and hence have the potential to induce telescoping of

hydrothermal systems to generate economic mineralisation. In contrast to these

mechanisms, we suggest that the changing hydrodynamic environment of an episodically

evolving landscape may widely be of more importance than volcanic processes in

controlling ore deposition, pariicularly where volcanic edifices are of restncted extent.

We infer that regional pedirnent erosion processes, albeit slow in cornparison to, e.g.,

stratocone sector collapse, may have a major control on the localisation of the water-table

and, given a stmcturdly favourable setting, rnay be critical in the focusing of epithermal

mineralisation . Pmvided geothermal heat-sources are avaiIable. regional pedimentation

 may result in longer periods (-1 m. y.) of cyclic ore deposition compared with the short-

lived telescoping events in collapsing voicanoes.

4.8. Conclusions

1) Well constrained regional paleo-pedirnents are preserved in the Central Andes at lest

as far south as 30°S and formed probably in direct response to uplift events. Three major

erosional surfaces have been recognised in the El hdio-Pascua M t : 1. the 15-17 Ma

Frontera-Deidad Surface; PI. the 12.5- 14 Ma Azufreras-Torta Surface; and 5.the 6- 10 Ma

Los Rios Surface, al1 typically separated by 200-400 m vertical intervals.

2) Following a coherent late Oligocene-Early Miocene landform evolution on the Pacific

dope from Ca. Lats. 15' -to- 30' S, the timing of uplift and regional erosion in the

Cordillera Principal (or Occiden~al)since CU. 17 Ma apparently differed between the

present flat-slab region south of 28's and the more northerly Central Andes. This may

reflect compressive tectonism resulting from initial shallowing of the subducting slab

between 28' and 33" S, because a semi-arid climate favouring pedimentation prevailed as

late as 9.5 Ma north of 28" in the southem Atacama Desert.

3) Mineralisation in the El indio belt was restricted to a brief interval between 6 and 9.5

Ma but postdated several Oligocene and Miocene stages of banen alteration. The

controlling landform for the epithemai rnineralisation was the Azufreras-Torta pediplain,

but al1 econornic deposits formed during the erosion of the younger Los Rios pediplain.

Lowering of the water-table during hydrothemal activity played a major role through

enhancment of boiling and. hence. metal precipitation at éepth.

4) Erosion does not need to be catastrophic to play an important role in infiuencing fluid-

dynamics in epithemai systems. In the absence of major volcanism and given appropriate
magmatic heat-sources and stmcturally favourable settings, a depression of the water-

table solely induced by erosion of a pediplain, such as the Los Rios Surface, can be

criticai for rnineralisation.

 EPITHERMAL
ORE FORMATION CONTROLLED BY PEDiMENT INCTSION: THE
ELINDIO-PASCUA
GOLD-SILVER BELT, CHIL~ARGENTLNA

FORMACI~N J PEDlMENTOS: LA FRANJA

EPlTERMAL DE MENA CONTROLADA POR W C I S I ~DE
ORO-PLATA EL IO-PASCUA, CHILE/ARGENTINA

5.1. Abstract

The El Indio-Pascua belt is one of the world's premier epithermal gold-silver

districts. Upper Miocene mineralisation was neither spatially nor temporally related to

major volcanic centres but developed in a specific geomorphologic setting. Three major

stages of Neogene landscape evolution have been recognised, each represented by a

regional pediplain. Ore deposition occurred beneath a planar landscape, but was

contemporaneous with its degradation by younger pediment valleys. The deposits fonned

near back-scarps of the latter at the interface between the two erosional surfaces, and

widely exhibit evidence for water-table lowering during hydrothermal activity. The

hydrodynarnic disturbance related to pediment incision is inferred to have had o major

controi on the site and extent of fluid boiling and mixing and hence strongiy influenced

metal precipitation.

La h j a El Indio-Pascua es un0 de los distritos epitermales de oro y plata mhs

importantes en el mundo. La mineralizacih en el Mioceno Superior no hie espacialmente O

temporalmente relacionada a los centros volchicos mayores, pero si se desml16 en un

escenario geomorfol6gico especifico. Se han reconocido tres etapas mayores del desarrollo

de la geomorfologia del Neogeno, cada una representada por una paleosuperficie regional

tipo "pediplain". La deposicidn de la mineralizacion ocurri6 debajo de una superficie plana,

pero fué contemporhea con su degradacion por valles de pedimentos mik jovenes. Los

dep6sitos fuerm generados cerca de los pendientes superiores entre las dos superficies

erosionales y ampliamente muestran evidencia por una disminuici6n del nive1 freiitico

dumte la actividad hicirotermal. Se infiere que la perturbacion hidrodinamica relacionada a

la incision de pedimentos ha tenido un importante control en la ubicacion y extension de la

ebullicion y mezcla de los fluidos, y por Io tanto, y por Io tanto influyo la precipitacih de

los métales.

5.3. Introduction

Epithermal precious metal deposits form at depths of less than 1 km in subaenal calc-

alkaline volcanic arcs (e.g., Cooke and Simmons, 2000) and are commonly related to

porphyry-type alteration systems at deeper levels (e.g., Hedenquist et al., 1998). In such

magrnatic-hydrothemal environments, partition and deposition of metals is controlled by

bnne-vapour phase separation at depth, potentially forming porphyry Cu-Mo-Au

rnineraiisation (Heinnch et al., 1999), and, closer to the surface, by "third-boiling" (e.g..

Dnimrnond and Ohmoto, 1985) or through mixing (Corbett and Leach, 1998) of the

evolved low-salinity fluid with cold groundwater to form epithermal Au-Ag f Cu deposits.

The P-T conditions and fluid dynamics therefore greatly influence the efficiency of ore

deposition in the high and low-sulphidationepithetmal environments.

 The importance of rapidly changing physiography has been recognised in the context

of epithermal deposits hosted by volcanic edifices (Sillitoe, 1994). Thus, rapid erosion or

sector collapse of stratocones may result in abrupt decompression of the hydmthemal

system, lowenng of the water-table and hence large-scale fluid boiling, a sequence of

events with the potential to superimpose epithermal- on porphyry-style mineralisation

("telescoping": Sillitoe, op. cit.). Similar processes are associated with collapsing calderas

(Sasada and Goff, 1995).

In this contribution, we propose an entirely different mode1 linking landscape

evolution and epithermal ore deposition in the context of a world-class district wherein

mineralisation occurred at a time when magrnatism was minimal and the Au-Ag deposits

were associated wi th neither calderas nor large volcanic edifices. Our findings are bûsed on

geomorphologic mapping, a regional assessrnent of the distribution of alteration

assemblages, and more than 90 new 39~r-% step-heating plateau ages for igneous rocks

and alteration minerais (e.g., Bissig et al., 2000).

SA. The El Indio belt: volcanism, hydrothermal activity and Au-Ag-Cu mineraiisation

The El Indio-Pascua district is situated in the Central Andean Cordillera Principal and

straddles the Chile-Argentina border between Lats. 29' 2û' and 30' 30' S, Ca. 500 km N of

Santiago (Fig. 5-1). It contains the productive Tambo and El Indio Au-Ag-Cu deposits, as

well as the major Au-Ag prospects of Pascua-Lama and Veladero. Al1 mineralisation is of

epithemai type, predominantly deposited in a high-sulphidation environment and hosted by

phreatic breccias. The El Indio mineralisation, an exception, is contained in hi*,

intermediate and low-sulphidation veins hosted by upper Oligocene dacitic tuffs and
 elevaüon 0 Mio-Pliocene
0Average
13 kilornetres mineral districts

Fig. 5- 1:
Geographic o v e ~ e wof the El hdio-Pascuabelt.
A) The location of the El Indio-Pascua Au (-Ag, Cu) Belt in the Cenoal Andes. Other important Mio-
Pliocene Cu-Au mineral districts are given for reference.
8) Locations of the principal deposits and prospects in the El Indio-Pascua belt.
confined below a Lower Miocene andesite. The only suictly low-sulphidation vein in the

district, Rio del Medio, is situated ca. 4 km N of El Indio and cuts the same andesites.

The physiographic axis of the Cordillera Principal in the region is located in a

tectonic depression, delimited by the approximately N-S striking normal and high-angle

reverse faults (Maksaev et al., 1984). Within this block, an Upper Paleozoic -to- Lower

Jurassic basement (Martin et al. 1999) is intruded by Oligocene -ton Upper Pliocene

hypabyssal stocks and overlain by coeval subaerial volcanic strata (Martin et al., 1995,

Bissig et al., submitted, b). The rate of eruption and hypabyssal intrusion decreased

drastically dunng the Middle Miocene, with the onset of a Rat subduction regime.

Confirrned Upper Miocene -to- Pliocene volcanisrn is represented by isolated ignimbrites

of the 11 - 12.7 Ma Vacas Heladas Formation and the 5.5 - 6.2 Ma Vallecito Formation, as

well as by a single 7.8 Ma dacitic dike cuiting the mineralisation at Pascua and a 2 Ma

rhyolitic dome 8 km E of the Veladero prospect (Fig. 5-2; Bissig et al., 2000).

Epithermal and porphyry-style alteration zones are widespread in the area. Several

episodes of apparently barren alteration occumed in the late Eocene -to- Middle Miocene

interval and can genedly be iinked to specific volcanic-intrusive units (Fig. 5-2). These

early phases of alteration commonly exhibit high-temperature mineral assemblages

implying relative1y deep settings. Shallower alteration zones, represented by stearn-heated

facies, are preserved from ca. 13 Ma onwards, but economic mineralisation fonned only

between 6 and 9.5 Ma (Fig. 5-2).

The structurai setting of the hydrothermal activity is controlled by intersections of

steeply dipping, NW-SE and NNESSW stnking faults, but the orebodies are normaily
Magmatism

Fig. 5-2:
Timing of igneous and hydrothermal
activity and landscape development
in the district. Predominant magma
compositions are indicated as
follows. R: rhyolite, D: dacite, A:
andesite. The episodes of major
pediplain incision, indicated by the
heavy bars, are Stage 1: Frontera-
Deidad Surface; Stage U: Azufieras-
Torta Surface; Stage In: Los Rios
Surface (see text for more detail).
Note tbat ody dvolumes of
volcanic rocks erupteâ aftcr 14 Ma.
situated in second-order structures at the margins and extremities of the regional-scale fault

comdors.

5.5. Landscape evolution

The El Indio-Pascua district is physiographicaily dominated by remnants of planar

emsion surfaces, similar to those reported from northem Chile (Mortimer, 1973) and

southem Peru (Tosdal et al., 1984). Despite partial destruction by giaciation and young

fluvial vailey incision, three major erosional stages, each generating a regional pediplain,

have been recognised. The surfaces are vertically separated by 200-400 m, probably

refiecting the extent of uplift between the erosion events, and now lie between 3900 and

5250 m a.s.1. The pediplains are assumed to have formed rapidly, probably within ca. 1-2

m.y. at erosion rates of 0.3-0.4 mrnfyr. (Galli-Olivier, 1967; Clark et al., 1967). The three

erosional stages are represented by the Frontera-Deidad Surface (Stage 1, 15-17 Ma), the

Azufreras-Torta Surface (Stage II, 12.5-14 Ma) and the Los Rios Surface (Stage III, 6-10

Ma) (Fig. 5-2). The major regional fault structures influence the orientation of Stage IiI

pediment valleys.

5.6. Ore deposition mechanisms

The conditions of ore deposition in the Tambo and El Indio deposits are documented

by Jannas et al. (1999). At Tarnbo, boiling of an oxidised fluid at 220-250 O C controlled

the deposition of breccia-hosted Au. Steam-heated alteration assemblages overpnnt the

mineralisation, recording lowering of the water-table during hydrothermal activity (Jannas

et al., 1999; Deyell et al., 2000). At El Indio, however, fluid ôoiling occurred only at a late

stage, to form the Campana B Vein, the youngest reported mineralised structure in the
district. The vein system overall comprises both clnssic enargite-alunite and quartzose,

carbonate-bearing facies. The latter are commonly more richly mineralised in Au and

constitute a younger paragenetic stage in individual veins, implying transition from acidic

juvenile- to meteoric fluid dominated conditions (Leach, 2000). A detailed paragenetic

study (Chouinard, in prep.) is in progress for the Pascua high-sulphidation prospect, but no

data are publicly available. However, steam-heated and supergene assemblages are

observed to overpnnt the ore to considerable depth (A. Chouinard, written commun., 2000),

consistent with a lowering of the water-table during hydrothennal ictivity.

5.7. Geomorphologic evolution of the sites of ore deposition

Stearn-heated assemblages are almost exclusively exposed on, or slightly below, the

Azufreras-Torta Surface, while the hanging-walls of the Au-Ag orebodies typically lie Ca.

200 m lower, at an intermediate level between this Stage II pediplain and the youngest,

Stage IIi, Los Rios Surface. The vertical extent of the mineralisation is restricted, ranging

from ca. 200 m at Tarnbo (Jannas et al., 1999) and Pascua (Heberlein, 2000) to 500 m at El

Indio (Jannas et al., op. cit.).

Areall y, almost al1 rnineralisation in the El Indio, Tarnbo, Pascua-Lama and Veladero

deposits is located within 1 km of the now slightly dissected upper extremities of the Los

Rios pediment valleys. Earlier mineralised centres may have formed "downstream", and

age constraints are available in two areas supporting the hypothesis that the focus of

rnineralisation migrated together w ith the progressive incision of the back-scarps of Los

Rios pediments (Fig. 5-3). For instance, the weakly mineralised Vacas Heladas prospect,

9.6 Ma in age (Bissig et al. submitted, b), is situated on the eastem flank of the Rio Vacas

Heladas valley 8 km S of the Tambo deposit cluster, which was emplaced at 8.0 - 8.7 Ma
143
Fig. 5-3:
Landscape evolution and mineraiization at Tambo and Pascua
A) Schematic N- S physiographic cross-sections of the Tambo area at different times during
hydrothermal activity. The iandscape etements are labclled as in Fig. 2. Arrows indicate the
displacement of the water-table (w.~). Dates indicated are ''kr2 'kplateau a g a fiom Bissig et ai.
(2000, submitted, b) errors are givcn at 2a.
B) Schematic NW-SE physiographic cross-sections of the Pascua-Lama area. See A) for abbreviations.
(Bissig et al., 2000; Fig. 5-3A). A similar relationship is evident in the Pascua-Lama

district, where the 9.4 Ma Penelope orebody is situated CU. 2 km SE of, and downstrearn

from, the main 8.1-8.7 Ma Brecha Central mineraiisation at Pascua (Fig. 5-38).

The El Indio and Rio del Medio veins fonned over a significant interval at,

respectively, the S and N margins of an upland between the back-scarps of two Los Rios

pediment valleys, one now occupied by the N-flowing Rio del Medio, the other, slightly

younger, hosting the S-flowing Rio Ma10 (Fig. 5-4). The low-sulphidation Rio del Medio,

intermediate-sulphidation Jalene, and Cu-rich high-sulphidation Mula Muerta veins al1

formed in the earlier erosional substage from 7.6 to 7.8 Ma. Ore deposition resumed at 7.0 -

7.1 Ma to form the Canto Sur breccia, situated CU. 4 km S of El Indio on the E flank of the

Rio Ma10 vdley. and the Cu-rich Vient0 vein. After further northward incision of the Rio

Ma10 segment of the Los Rios Surface, the main Au-bearing structure, El Indio Sur 3500,

as well as the Campana B Cu vein, fonned at 6.2-6.4 Ma (Fig. 5-4).

5.8. A model for the geomoqhologic controls on mineralisation

In the absence of clear constniints on the spatial relationship between the sparse

Upper Miocene intrusive bodies and the ore deposits, the following model is based largely

on landform relationships. The physiography of the region, and hence water-table elevation

and orientation and groundwater flow regime, are inferred to have changed drarnatically

during the incision of the Los Nos Surface between 10 and 6 Ma. The most pronounced

hydrologie disturbances occurred across the back-scarps of the pediment valleys, where the

water-table would have abruptly fallen, resulting in increased local downward flow of

groundwater. Boiling, a key mechanism for Au-Ag precipitation in epithennal

environments (e.g., Drummond and Ohmoto, 1985)was induced on a large-scale during the
145
 46001
Cerro Torta Cerro Canto

Predominant lithology: -.

Ia Andesitic flows
Dacitic tuffs
Steam-heated alteration
Au-Ag-Cu deposition

Fig. 5-4:
Schematic N-Sphysiogcaphic cross-sectionsof the El Indio district during the
p e n d of hydrothermal activity. Landscape elements and watcr-table as in Fig. 3.
Al1 ages are 'b'9kplateau ages from Bissig et al. (2000, submitted, Chapter 2),
except the age for the El Indio Sur 3500 vein (K-Ar: Jannas er al., 1999).
fa11 of the water-table and led to metal precipitation in the phreatic breccias of the Tambo

district and ore deposition in the Rio del Medio low-sulphidation vein. A sirnilar situation

pertained in the Pascua-Lama area where, however, the increase in local relief was

enhanced by normal faulting at the periphery of a graben-structure parailel to the Rio de las

Taguas valley.

Jannas et al. (1999) proposed an evolution from lithostatic to hyârostatic fluid

pressures dunng the formation of the El Indio veins, with boiling king restricted to the

youngest vein. We suggest that the decrease in fluid pressure that caused boiling may have

been the result of the partial erosion of the andesitic unit overlying the main dacitic host

rocks (Fig. 5-4). However, fluid mixing, facilitated by increased lateral groundwater flow

due to pedirnent incision, was probably the dominant process in the hydrodynamic

hmework for Au-Ag-Cu precipitation.

A conceptual mode1 for the El hdio-Pascua belt is illustnted in Fig. 5-5.

Hydrothemal activity was almost continuous in the region from 2 1 to 5 Ma (Fig. 5-2), but

signifiant rnineralisation formed only in a restricted interval between 6 and 9.5 Ma,

contemporaneous with, and, we infer, directly caused by the incision of the Los Rios

pediment valleys. This process would be slow compared to the collapse of volcanic

edifices, shown elsewhere to trigger the formation of large ore deposits (Sillitoe, 1994). but

was sufficiently rapid to modify the hydrodpamic conditions radically during the typicd

life-span (ca. L m.y.) of an intrusion-centred alteration system. Superimposition of

epithermai on porphyry-style alteration (e.g.. telescoping), as described from rapidy

coiiapsing stratovolcanoes (Sillitoe, op. cit.), is unlikely to be induced by pediment incision

aione. However, we infer that, in a district lacking significant volcanic eruption during
 -
'&t- 8
Dropping water-table

m m *

Tambo Vmlrdero
6.04.5 Ma 8-9.5 Y8

Fig, 5-5:
Conceptuai mode1 for the relationship between landscape evolution and e p i t h e d mineralisation in the El
Indio-Pascua district. Incision of the Stage iii pediments causes a l o w e ~ gof the water-table and an
increased downward flow of groundwater near the back-scarp. Fluid boiling andlor rnixing with
groundwater is facilitated and leads to ore deposition.
epithermai activity, and given permissive semi-arid climatic conditions, pediment incision

may play a key role in generating an environment favourable for metai precipitation. We

conclude that, with appropriate magmatic sources of heat and metal-rich fluids, changes in

the water-table induced by pediment erosion facilitate boiling and confine the location and

scale of mineralisation in such environments. Hence, geomorphologic mapping to clarify

landscape evolution has direct significance for mineral exploration in epithermal districts.
 GEOCHEMICAL EVOLUTION OF TERTIARY MAGMATISM IN THE ELINDIO-
AU (-AG, CU)BELT, CHILEARGENTWA: PETROGENETIC
PASCUA AM)
METALLOGENIC RESPONSES TO NEOGENE SLAB FLATTENING

LAEVOLUCI~N C A MAGMATISMO DEL TERCIARIO

G E O Q U I ~ DEL EN LA FRANJA DE AU (-
AG, CU)EL~ I O - P A S C UCHILEJARGENTINA:
A RESPUESTAPETROGENETICA Y
METALOGENETICA A LA HORIZONTALISACI~N DE LA PUCA O C E ~ C A
S~DUCIDA

6.1. Abstract

The Eocene -to- Miocene volcanic and hypabyssal rocks of the El Indio-Pascua

Au (-Ag, Cu) belt in the Central Andean Rat-slab region are medium -to- high-K calc-

alkaline arc suites and range in composition from andesitic to rhyolitic. A transition in the

trace element patterns in the igneous rocks occurred in the late-Middle Miocene,

coinciding with a pronounced reduction in magma output. Thus, the upper Eocene -to-

lower-Middle Miocene rocks exhibit low SrN ratios (&O), minor heavy REE

fractionation with Sm/Yb ratios not exceeding 3.5 and, in some cases, minor negative Eu

anomdies. In contrast, the largely dacitic rocks erupted &ter ca. 13 Ma are depleted in Y

(610 ppm), have generally high, but variable SrN ratios (30-2W), exhibit rnoderate

rniddle and heavy REE fractionation (Sm/Yb: 3.7 - 5.9) and lack negative Eu anomalies,

features characteristic of adakitic suites. This evolution is interpreted as refiecting

increases in both pressure and water fugacity at the lower-crustai site of magma

generation, rendering gamet and homblende major stable phases in the residuurn. The

pressure in the lower crust increased in response to episodic cnistal thickening relateci to

the shallowing of the slab, a process recorded by the incision of three regional pediplains
150
over the period 17 to 6 Ma. Elimination of the sub-arc asthenospheric made and part of

the lithospheric mantle at CU. 10 Ma is envisaged to have permittecl direct incursion of

slab-derived, metal- and volatile-rich fluids into the crust, stimulating melting of mafic

assemblages.

Al1 igneous suites emplaced from 36 to 11 Ma were associated with widespread

and locally intense hydrothermal activity, but this was barren of base and precious metals.

Economic Au-Ag-Cu mineralisation, associated with small volumes of dacitic magma,

was restricted to the interval 6-9.5 Ma. significantly later than the major change in

petmhemistry. Elevated concentrations of ore-metals, S and CI in parental magmas

generated ephemerally, and under unusual geodynamic conditions, are considered to have

k e n responsible for the bnef Late Miocene metallogenetic episode.

6.2. Resumen

Las rocas volcanicas e hipabisales del Eoceno - Mioceno de la franja de Au (-Ag,

Cu) El indio-Pascua, en la ngi6n de la subduction subhorizontal de los Andes Centrales,

son sucesiones del arco calco-alcalinas de medio a alto-K de un rango composicional

andesitico a riolitico. Una transicion en el contenido de ciertos elementos de traza ocuni6

en el Mioceno Medio-tardio, coincidiendo con una pronunciada reduccih de la

produccion de magmas. Asi, las rocas del Eoceno superior a Mioceno Medio inferior se

caracterizan por rangos bajos de SrN (40); un fraccionamiento menor de los elementos

tierras rans (REE)pesadas con un rango de SmlYb que no excede 3.5; y, en algunos

casos, anornalias menores de Eu. En contraste, las rocas exuuidas después las 13 Ma, en

su mayor parte daciticas, estan agotadas en Y (S 10 ppm); tienen rangos de SrN

151
generalmente altos pero variable (30-20);exhiben un fraccionamiento moderado de los

REE medios y pesados (SmPlb: 3.7-5.9); y no tienen anornalias negativas de Eu. Estos
rasgos son tipicos por sucesiones adakiticas. Esta evolucion se interpreta como un

aumento en la presi6n y fugacidad del agua en la generacion de magmas en la corteza

infenor. La presion creci6 en respuesta a un aumento epis6dico del espesor de la corteza

relacionada a la disminucion del Sngulo de subduction de la placa ocehica, un proceso

registrado por la incision de tres pediplanicies durante el periodo de 17 a 6 Ma. La

eliminacih del manto astenosfénco y parte del manto litosf6nco bajo el arc0 magmhtico

se estima que ha permitid0 la incursion directa de fluidos ricos en metdes y volitiles

onginados en la placa subductada, estimulando directamente la fusion de material maco.

Todas las sucesiones igneas depositadas entre los 36 y 11 Ma se asocian con

alteracion hidrotermal extensa y localmente fuerte, pero estéril con respect0 a los metales

base y precioso. La mineralizacidn econ6rnica de Au, Ag y Cu, asociada con pequefios

voltimenes de magmas daciticas se restringe al intervalo entre 6 y 9.5 Ma,

significantemente m 5 tardio que el mayor cambio petroquimico. Magmas con

concentraciones elevadas de métales de mena, S y Cl fueron generados en condiciones

geodinamicas inusuales y son consideradas haber sido responsable del breve episodio de

6.3. Introduction

The N-S El Indio-Pascua belt extends along the Argentinian-Chilean border

between Lats. 29'20' and 30' S, in the centre of the central Andean 'qat-slab" segment

separating the Central and Southem Volcanic Zones of the Cordillera Occidental (Fig. 6-

1). In addition to this world-class Au-Ag subprovince, this Andean transect hosts other
152
 Flat subduction,
amagmaüc zone

Fig. 6-1 :
Location map of the El Indio-Pascua belt. Depth contours on the Wadati-Benioff zone are
taken fiom Cahill and Isacks (1992), and outline the segment of flat subduction. Note that
the El Indio-Pascua belt is located in the centre of this segment, whereas the other major
Mio-Pliocene mineral districtsare situated close to its northem and southem boundaries.
major Neogene epithermal and porphyry base and precious meta1 districts. These include,

at its northem boundary, the Lower 40- Middle Miocene Maricunga Au-Ag belt in the

Cordillera Principal and the Upper Miocene Farall6n Negro Au-Cu district 300 km to the

E,and the Los-Pelarnbres -to- El Teniente porphyry copper belt in the south. Geodynamic
(e.g., Kay et al., 1991) and metallogenic models (e.g. Skewes and Stem. 1994; Sasso and

Clark, 1998; Kay et al., 1999) proposed for specific domains in this region are rooted in

an understanding of the petrogenesis of the volcanic arc prior to and during ore

deposition. Hence, the Cenozoic magmatism in the Cordillera Principal has received

considerable attention. Ln the central flat-slab segment the erupted volumes of magma

decreased drastically during the Middle Miocene (Thiele. 1964; Maksaev et al., 1984;

Martin et al., 1995) although magmatic activity persisted into the Late Pliocene (Bissig et

al., submitted; Chapter 3). The trace element signatures of the igneous rocks, and

pûrticularly the REE abundaces. Vary systematically among the various volcanic uniis

(Kay et al.. 1987, 1991; Kay and Abmzzi, 1996) and have been used to constrain the

origin of the magmas.

Kay et al. (operu cil.) document a clear temporal trend in the Neogene towards

stronger HREE fractionation, and ascribe this to a transition from a homblende- to a

gamet-rich residuum in the lower cnist, a process attending, and directly related to,

crustal thickening, itself caused by the shallowing of the angle of subduction.

Interpretation of the petrochemicd relationships is, however, controversial, because the

observed major and trace element characteristics could record a variety of sources and

magma generation processes. Thus, Tepper et al. (1993) and Haschke et al. (2001)

suggest that similar compositional trends elsewhere in the Centrai Andes may be a
huiction of increasing water fugacity in the lower crust and may therefore not accurately

reflect crustal thichess variations. Another fundarnentally different source for the Late

Miocene magmas of the El Indio-Pascua belt was proposed by Gutscher et al. (2000),

who interpreted them as adakitic, i. e., plausibly slab-derived, melts.

These three models may be evaluated as "end members" in a framework of

possible origins for the magmas. In this contribution we present a new, intemally

consistent corpus of whole-rock geochemical analyses for the Tertiary volcanic and

intrusive rocks of the El Indio-Pascua belt. For the great majonty of these sarnples an

" ~ r - ~minerai
~ ~ rage spectnim is available (Bissig et al.. submitted; Chapter 2). We

discuss our new data on the basis of the aforementioned petrogenetic models.

Metallogenic considerations are addressed on the bais of our research on the timing and

style of hydrothemial activity and its spatial and temporal relationships to magmatic

processes. Our conclusions differ significantly from those earlier advanced by Kay et al.

(1999) and Kay and Mpodozis (2001) on the bais of a less secure stratigraphie and

geochronologicd foundation.

6.4. Geologic setting and volcanic stdgraphy

The mineralised hydrothermal systems which define the El Indio-Pascua belt were

emplaced within, and at the limits of, a NNE-suiking tectonic depression in the Cordillera

Principal, delimited by high-angle reverse and normal faults (Fig. 6-1; Maksaev et al.,

1984). Within this block, an Upper Paleozoic -to- Lower Jurassic basement dominated by

felsic calc-alkaline intrusive and volcanic rocks (Martin et al., 1999) is intruded by

hypabyssal stocks and overlain by coeval subaerial volcanic strata of Oligocene 40-

Upper Pliocene age (Martin et al., 1995; Bissig et al., submitted, Chapter 2,3), generally
155
of intermediate calc-alkaiine composition. Regional mapping had been carried out on the

Chilean side of the frontier before the economic significance of the area was recognised

F i e l e , 1964), and ment studies (Maksaev et al., 1984; Martin et aL, 1995, 1997;

heather and Diaz. 2000) have progressivel y clarified the Tertiary volcanic stratigraphy.

In contrat, only sparse information is avaiiable for geologic relationships in contiguous

Argentina (Groeber, 1951; Rarnos et al., 1989; Limarino et al., 1999). However, our field

observations and %.F'~A~ investigations document bans-border continuity of the

stratigraphic units defined in Chile. The subaerial Tertiary volcanic and cogenetic

hypabyssal units (Fig. 6-2) are summarised herein in chronological order, to provide a

basis for the petrochemical data.

Upper Eocene -to- lower Oligocene: the Bocatoma Intrusive Unit

The Bocatomû Unit consists of small intrusive bodies, which most commonly crop

out in areas where the basement is exposed, e.g. north of Rio Potrerillos, in the wider

Pascua-Lama area (Fig. 6-2). The intrusions are composed of fine-grained, equigranular -

to- coarsely porphyritic diorite and granodiorite. In the porphyritic varieties, plagioclase,

homblende, biotite, quartz and subordinate augite occur as phenocrysts in a fine -to-

medium grained matrix of plagioclase and quartz.

An age-range of 30 -to- 36 Ma is defined by K-Ar(Manin et al., 1995) and 40Ar-

3 9 ~(Bissig
r et al. submitted, Chapter 2) dates. Andesites approximately 34-45 Ma in age

are reported from the Cordillera S a n c d n (Fig. 6-2: Limarino et al.. 1999) and may

represent the extnisive counterpart of the Bocatoma Unit.

 Middk to Uppar Miocona
Vacas Heladas Formation:
dacitic pyioclasüca
Uppor Eocarn to Mlddk Y h r u
Cerro de las Tortdas Formation:
predominanüy andesitic Ilows;
InfiemilIo intrusive unit;
Granodioritic to dioritic intrusives

Escabrosa Group:
Andesitic flows and volcanidastic
sediments;hypabyasal diontes
and granodiorites
Tilito Formation:
predorninanüy dacitic pyrodastic
rocks

Bocatoma intrusive unit:

diontes and gmnodiorites

P ~ ~ oto Jumslc
l t
Predominantly felsic intrusive
and volcanic rocks

Faults
)iJ Reverse faults 1 3-
X Mined deponits

*.' Internationalborder
Chiledrgentina

Fig 6-2:
~ i h ~ l i f i geology
ed and major faults of the El Indio-Pascua belt. Upper Eocene -to- Middle
Miocene volcanic and intrusive units are undifferentiated,whereas units younger than late-
Middle Miocene are shown in detail. Modified after Bissig et al. (submitted, Chapter 2).
Latitude and UTM coordinates (Zone 19) are indicated.
Abbreviations: BdTF: Bailos del Toro fault; PdLD:Portezuelo de los Despoblados.
Upper Oligocene -to- Lower Miocene: the Tilito Formation

The Tilito Formation consists of welded and non-welded dacitic, and less

commonly andesitic and rhyolitic, ignimbrites, together with volcaniclastic sediments.

Minor basalts have aiso k e n described (Martin et al., 1995). It is probably the most

voluMnous Tertiary extnisive unit of the region, locally achieving thicknesses of 1.5 km.

Plagioclase and biotite, the most abundant phenocrysts in the volcanic rocks, are

associated with variable arnounts of quartz, augite, homblende and. locdly. sanidine in a

commonly devitrified andlor argillised, aphanitic matrix. The presence of clinopyroxene

distinguishes the Tilito Formation from younger dacitic tuffs of the Vacas Heladas

Formation (see below). K-Ar dates suggesting an age range of between 23 and 27 Ma

(Martin et ;il,1995)- are confirmed by new " ~ r - age

~ ~ spectra
~ r (Bissig et al. submitted,

Chapter 2).

Lower Miocene: The Escabroso Group

Andesitic -to- dacitic lava flows, hypabyssal intrusive bodies, autoclastic breccias

and volcaniclastic sediments ranging from breccia to sandstone, constitute this group

which can be locally subdivided into up to 5 formations (Heather and Diaz, 2000). In

contrast to the Tilito Formation, dacitic ash-flow tuffs are subordinate. The succession

locally attains thicknesses of 1.2 km, constituting remnants of large volcanic edifices such

as that at the type-locality, Cerro Escabroso, adjacent to Cerro Dofia Ana (Fig. 6-2). An

angular unconformity marked by a regolith horizon separates the Escabroso Group and

the Tilito Formation. The extrusive rocks are commonly massive or flow-banded

hornblende-bearing, augite- and plagioclase-phyric, andesites. ûrthopyroxene and biotite

occur as minor constituents and glomeroporphyritic textures have locally been observed.

Associated granodioritic intrusions exhibit the same mineralogy as the extnisive rocks but

contain more abundant biotite, intentitial quartz and K-feldspar. An Early Miocenc age

range of between 17.5 and 21 Ma is delimitecl by '%-39~r geochronology (Bissig et al.,

submitted, Chapter 2).

Middle Miocene: the Cerro de las Tdrtolas Formation und the lnjiemillo Intrusive Unit

The Cerro de las T6rtolas Formation is dorninaied by biotite, augite, homblende

and plagioclase-phyric andesite flows. The coevd intrusive members assigned to the

InfiemiHo Unit include both relatively couse porphyritic -to- equigranular grandorites

luid diodes with the same mineralogy. The volcanic and intrusive rocks are very similar

to those of the older Escabroso Formation, but biotite and homblende are generally more

abundant and augite is rare. An angular unconfonnity is recognised between the two

predorninantly andesitic units West of the type-locality, Cemo de las T6rtolas. a remnant

of an andesitic stratocone (Martin et al., 1995). An overall age range of 14-17 Ma is

indicated by ' ' ~ r - ~age

~ ~plateaux
r (Bissig et al., submitted, Chapter 2) and earlier K-Ar

dates of Martin et al. (1995).

Midde -to- Upper Miocene: the Vucas Heladas Formation

Areally restricted occurrences of dacitic. and less abundantly, andesitic

ignimbrites, domes and block-and-ash deposits are assigned to the Vacas Heladas

Formation. The tuffs are quartz-bearing, homblende, biotite and plagioclace-phyric,

dacitic to andesitic ignimbrites, differing from the Cerro de las T6rtolas and older
formations in the scarcity of phenocrystic quartz, the absence of clinopyroxene and the

more abundant biotite and homblende. An age range of 11.0-12.7 Ma is established on

the basis of dating (Bissig et al., submitted, Chapter 2).

Upper Miocene: the Pascua Unit

A single dike of relatively corne biotite, quartz and plagioclase-phyric rhyodacite,

with large subhedral, slightly embayed quartz crystals, cuts the mineralisation at Pascua.

The abundance of quartz phenocrysts (-10% of rock) and the lack of homblende

distinguish this rock from the Vacas Heladas dacites, whereas the younger Vallecito

Formation is slightly more felsic and contains sanidine (see below).

The dike was dated nt 7.8 f 0.3 Ma (biotite Q ~ r - 3 9age:

~ r Bissig et al., subrnitted,

Chapter 2). A dacitic tuff of sirnilar age (biotite K-Ar date: 7.6 t 0.7 Ma) was reported

from Paso Chollay, 12 km NE of Pascua, by Martin et al. (1995). These two ages record

the only igneous bodies with ages overlapping with that of the economic mineralisation in

the district (Bissig et al., submitted, Chapter 2).

Upper Miocene: The Vallecito Formation

Poorly -to- moderately welded rhyolitic tuffs and underlying voIcaniclastic

sediments are included in the Vailecito Formation. Apart from a 40 km2 ignimbrite sheet

in the upper Vaile del Cura (Rarnos et al., 1989), only small and isolated occurrences of

volcanic rocks have been assigned to this unit. These consist of biotite, sanidine, quartz

and plagioclase-phyric rhyolitic tuffs. Lithic fragments, usually of altered lithologies,

compose up to ca. 5% of the rocks. However, f'resh fragments of quartz, K-feldspar and
plagioclase-porphyritic granite are commonly found in the tuffs at Paso Vacas Heladas

and are inteipnted as representing non-outcropping intrusive lithodemes of the formation.

Distinguishing featms are the euhedral bipyramidal quartz, the lack of hornblende and

plateau-ages range from 5.5 f 0.5 to 6.1 f 0.3 Ma.

the presence of sanidine. "~.r-)~A.r

Upper Pliocene: Cerro de Vidrio Obsidian dome

This rhyolitic unit contains ca. 5% of plagioclase, quartz, sanidine and biotite

phenocrysts in a flow-banded vitreous matrix. It crops out 15 km SE of Pascua at a major

structurai intersection, but similar rocks may be present in small arnounts elsewhere in the

region. This unit is the youngest confirmed igneous body of in the El Indio-Pascua belt,

yielding an age of 2.0 k 0.2 Ma (Bissig et al., submitted, Chapter 3), Le., 3 m.y. younger

than the Vallecito Formation which was previously assurned to be the youngest volcanic

unit in the area.

ûverview

Volcanic and hypabyssal activity in the El Indio-Pascua belt was quasi-

continuous, at least through the late Oligocene -to- early-Late Miocene interval, but can

be ngorously subdivided into a series of formations and cogenetic intrusive suites. Major

reduction in magma output occurred in the early-Late Miocene as ernphasised by Kay et

al. (1987, 1991). Phenocrystic augite is a persistent mineral in the upper Oligocene -to-

Lower Miocene volcanic rocks, but is less abundant in the Middle Miocene and

unrepresented in the Late Miocene rocks. The now well-defined history of arc-

development coincided with the progressive hickenhg of the continental crut, a pmcess
infernd on general geodynarnic and petrogenetic grounds by Kay et al. (opera cit.), but

confirmed by the recognition of three major pediplains which subdivide the volcanic

stratigraphy. The Frontera-Deidad (15-17 Ma), Azufreras-Torta (12.5-14 Ma) and Los

Rios (6-10 Ma) pediplains were each generated in a relatively short-lived episode of

planar erosion, triggered by uplift and hence by crustal thickening (Bissig et al.,

subrnitted, Chapter 4).

6.5. The geochemistry of the Neogene volcanic rocks

Sample material and analytical procedures

Thirty-nine Oligocene and younger samples, as well as two specimens from the

composite pre4urassic basement, al1 taken from well-documented locûtions, have been

analysed for major and trace elements using X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) and Inductively

Coupled Plasma M a s Spectroscopy (ICP-MS)

techniques (see Tab. 1).

For most samples, major elements were measured at Memorial University, St.

Johns, NF Canada, by XRF on glass beads, and minor and trace elements by XRF on

powder pellets andor digestion ICP-MS. Further fusion ICP-MSanalyses were obtained

from Actlabs, Ancaster, ON Canada. Ni, Cu, Zn and Pb were determined by total-

digestion ICP-MS. No reliable abundances are available for Ta and Nb due to potential

contamination by the @nding equipment used. The data from the two laboratones were

similar, differing only slightly for the HREE content of Vallecito Formation rocks. This

probably reflects difficulties in dissolving the relatively young zircons by the digestion

method used at Memorial University, and the analysis for this formation (sample:

00thb267a) determined by Actlabs is considered more diable.

 ri 0.79 1.13 0.64 0.86 1.55 0.65 1.O4
AI:@ 16.74 17.43 15.47 16.83 18.4 1 16.9 1 17.63
Fc:O,(Fc &) 6.14 8.49 4.59 626 7.89 4.95 8.45
Mra O. 12 0.15 0.09 0.12 022 0.10 0.12
Ml@ 2.65 3.32 I .M 198 2.7 1 1.73 2.80
C10 521 6 3l 3 31 3.98 737 5.44 7.15
NatO 3.06 3-49 336 4.61 2.73 3.47 331
2.99 2.03 3.79 2-84 2.78 238 2-05
PIOS O. 18 025 0.13 0.20 0.63 0.22 035
cotll 99.60 99.60 99.60 99.60 99.60 99.60 99.60
~wai ~gnition 2-14 1-96 1.1t 1.74 1-77 i.n I .n
T n a dcmam XRF (ppm)
S MM 81 I 48.4 108 90.7 434 160
a I II 178 637 205 305 288 262
Sc 14.1 17.1 7.4 10.9 17.8 9.7 19.1
V 129 207 75.7 129 150 862 165.2
Cr 5.1 6.0 3.6 0.8 13.2
Cu 28.7 45.1 29.0 36.9 8.7 11.4 27.7
Zn 35.6 553 9.9 25.3 77.5 23.0 45.2
Ga 20.3 20.8 16.7 20.0 2.9 19.5 21.0
As 33.5 14.8 28.9 113 50.2 13.5 10.6
Rb IU 81.1 227 119 10l 78.2 63.7
Sr 429 463 306 467 SSO 585 57 1
Y 17.1 20.4 18.9 14.3 39.4 14.0 17.7
Zr 207 IM 235 134 46) 171 157
hi 123 10.8 14.3 10.4 58.7 12.9 11.1
Tnce eldnenis ICP-MS (pp
ti 10.3 16.1 19.0 16.1 2.8 19.6 18.8
Mo 1.4 1.9 2.5 1.6 2.4 0.9 1.O
Cs 3.1 4.0 6.7 2.7 3.3 1.9 8.8
Ba 537 385 569 462 420 545 43?.
k 25.9 11.7 329 22.5 45.5 27.9 23O
.
Ce 54.3 47. t 71.4 47.3 96.4 58.4 4.3
R 6.8 5.8 83 5.7 123 6.5 5.5
Nd 3.3 23.9 30.1 21.1 47.1 2.7 11.9
Sm 5O
. 5.1 5.7 4.3 9.3 4.6 4.6
Eu 1.17 1.27 0.99 1.O9 1.94 1.07 1.10
Gd 4.3 4.3 4.7 3.5 8.3 3.3 3.7
Tb 0.6 1 0.66 0.7 1 u.52 1.16 0.56 0.64
ou 3.7 3.9 4.4 3.1 7.0 L9 3.4
Ho 0.694 0.755 O.MI 0596 1293 0.568 0.678
Er 1.9 2. I 2.5 1.7 3.4 1.6 1.8
Tm 028 029 036 0.25 0.47 0.22 025
Yb 1.7 1.8 22 1.6 29 1.4 l .5
Lu 034 0 3 O32 0.24 036 0 2I 023
Hf 6.5 7.5 1 .4 5.8 10.5 8.0 a7
Ta 3-9 3.5 6.4 3.3 6.8 2.8 2.4
TI 0.92 029 0.98 0.62 0.53 0.42 0.17
Pb 123 10.7 17.2 11.9 11.1 12.2 11.1
Bi o. 14 O. 13 030 0.18 OZI 0.12 0.13
Th 13 9 28 16.1 8.1 6.9 4.1
U 3 2 3 4.6 22 I .9 12
M m 52 4.3 5.7 5.3 4.9 6.1 5.0
Sm/Yb 2.9 2.8 2.6 17 33 33 3.0
LJY~ 153 11.9 14.8 14.t 15.7 20.4 14.8
BuLa 20.7 17.8 17.3 20.5 92 19.6 18.8
SrN 25. 1 22.7 16 2 317 14.7 4t.8 323
* ~ r - ' ' ~ r&te (Ma)
4F 21.9 21.7 18.7 18.0 19.1 18.6 19.0
Table 6- I cmtinvrl
Uni! R.cancn, Bwcmem
j Elcmaiu (~1961 99fhbI39u
Maa OOiirb26.f~P)
Sie, n.76 77.94
 Volcanic and intrusive samples have been chosen from the hzshest possible

outcrops and üthic fragments were removed where necessary. Biotite, plagioclase, augite,

sanidine and amphibole phenocrysts were unaltered in the analysed racks, but

devitrification and minor propy iitic or argillic alteration are observed in the fine-grained -

to- aphanitic matrix in some. It has been shown that trace elements, including the REE,

are sensibly immobile under these conditions (Fulignati et al., 1999).

General geochemical classification

Both Pdeozoic -to- Lower Jurassic basement and Tertiary rocks have

compositions typical of calc-alkaline magrnatism (Fig. 6-3). Major and trace element

contents show that the basement is granitic, whereas the Eocene -to- Upper Miocene

units are largely intermediate, aithough the youngest rocks, the Upper Miocene -to-

Pliocene Vallecito Formation, and paniculary, the Cerro de Vidno Formation are

rhyolitic (Fig. 6-3). The Tertiary rocks lie in the medium-and high-K calc-alkaline fields

of the &O vs. Si02 diagram (Fig. 6-3)of Peccerillo and Taylor (1976), and are thus

similar to the majonty of the young volcanic rocks of the Central Volcanic Zone (e.g.,

Matthews et al., 1994; Feeley and Davidson, 1994). The basement rocks and the Cerro

de Vidno rhyolite, the Vallecito Formation and the Vacas Heladas Formation appear

peraluminous, whereas most Oligo-Miocene racks are metaluminous. However, the

highest alurninum saturation indices were obtained from Vacas Heladas and Vallecito

Fonnation specimens thai exhibit some argillization of the tuffaceous matrix, and may

have experienced Ca or Na-leaching. The entirely unaltered Cerro & Vidrio rhyolite,
 OVallecito
A Pascua
.Vacas Heladas
+ Infiemill~6rtolas
x Escakoso
+ Tilito
A Bocatoma
O Basement

AOL
hence, is probably the ody T d a r y rock in the district with an unequivocally, albeit weak,

peraluminous character.

Trace element patterns

Trace element abundances in igueous rocks are widely used as a basis for

constraining the tectonic settings, protoüths and conditions of generation of magmas. Theu

concentrations may reflect f'ractionation of minerais, in which they are minor constituents,

both at the site of partial melting or in subsequent magma chambers, and provide

information on the chernical compositions of the source rocks. The discussion below

emphasises selected trace elements which have been used to charactense the origins of

magmas in the central Andes. However, conclusions drawn on the basis of the trace-

element chemisûy are only valid if embedded in a more comprehensive geological

understanding of the igneous province.

The BaLa ratios of the Tertiary igneous rocks in the El hdio-Pascua belt (Fig. 6-4)

are typicdly higher than 20, reflecting hi@ alkaline-eaith concentrations indicative of an

arc- as opposed to a back-arc setting (e.g. Kay et al., 1994). Rb, an element normally

enricheci in the upper cnist, has relatively low concentrations in the analysed rocks. The

concentrations of Sr, an elernent that widely substitutes for ca2+in feldspars, are high

throughout the pre-Pliocene succession, but do not clearly distinguish the individual units;

the Cerro de Vidrio rhyolite exhibits markedly lower Sr contents. Hence, Rb/Sr ratios are,

apart fiom those of the basement rocks, the Cerro de Vidrio rhyolite and one sample of the

Vallecito Formation less than unity (Fig. 6-4). The highly incompatible element Zr does not

show a clear trend for the Tertiary rocks, but, again, is depleted in the Upper
Pliocene C m de Vidrio rhyolite (Fig. 6-4). The concentrations of Y are generally low and

most Tertiary rocks fa11 within the field for adakites as defined by Drummond and Defmt

(1990; Fig 6-4). However, the Middle -to- Upper Miocene Vacas Heladas, Pascua and

Vallecito Formations have Y contents distinctly lower than those of the Eocene -to- Middle

Miocene rocks, the Cerro de Vidrio rhyolite and the basement rocks. Y partitions

preferentially into gamet and, to a lesser degree, into amphibole. Low concentrations of Y

in igneous rocks are therefore indicative of the presence of gamet and/or amphibole in the

residuum.

REE abundances

Rare earth element (REE) concentrations have proved highly effective as

petrogenetic indicaton. Thus, heavy REE (HREE) behave similarly to Y and partition into

gamet and homblende, whereas the middle REE (Gd-Er: MREE) are accommodated most

readily in homblende. Concave-upward chonchte-normalised REE patterns therefore reveal

homblende fractionation. Eu, if present in the divalent state, behaves similarly to Sr and

partitions into feldspars.

The individual Oligocene -to- Upper Miocene volcanic units of the El Indio-Pascua

Belt have distinctive REE characteristics (Fig. 6-5). The Oligocene-to-Lower Miocene

Tilito Formation and Escabroso Group exhibit urzfiactionated HREE and minor negative Eu

anomalies. The lower Oligocene Bocatoma Unit differs in that it lacks a negative Eu

anomaly, is slightly depleted in LREE and has a more concave-upward configuration in the

HREE segment. One sample of a glomeroporphyritic andesite h m the Escabroso Group

exhibits significantly higher overall REE abundances (Fig. 6-5;

h

Cerro de Vidrio

La Ce Pr Nd SmEu Gd Tb Dy Ho t
sample 99thb110b), but because of its occurrence unconfimed by other analyses of

similar rocks, not discussed furthet herein. Samples of the coevai Middle Miocene Cerro

de las T6rtolas Formation and Infiernillo Intrusive Unit exhibit either unfractionated or

weakly fractionated HREE patterns, and minor negative, or no, Eu anomalies (Fig. 6-5).

The variation in the HREE fractionation pattern indicates a transition towards moderate

depletion dunng the eruption of this volcanic sequence. However, despite previous

accounts (e.g., Kay et al., 1988, 1991, 1999), no geochemicd distinction between

intrusive and extrusive rocks is apparent. This unit has also been assumed to be

coincident with the early stages of Au mineralisation in the district (Kay et ai., 1999), but

our new agetonstraints disprove this empincal relationship (Bissig et al., submitted,

Chapter 2). The succeeding volcanic unit, the Middle -to- Upper Miocene Vacas Heladas

Formation ("Cerro de las T6rtolas II": Kay et al., 1999), exhibits very homogeneous REE

patterns lacking Eu anomalies and with moderate HREE fractionation, a pattem also

typical for the Upper Miocene Pascua Formation (Fig. 6-5). Our data extend considerably

less towards high SmlYb ratios than do those of Kay et al. (1987). The late-Upper

Miocene Vallecito Formation tuffs generally have slight positive Eu anomalies, but a

granitic hgrnent, dated at 5.5 f 0.5 Ma and hosted by a tuff at Paso Vacas Heladas, 10

km SE of Tambo, yields a negative Eu anomaly (Fig. 6-5; sample 99thb143b). The HREE

are moderately to strongly fractionated in the Vallecito rhyolites, but the most diable

analysis is probably the least fractionated (00thb267a), because the data for the other

samples may, as noted earlier, be vitiated by dissolution problems in andysis. A

distinctive pattern was obtained for the Upper PLiocene Cern de Vidrîo rhyolite: the

HREE are not fractionated and the LREE are less abundant than in the upper Eocene -to-
Lower Miocene volcanic and intrusive rocks. In contrast to al1 other Tertiary rocks of the

region, this rhyolite exhibits a pronounced negative Eu ûnomaly (Fig. 6-5), similar tu that

present in the Upper Paleozoic -to- Lower Jurassic basement rocks. The latter, however,

do not exhibit LREE depletion and are ennched in HREE with respect to the Tertiary

volcanic rocks (Fig. 6-5).

The Eocene-Miocene igneous rocks of the El Indio-Pascua Belt cm br assigned to

two large populations with respect to HREE fractionation, as represented by the SmIYb

ratio, and the SrN ratio (Fig. 6-6). Thus, the Vallecito, Pascua and Vacas Heladas

Formations are al1 moderately depleted in HREE compared to the Bocatoma Unit and

Tilito and Escabroso Formations, the Infiernillo Unit and Cerro de las Tortolas Formation

occupying a transitional field. The Upper Pliocene Cern de Vidrio Formation exhibits a

very low SmPlb ratio, which distinguishes it clearly from the older Tertiary igneous

rocks. The SdY ratio pemits a similar discrimination between the sarne stratigraphie

units. although it varies markedly in the Vdlecito Formation.

The Au-Ag ore deposits of the district al1 fomed in the Lnte Miocene between ca.

6 and 9.5 Ma (Bissig et al., submitted, Chapter 2). The igneous rocks of the s m e pend

exhibit moderate HREE and Y fractionation and are slightly Sr-enriched and Yb-depleted

(Fig. 6-6). a geochernical signature that has important implications for the interpretation

of the metai source of the rnineralisation.

 Vi: Cern de Vidrio Fm.
Vc: Vallecito Fm.
Pa: Pascw Fm.
Vh: Vacas Heiadas Fm.
I/T Infiernillo/Cenode las T6rtolas Fm.
E: Escabroso Fm.
Ti: 'Tiüto Fm.
Bo: Bocatorna Unit

O s l5 Age (ma) 25 JO 35 40

Fig. 6-6:
SrN and Srn/Yb ratios for Tmiary rocks of the El Indio-Pascua
belt plotted against the age of the sarnples. The fields for the
individual units are outlined. The grey boxes indicate inferred
age and compositional range of igneous units associated with
economic mineralization.
Abbreviations;: Vi: Cerro de Vidrio Formation; Vc: Vallecito
Formation; Pa: Pascua Formation; Mi: Vacas Heladas
Formation; Infiemillo Intrusive Unit/Cerro de las Tortolas
Formation; E: Escabroso Group; Ti: Tilito Formation; Bo:
Bocatoma intrusive Unit.
 6.6. Discussion of the geocbemical data

The major element concentrations indicate that the mid -to- upper Tertiary El

Indio-Pascua volcanic suites were generated by typical calc-alkaline arc magmas

predominantly of andesitic and dacitic compositions, and fundamentally s imilar to those

of the Southem Volcanic Zone (e-g., Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988) and the Central

Volcanic Zone (e.g., Matthews et ni., 1994; Feeley and Davidson, 1994). Only the Upper

Miocene Vallecito and Upper Pliocene Cerro de Vidrio Formation rhyolites can be

distinguished on the basis of their higher SiOz contents. The Cerro de Vidrio rhyolite

exhibits a weak peraluminous signature, similar to that rcported for the Paleozoic -to-

Lower Jurassic basement (Mpodozis and Kay, 1992). indicating that it may be a product

of partial melting of granitoids similar to the basement rocks. Altematively, anatexis of

pelitic rocks at pressures above 0.7 Gpa may have contributed to this melt. causing the

weak peraluminosity (e.g.. Patifio-Douce, 1995). The apparent peralum inosity of the

Vallecito and Vacas Heladas Formations is, in contrast, probably an effect of weak

argillic alteration, largely of originally glassy groundmass phases.

From the REE abundances, a discrimination between the units and estimation of

the pressure at the site of melting can be made. Most of the Tertiary rocks in the El Indio-

Pascua Belt lack significant negative Eu anomalies, indicating that the magmas were

probably oxidised andlor that plagioclase fractionation played no more than a marginal

role. and precluding shallow depths of partial melting. In contrast, the Upper Pliocene

rhyolite exhibits a pronounced Eu anomaly similar to that of the basement rocks, as well

as a very low Sr content. Plagioclase, therefore, was pmbably a residual phase in this late-

stage event. This interpretation is in agreement with the molal contents of albite,
178
orthoclase and quartz which indicate that the rhyolite represents a melt close to the

granitic minimum at low pressures (Bissig et al., submitted, Chapter 3), and is also

supported by the low abundance of Zr, because protolith zircon may not have been fully

incorporated in the melt. The sample of the Vallecito Formation intrusive lithodeme

exhibits a minor negative Eu anomaly, which may be due to minor plagioclase

fractionation during magma ascent or contamination with upper crustal material similar to

the exposed basement.

The minor Eu anomalies in most Tilito and Escabroso Formation dacites and

andesites indicate that srnall amounts of residual plagioclase coexisted with the melt.

whereas the HREE are not fractionated, indicating that neither hornblende nor gamet was

a significant constituent of the residuum. The lack of an Eu anomaly and the slightly more

concave-upward configuration of the HREE patterns for the Bocatoma Unit may reflect

small differences in the magma source, where plagioclase was absent and homblende a

more important residual phase. These second-order differences among the upper Eocene -

Lower Miocene rocks are plausibly explained as caused by variable water fugacities in

the MASH zone (Melting, Assimilation. Storage and Homogenisation: Hildreth and

Moorbath, 1988) of the lower crust (Tepper et al., 1993). This interpretation is supported

by the abundant hornblende but rare augite phenocrysts in the Bocatoma Unit, contrasting

with the hornblende-poor but relatively augite-rich Tilito Formation and Escabroso Group

rocks.

The comparatively strong HREE fractionation, and the general absence of

negative Eu anomalies in the younger Vacas Heladas, Pascua and Vallecito Formations

are strong evidence for the involvement of an amphibole- and gamet-bearing, but
plagioclase-free, residuum. This can be explained by increasing pressure at the site of

melting, making gamet a stable phase in the residuum (e-g.. Kay and A b m i , 1996).

However, increased water fugacity is an alternative process: this can lead to pronounced

homblende fractionation and hence to HREEdepleted rnelts (e.g., Haschke et al., 2001).

That water fugacity at the site of melt generation may have increased from the Early to

the Late Miocene is suggested by the abundance of homblende but absence o f pyroxene

phenocrysts in Vacas Heladas Formation and. to a lesser degree, lnfiemillo/Cerro de las

Thtolas Formation rocks. It must be noted that cornpared to the Upper Miocene and

Lower Pliocene volcanic centres in transects of the Cordillera Princip02 adjacent to the

flat-slab domain, HREE fractionation in the Upper Miocene igneous rocks of the El

Indio-Pascua beIt is moderate. Thus. the S W b ratios are between 3.7 and 3.9 for the

Vacas Heladas. Pascua and Vallecito Formations. markedly lower than those of the Upper

Miocene Copiapo and Jotabeche volcanic complexes in the Maricunga belt (4.5-9.2: Kay

et al., 1994) and those of the Lower Pliocene El Teniente porphyry (8.2-9.2: Kay et ai.,

1999). We suggest, therefore, that the HREE contents of the Late Miocene magmas in the

central fiat-slab record a "transitional" residuum in which amphibole coexisted with

gamet.

Many geochernical features of the Vacas Heladas, Pascua and Vallecito

Formations of the El Indio-Pascua belt are similar to those of adakitic suites. These are

characterised by high La/Yb (>20) ratios and low absolute abundances of HREE (e.g.. Yb

5 1.9 ppm) and Y (5 18 ppm), inferred to be due to abundant gamet in the residuum, and

high Sr/Y ratios (> 20-40) and positive Sr and Eu anomalies, indicating the absence of

plagioclase in the residuurn (Defant and Drummond, 1993). Experimental data suggest
that dacites with such compositions can be the result of either HzO-undersaturated

dehydration- (Rapp, 1995) or fluid-present melting (Sen and Dunn, 1994) of a

metabasaltic rock at pressures of ca. 1.5-2 Gpa, such as would occur in a subducting slab

at CU. 50-70 km depth. However, such pressures could have been readily achieved in the

lower crust beneath the El Indio belt in the Late Miocene (Bissig et al.. submitted,

Chapter 2). These chemical signatures per se, therefore, fail to distinguish between slab

and lower-cnistal origins for the melts. Against this background. several diverging

models for the petrogenesis of the El Indio-Pascua belt volcanic suite have been

proposed. Thus Gutscher et al. (2000) recently suggested that the shallowing of the

subduction caused a short pulse of partial rnelting in the slab below the CordiHeru

Principu! at Ca. 1O Ma. The focus of such adakitic melt genention was envisaged to have

migrated thereafter to the east, terminating in the eruption of the CU. 7 Ma (Gordillo and

Linares, 1982) Pocho volcanic field, ca. 500 km E of the El Indio-Pascua belt. This

model, however, is not in confomity with geochemical data for the Pocho rocks, which

exhibit shoshonitic compositions without adakitic signatures (Kay and Gordillo, 1994).

and, moreover, does not accommodate the persistence of volcanism with adakite-like

chemistry in the same position in the Cordiliera Principal until 5.5 Ma. An alternative

model in which the generation of these magmas resulted from melting and assimilation in

the lower crust is advocated by Kay et ai. (1988 1991) and Kay and Abniui (1996).

These authors propose that dehydration and partial melting of the matic lower crust took

place as homblende became unstable and was supplanted by gamet as a major phase in

the residuum during crustal thickening related to the shallowing of the subduction (Kay et

al., 1996, 1999). Similar correlations between crustal thickness and magma composition,
although somewhat less pronounced, are reported from the northem pan of the Southem

Volcanic Zone, where critically a slab-dominated origin for the magmas can be d e d out

(Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988).

Temperatures higher than that of the breakdown of amphibole (i.e.. > 1050° C at I -

5-2 Gpa; Rapp and Watson. 1995) would be required to produce enough dacitic magma

through dehydration-melting alone to permit segregation and separation from a dry,

eclogitic residuum (Sen and Dunn. 1994; Rapp, 1995). However, considerably less heat

would be necessary if additional fluid were available (Prouteau et ai., 1999). In the

absence of continuous influx of hot, mantle-derived melts in the shallowing subduction

environment, we favour a mode1 whereby additional fluid from the shallow slab is

provided directly to the lower crust, enabling the production of dacitic melts at

temperatures possibly as low as 900 OC. This would leave some amphibole in the

residuum and at least partly explain the only moderate HREE fractionation in the Upper

Miocene rocks of the region. The effect of water fugacity in the lower cnist has been

considered more important than the effects of crustal thickness for magma generation in

the Cordillera Domeyko in the Iate Eocene (Haschke et al., 200 1). However, in the central

flat-slab region, crustal thickening coinciding with chemical changes in the erupted

volcanics is independently confinned by the landscape development (Bissig er al.,

submitted, Chapter 4). The cnist beneath the El Indio-Pascua belt attained a thickness of

more than 50 km in the early-Late Miocene, yielding pressures in the lower cnist that

render gamet a stable phase. We infer, therefore, that both increasing water fugacity and

increasing pressure in the lower cnist influenced magma compositions through the

Miocene.
 6.7. A geoâynamic mode1 and metallogenetic implications

Kay et ai. (1999) proposed a metallogenetic model in which the aqueous fluid

necessary to generate the shallow-centred epithemal systems was incorporated into

parental melts generated in the lower crust as homblende broke down in response to

increasing pressure at the site of melting. According to this model, fluid was available in

suîfïcient volumes for mineralisation only in the Late Miocene. However, when

considering the scale of porphyry and epithemal systems compared to the entire crust, we

suggest that complete dehydration of the lower crust is not required for even large

hydrothermal systems to fom. Moreover. large-scale alteration systems were

periodically active in the region from the late Eocene (Bissig et ai.,submitted, Chapter 2).

demonstrating that the availability of water was not a critical factor. Richards er al.

(ZOO[), contrasting the model of Kay et al. (1999), suggest that the relatively hydrous

diorites associated with the giant Escondida porphyry copper deposit have REE contents

consistent with a residuum where hornblende was fractionated in the Iower crust,

An alternative model was presented for the southem flat-slab region by Skewes

and Stem (1994), who emphasise the reduced influx of new magma into the magma

storage areas in the middle and upper crust due to slab flattening. This would lead ta

cooling and progressive solidification and ultimately release of large volumes of metal-

rich fluids from the "starved" middie and upper crdstal magma chamben. In the present

study area, a decrease in magma output is indeed observed in the Middle Miocene, CU. 3-6

m.y. before the mineralisation occurred, but small-volume eruptive activity persisted

through the Late Miocene. The diminishing magma production may have been critical for
183
ore formation, but it is unlikely that the ore-foming fluids were derived from large

volumes of crystallising magmas, because they would need to have been stored for an

implausibly long period before they generated the ore deposits. We therefore suggest that

metal transport and deposition at El Indio was directly related to fluids derived from the

small volumes of Late Miocene volcanism.

An empirical correlation of Au-Cu provinces with adakitic or adakite-like

volcanism has k e n recognised in a number of arc segments around the Pacific (e.g., the

Philippines: Sajona and Maury, 1997: northem and central Peni: Davies, 2000;

Strusievicz et ai., 2000). As pointed out above, however, a slab origin for magmas related

to the Au, Ag and Cu mineralisation is unlikely in the case of the El Indio-Pascua belt.

A model for the evolution of the Miocene arc in the central flat-slab region is

illustrated in Figure 6-7. Before ca. 14 Ma (Fig. 6-7A. B). normal arc magmatism

prevai led, w ith partial melting in the asthenospheric wedge, and MASH processes

(Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988) leading to the generation of andesitic magmas in the lower

cmsi. The cnistal thickness increased episodically and reached 45-50 km by ca. 14 Ma.

At Ca. 13 Ma (Fig, 6-7C)the subduction angle began to flatten, possibly due to the

subduction of an oceanic ridge (Pilger, 1984) which caused increased buoyancy of the

oceanic plate. As a result, the asthenosphere retreated from beneath the Cordillera

Principal and the lithospheric mantle was removed mechanically (e-g.. Kay and A b m i ,

1996). Partial melting of mafic lower cnist now occurred due to the influx of slab-derived

fluid into the still-hot underplated mafic rocks (Fig. 6-7C). Simultaneously, the cnistal

thickness increased because of the tectonic shortening induced by the more compressive

stress regime, consequently changing the residual mineralogy. During the Late Miocene
Fig. 6-7:
The postulated evolution of the subduction zone at 29-30' S. An E-W cross section at 30's is
illustrated in six time-Eames £kom the late Eocene to Late Pliocene (A through F).
Mineralization coincided with only small volumes of magmas and occurred at a time when
partial melting in the asthenosphcric wedge ceased (D), but magmas were still being
produced in the lower cmst. Addition of slab-derived fluids nch in CI, S and metals may have
been important for the capability of the magmas to generate ore deposits. Magmas in the Late
Pliocene were generated by a different process and are unrelated to melting in the lower cnist
(F). See text for more detailed discussion. Abbreviations: cpx: clinopyroxene; hbl:
homblende; plag: plagioclase; grt: gamet. SP: Sierras Pampeanas basement uplift, MASH:
Melting Assimilation, Storage and Homogenization (Hildreth and Moorbath, 1988).
 (Fig. 6-7D,E) the volcanisrn in the Cordillera Principal became progressively

more felsic, perhaps reflecting the slowly decreasing temperature in the mafic lower crust,

and minor volcanism started to scatter towards the E. Crustal deformation also propagated

to the E, leading to thnisting in the precordillera and the thick-skinned Sierras Pampeanas

basement uplifb (Jordan et al., 1993). The 5-7 Ma shoshonitic volcanism at Pocho, 700

km E of the trench, probably has a different origin, one possibility k i n g partial melting

of asthenospheric mantle induced by slab-break off. The Late Pliocene (Fig. 6-7F)

volcanism in the Cordillera Principal is clearly distinct from the previous igneous

episodes. Insertion of hot mafic crust at intermediate levels beneath the Main Cordillera

(e.g. Kay and Abruui, 1996) may have caused the generation of granitic minimum rnelts.

which Iocally ascended to surface via major structural pathways (Fig. 6-7F).

Economic mineralisation coincided with dnstically reduced magmatic activity.

lgneous rocks broadly conternporaneous with ore deposition, i.e., the Pascua Formation.

are inferred to have been derived from melts generated in the lower crust, which was ca.

50-55 km thick at the time, leaving a gamet and amphibole bearing residuum (Fig. 6-7D).

The subduction angle was shallow and no more than a thin wedge of lithospheric mantle

had suwived beneath the Cordillera Princri,aI. Water fugacity at the site of partial

melting was probably high, possibly an effect of direct hydration of the lower crust by

slab-derived fluids which had only limited interaction with the mantle. This unusual. and

presumably ephemeral, plate-tectonic configuration has the potential to increase the Au

and Cu content of the magmas in different ways: 1) it maximises the thickness of mafic

rocks, normally assumed to provide much of the Cu, Au and Ag in ore deposits; 2) slab-

derived fluids may act as an oxidising agent at the site of melt-generation, ultimately
precluding the separation of a sulphide melt; 3) the fluids involved may be enriched in CI

and S, two important complexing agents for the precious metals; and 4) fluids rnay also

recycle a large proportion of the hydrothermal Au and Cu sulphides in the subducting

oceanic crust. Due to the limited interaction with the mantle wedge, these fluids are

envisaged to have transported the ore-rnetals directly into the lower crust where they

could be incorporated into the andesitic or dacitic rnelts generated there.

On the basis of the available Pb isotopic data for the sulphide minerals in the belt

(Tosdal et of., 1999) it is apparent that the ore forming systems at El lndio and Tambo

were largely in equilibrium with the Paleozoic -to- Lower Jurassic basement w ith respect

to their Pb isotopic composition. Hence, it is inferred that at least part of the Au, Ag and

Cu was derived from the basement rocks underlying the deposits. Thus. the oxidised

fluids derived from the Late Miocene magmas may further have been responsible for

efficient extraction of Au, Ag and Cu by providing the necessary complexing agents.

The magmas of the Teniary volcanic units in the study area al1 evolved in a

similar setting in the lower crust, when they were generated through fractional

crystallisation or partial melting of underplated basalts. Only the Upper Miocene Cerro de

Vidrio Formation is distinct, probably represeniing a granitic minimum melt that formed

in the middle cnist.

Chernical differences between the upper Eocene -<O- Upper Miocene units were

caused by both increasing pressure at the site of rnelting, due to crustal thickening, and

increasing water fugacity, due to the addition of fluid from the subducting slab to the
187
lower crust, particularly during the later-Miocene. The compositional changes cannot be

attributed to fundamentally different protoliths and the assimilation o f middle and upper

crustal material through fractionated crystallisation was generally limited.

The residuum for the Late Miocene magmas in the lower crust was probably

composed of homblende, clinopyroxene and gamet, but did not contain plagioclase. Thus,

large-scale homblende dehydration in the lower crust was probably not the predominant

melt-generating process, whereas advection o f additional fluid from the subducted slab is

inferred to have played an important role.

Base and precious metals and the complexing agents S and CI were probably

enriched in the Upper Miocene magmas coeval with the brief interval o f economic

epithermal minenlisation. Metal enrichment rnay have been due to direct incursion o f

slab-derived fluids into the lower crust. where partial melting occurred. High

concentrations o f S and CI in the fluid exsolved from the magmas at shallow levels may

have led to scavenging of funher Au, Ag and Cu from the Upper Paleozoic basenment

underlying the epithermal deposits.

 CONCLUSIONS
7.1 Metallogenesis
A variety of factors, summxised in Fig. 7-1. contributed to the economic

mineraiisation in the El Indio-Pascua belt. A major focus of this research was on the

physiographic environments at the sites of ore deposition, and this study may be the first

to highlight the role of regional erosion landfoms in the genesis of hypogene

hydrothermal mineralisation. In addition, the characteristics of the igneous rocks coeval

with the formation of the world-class Pascua, Veladero and El Indio deposits and

prospects are addressed, and the geodynamic context of arc magrnatism and ore fonnation

assessed (Fig. 7- 1).

Econornic rninenlisation formed entirely between 6 and 9.5 Ma, and was focussed

near the upper extremities of pediment valleys, which were then incising dong NNE- and

NW- striking structures into an older, 200100 m higher, pediplain surface. The resulting

disturbance of the water-table and of the groundwater flow regime is envisaged to have

been a critical factor that ied to Au-Ag-Cu precipitation through facilitating both "third-

boiling" of the metal-bearing fiuids and their mixing with meteoric water. The former

process was probably most important at Tambo, Pascua and Veladero, whereas the latter

led to ore deposition at El Indio.

Volcmisrn was minor when the ore deposits formed. The small volumes of

volcanic rocks erupted between 5.5 and 12.7 Ma have an adalcite-like signature indicative

of a gamet-homblendeclinopyroxene residuum at the site of anatexis. The Late Miocene

volcmism was generated above a subhorizontd subduction zone. In such a setting, it is

 Volcrnic Unit Mirmlbition thkknru poâiplrins
f partial mirtg in \ 60 hm

T i l i i Fm.

Fig. 7-1 :
The tempord reiationships between arc magmatisrn, magma-source variations, alteration and mineralization,
regional pediplain incision and c d thickness.
proposed that aqueous fluids from the subducted slab invaded the imrnediately

supejacent lower crust. the increased water fugacity causing partial melting of the

underplated mafic rocks, without a requirement for additional heat from mantle-denved

basaltic magmas. The dacitic and andesitic melts generûted through such a process are

likely to have been oxidised and nch in the complexing agents Cl and S. and possibl y also

in Au, Cu and Ag, components plausibly derived from the subducting plate.

Supporting the interpretation presented herein. Richards et al. (2001) inferred that

the magmas associated with the enomous Escondida porphyry copper deposit in northem

Chile were derived from a homblende-beating residuum in the lower cnist, indicative of

elevated water fugacities. The present author's interpretation of the magma source diffen

from earlier models proposed by Kay et al. ( 1999) and Kay and Mpodozis (2001). who

suggesr that the mineralisation in the Maricunga, El Indio-Pascua and El Teniente belts

was directly related to homblende breakdown in the lower crust due to increasing crustal

thickness. a process supposedly capable of releasing large amounts of aqueous fluids,

which were subsequently incorponted in andesitic -to- dacitic magmas, ultimately

generating the ore deposits. However, porphyry and epithermal Au-Ag-Cu deposits

spatially related to the flrt-slab do not exhibit a universal association with volumeirically

reduced magmas generated in the mafic lower parts of thickened orogenic crust. For

instance. Sasso and Clark (1998) have shown that the deposits in the Farailon Negro

district are coevai with arc rocks erupted through thinner crust, and the enormous La

Coipa high-sulfiâation Au-Ag deposit in the Maricunga belt formed in the Early Miocene,

at a time when normal arc volcanism prevailed.

The differences in chemicai and isotopic composition of the various magmas

erupted in the El Indio-Pascua belt between 12.7 and 5.5 Ma are rninor, but a trend from
191
dacite to Sioz-poor rhyolite is apparent. Although hydrothermal activity was associated

with al1 igneous units throughout this p e n d ore deposition was restricted to the interval

between 6 and 9.5 Ma. Assuming that magma compositions were broadly favourable for

mineralisation from approximately 12.7 to 5.5 Ma, the emphasis among the controlling

factors for ore deposition is put on changes in the P-T, and hence physiographic

environment, in the new-surface settings in which the deposits formed.

7.2 Important refinements of the volcanic stratigraphy

Two important, albeit volumetrically minor, new igneous units have been

identified and defined in this study. 60th are of considerable significance for the

clarification of metallogenetic and geodynamic relatinships in the region.

The 7.5-8 Ma Pascua Formation has been recognised only ai the Pascua prospect

and near Paso Chollay 12 km to the NE. It constitutes, however, the only direct evidence

for magmatisrn coincident with economic mineralisation in the district. It is assumed that

the magmas of this period, despite their probably restricted volume, played a key role in

generating the hydrothermal systems, constituting sources of fluids, metals, complexing

agents and heat. The Pascua Formation has a trace element signature similar to both the

1142.7 Ma Vacas Heladas and the 5.5-6.2 Ma Vallecito Formations.

The 2 Ma Cerro de Vidno Formation represents the youngest volcanic unit in the

El Indio belt, erupting more than 3 m.y. d e r the Vallecito Formation, previously

assumed to record the termination of magmatic activity. The rhyolite is chemically

distinct from the Upper Miocene magmatic arc rocks and probably represents a granitic

minimum melt generated by partial melting of gtanitoids andor small mounu of pelitic

rocks in the middle cnist. The magma rnay have fonned after insertion of hot mdic cmst
into the middle cmst beneath the Cordillera Principal. The only confimed outcrop. a

rhyolitic dome covenng Ca. 4 km', 8 km E of Veladero. is situated at a major intersection

of NNE and NW trending faults. No large-scale hydrothermal alteration associated with

this unit has been recognised to date.

7.3 Regional aspects

Three well defined pediplains have been recognised for the first time in the study

area: the 15-17 Ma Frontera-Deidad Surface; the 12.5-14 Ma Azufreras-Torta Surface;

and the 6-10 Ma Los Rios Surface. These Iandforms were incised rapidly, within 1-2

m.y., and record regional uplift events in the evolving Cordillera Principal of the flat-slab

segment. Pediplains recorded N of ca. 28" on the Pacific piedmont evolved in the Early

Miocene and at ca. 9.5- 12 Ma, but no erosion surfaces strictly contemponneous with the

Frontera-Deidad and Azufreras-Torta Surfaces are reported. This indicates that the uplift

in the flat-slab segment occurred at different times than in more northerly transects of

Chile. Crustal shottening and subsequent uplift were probably related to the increased

compressive stress resulting from shdlowing of the subduction between ca. 17 and 12

Ma. a time when nomal "steep" subduction persisted to the north.

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study region near Ovalle. The available age constraints indicate that it is

contemporaneous with the Sierras Checo del Cobre Surface, N of 2 8 O , but also coincides

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Indio-Pascua district. This indicates that the present-&y segmentation of the Central

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Appendix 1: Field, petrographic and age relationships of the volcanic and intnisive
rocks of the El Indio-Pascua belt

Appendix CI: Styles and age relationships of hydrothermal alteration

Appendix III: Alunite chemistry

Appendix IV: ' ' ~ r - ~ ~ Aanalytical

.r data

Appendix V: Additional whole-rock analysis, duplicate sample, detection limits

Appendix VI: Tables with additional field data

A ~ w n d i xVu: Abstracts. ~ublishedor submitted

 FIELD,PETROGRAPHIC AND AGE RELATIONSHIPS OF THE VOLCAMC AND
INTRUSIVE ROCKS OF THE EL INDIO-PASCUABELT

Preface

The volcanic and intrusive rocks are described in the following pages with

particular reference to samples which form the basis of the geochronologicd study. For

each stratignphic unit o table with the locations and short descriptions of the dated

specimens is given. For more detailed stratigraphie descriptions refer to Chapter 2.

Upper Paleozoic to Lower Jurassic, The Pastos Blancos Group

-

Sample Age (Ma) Rock type, location Comment

99thb 139a 190.08 I3.22 Porphyritic granite from Nevada The rige is ri rough estimate because the
Biotite Norte, coord. UTM: spectrÜm is disturbed and the time of
~O3.37OI67S8. i~adiationwas optimised for Miocene
Biotite is locally partly samples. The sample probiibly belongs
chloritised. to the Colorado unit (Martin et al.,
1999).

l-
ûûthb265a:
K-feidspar
+
26 1.02 5.38
(total fusion)
Rhyolitic
Norte,
tuff
coord.
from
UTM:
4 17.820/6746.S60.
Despoblados The age is only a rough estimate
because only the second of 3 steps
yields a useful rige. Because the time of
Potassium feldspar is only slightly irradiation was optimised for Miocene
dtered (clay, FeOHJ. samples, radiogenic Ar overlotided the
anaiytical system in the final total-
fusion step. Neverthetess the date
suffices ro assign these felsic tuffs to the
Gurinaco-Sonso sequence.

Additional observations. Granitic rocks are widespread in the Pascua area and were

genedly assigned to the Chollay Unit by the project pologists. Field observations (e.g.

the lack of mafi~cdykes that widely intnide Chollay granitoids) and the age for sarnple

99thb139a described above, suggest that the felsic portions of the Colorado and Los Tilos

Units (Martin et d 1999) may constitute part of the basement in this area.
 Observations on the southwestern flank of Cerro de Pascua (between coord. UTM:

400. IOO/6753.lSO and 40 1.3ûû/6754.050) indicate that the granites, presumably

belonging to the Colorado Unit, intruded at shallow depths. Starting from relatively

corne-grained granite cropping out at 4900 m elevation, the intnisive rocks found in the

talus and outcrops become more porphyritic in texture towards higher elevations and

finally constitute quartz-feldspar porphyries with an aphanitic matrix near the surnmit at

5350 m. The proportion of rhyoiitic quartz- and feldspar-phyric lithic tuffs in the talus

similarly increases upwards. These observations suggest that the suite represents a

Triassic to Lower Jurassic vokanic-intrusive complex with a nearby focus of

emplacement.

In the area of Despoblados Norte. where sample 00thb265a was taken, the

predorninant rock-t ypes are felsic tuffs and volcaniclastic sandstones and conglomerates

belonging to the Guanaco-Sonso sequence. Intrusive rocks have not k e n observed. These

rocks were probably not deposited in the immediate vicinity of a volcanic vent. Figure

AI- 1 shows aspects of the basement rocks.

 -
Fig. AI 1:
The Paleozoic to Lower Jurassic basement:
a) Volcaniclastic sandstoneand conglomeratesof the Guanaco- Sonso Sequence at Despoblados Norte.
b) P d y altered biotite in granite. Feldspars (plag+kf'sp) are stained (grey). quartz (qa)is white. Sample
991hbl39a, plane-polarised transmitted light.
c)The same field of view as in (b) but undercrossed nicols.
 U p p Eocene to Upper Phcene uni&

The Bocatoma Intrusive Unit

Sample Age (Ma) Rock type, location Comment

99thb 1843 35.88 2 1.20 Coiuse granodiorite from the Relatively good plateau induding 3
Hornbiende vicinity of P. 5494 at Potrerillos. steps.
The hornblende is tiesh but Belongs to the Bocatoma Unit.
contains inclusions of plagioclase.
Coord.:400.270/6747.050
99thb2 13a 29.95 + 1.88 Diorite to granodiorite, Lama, 2 aliquots have k e n analysed and show
HornbIende sector Morro 4540 m. The diorite well reproducible spectra. The srimple
is generally strongly altered hm clearly undergone argon-loss. The
+
(quartz and clay dunite) and age presented here includes the best siep
fresh mgmatic hornblende is of each fun and has to be considered a
only locally preserved. Coord. minimum. Probably represents a
üTM: JO2.860/67S6.ISO. Bocatoma intrusion.
ûûthb238a Diorite to grrinodiorite, foot of The age is reliable, despite the relritively
Biotite Cerro Negro, Lama coord. UTM: luge error. Only thin biotite flakes have
405.880/6755.043. been separated in order to avoid
1 The rock is chumerised by 1 inclusions and chloritised p m . The
1 corne poikilitic hornblende and 1 arount of sample materiai was
1 biotite.-the latter locally 1 therefore srnalÏ, which resulted in a
chloritised. higher error, but reduces the effects of
recoil Ioss of 3 9 ~ r .

Petrograpliic description. Fine-grained equigranulu to coarsely porphyritic

diontes and minor granodiorites characterise this unit. In the coarser varieties,

plagioclase, homblende, biotite, quartz and augite occur as phenocrysts in a fine-to-

medium gnined matrix of plagioclase and quartz. The Antontent of the plagioclases was

estimated in thin-section at around 50 %. Disserninated magnetite, to 0.7 mm, represents

the most important opaque phase, and zircon, apatite and titmite occur as accessories.

The sarnples investigated in this study are slightly propylitically aitered: chlonte

cornrnonly replaces pyroxene and alters biotite (to 5-10 %). Epidote replaces biotite

locally and occun in some cases on fractures in the plagioclase.

An identifying characteristic is the presence of poikilitic homblende and biotite up

to 1-2 cm in diameter. Figure AI-2 illustntes typical textures.

Fig. AI 2:-
The Bucatoma intnisive unit:
a) The cm-grained diode (BT)h m Potmillos where sample 99thb184a was taken. "AMD indicates a
weakly quartz-sericite-pyritealtered microdioritexenolith.
6)Typicai poikilitic homblende (hbl) and plagioclase (plag) phenocrysts in a fine-grained matrix of quartz and
felâspar (mainly plagioclase). Chlorite (chl) is present as an alteration product and possibly represents former
biotite. The homblende nm is altered, probably due to disequilibriumwith the residual melt a<the final stages of
crystallization. (sample 99thb 184%plane-polarisedtransmitted light).
C) Same Frame as in b) but under crossed nicols.
d)Poikilitic biotite growing around plagioclase(sample 00thb238a, paralle1nicols).
 The Tilito Formation

Sample Ane (Ma) Rock tvpe, location Comment

99thb146a +
23.10 0.38 Fresh biotite €rom a welded dacitic G d reliabie plateau
B iotite ignimbrite, cropping out at the p a s
from Sancm8n to the Apolinwio
valley. It conformabiy overlies flat-
lying quartz-rich rhyolitic tuffs.
Coord.: 402.9ûûf6728.575
--

99thb196a Dacitic 6ff f r o foldd,

~ Tilito Fm. Reliable, undisturkd spectrum.
Biotite strata near Despoblados 4 180 m.
Coord.: 42 1.625l6740.170 l

99thb22 1a Fresh biotite fiom Vrille del Cura Reliable. undisturbed spectrum.
Biotite dacitic tuffs. These tuffs have a pale
reddish matrix and are intercalated
with volcaniclastic conglomerates.
Coord. :429.470f6690.290

Petrogruphic description. Plagioclase and biotite account for most phenocrysts,

while variable arnounts of quartz, augite, homblende and, locally, sanidine are further

present in a devitrified or clay-altered aphanitic matrix. Acessory minenls observed in

thin-section include zircon, apatite and topaz. Opaque phases are pyrite in more felsic

rocks or magnetite in the andesites.

The felsic varieties of this unit can appear very similar to the Paleozoic Guanaco-

Sonso rhyolitic tuffs, but the latter contain more abundant brownish quartz-eyes and

generally Iack transparent fresh feldspars, fresh biotite, clinopyroxene and homblende.

The presence of clinopyroxene distinguishes the Tilito Formation from younger dacitic

tuffs (e.g., Vacas Heladas Formation). Aspects of the volcanic rocks are shown in figure
 -
Fig. A I 3:
The Tilito Formation:
a) Folded volc~clasticsedimenw and M s in the Sepultura a m , Valle del C m l&ng S. The
stippled lines outline a north-south striking anticline.
b) Part of the western Iimb of the same fold: the white stmta in the mid-section are dacitic niffs.
c)Dacitic crystai tdE crysials and crystai hgrnents of plagioclase (plag), homblende (hbl) and biotite
(bi) in a devitrified and partiy clay-altered matrix. Sampie 99thb19th parallel nicols.
d ) Same field of view as c) but under crossed nicols.
 The Escabroso Group
-- --

Sample 4ge (Ma) Rock type, location Comment

38thb41a 2 1.9 k 0.94 Feldspar-porphyriticandesite f he sample shows dear evidence for
Plagioclase from E of Cerro Torta. Coord. excess argon. The best steps from 2
UTM: MJ.Wi67 10.486 step-heating runs are included in the
"plateau" which represents a
maximum age. A reasonable
+
estimate would be 20 2 Ma
98th b42c Feldspru-porphyriticandesite The samp1e shows clear evidence for
Plagioclase from E of Cerro Tom. Coord. excess argon. The best steps from 2
UTM: 4O!l.493/67 10573 aliquots are included in the "plateau"
which represents a maximum age. A
resonable age estimate would be 20
12Ma
981hb54a Granodioritic intrusion, S of Paso Reliable age
Biotite los Baiiitos, close to international
border. Coord. UTM:
4 l2.ïW67O9.9 11

98thb57a 17.64 I0.53 Clino-pyroxene. hornblende and The homblende age is reliable. but
Biotite (Biotite) feldspar porphyritic andesite, Pasothe biotite is fine-grained and may
Hornblende 18.02 i 0.66 Deidad. Coord. UTM: therefore be secondary. The sample
(Hornblende) 4 13.60716707.8 1 1 was dated in only 3 heating steps,
but the age is probably reliable.
98thb74a Feldspar porphyritic andesite The sample shows clear evidence for
Plagioclase from W of Cerro la Campana. excess Ygon. The best step w u
Coord. UTM: 403.994i6708.579 selected. A reasonable age estimate
would be 20 f 2.5 Ma. This sample
has been included in this unit on
regional stratigraphiclgeologic
prounds.
99thb 1lob Plagioclrise has been separated Two aliquots have been analysed.
Plagioclase from a very distinctive andesitic The Ar- releiise-pattern is
lava flow. The plagioclases are reproducible. The plateau rtge
euhedral and up to several cm consists of the best step of each nin
long. A weak propylitic alteration and is probably reliable. The low
affects the andesite. Quebrada temperature steps show evidence for
Vacas Heladas, Coord.: argon-loss.
4 135 3016696.900
99thb 197a +
18.61 0.86 Andesitic to dacitic dyke with Hornblende and biotite yield similai
Hornblende (Biotite) chilled mugin near PortemeIo ages. Spectra are undisturbed and
B iotite +
18.88 1.29 Despoblados. Homblende and reiiable. The fairly large errors are
(Hornblende) biotite are fresh, Coord.: due to the small amount of AI
39C.483l6734.170. relerised.
This is a feeder dyke for
Escabroso volcanics cropping out
at higher elevations .
99thb201a A small amount of hornblende Good plateau including 3 of 5
Hornblende w u sepmted fiom a andesitic heating steps.
flow. Cordillera Smcrur6n Norte
4750 m. coord.:420.820/6736.330
 Petrographic description. The extrusive rocks are commonly massive or flow-

banded, homblende-bearing augite- and plagioclase-phyric andesites. One specimen from

Portezuelo Despoblados lacks pyroxene and contains Ca. 10% homblende. Orthopyroxene

and biotite wcur as minor constituents. in addition to accessory rpatite and zircon.

Magnetite is the most common opaque phase. One sample of fine-grained basaltic

andesite (sample 99thb203a, coord. UTM: 420.640/6738.480) cutting folded Tilito Fm.

strata is charactensed by abundant plagioclase and rninor augite phenocrysts and an

absence of hornblende or biotite.

Glomeroporphyritic andesite flows have been observed at Quebrada Vacas

Heladiis and in one dnll-core from the upper levels of the El Indio mine.

Granodioritic intrusive rocks exhibit the s m e minerals as the extmsive rocks but contain

more abundant biotite as well as interstitial quartz and K-feldspar.

Figure AI-4 illustrates some characteristics of the volcanis of this unit.

Fig. AI - 4:
The Escabtoso Group:
a} Escabroso andesites overlying an open anticline developed in Tiito Formation volcaaks; Mew
looking N. The conta* ktween the mits is iadicated by the thin stippled Im.and the axial trace of the
anticiine is shown by the heavy line. "D"indicates a roughly N-Sstriking Escabroso basaitic andesitic
dyke cutting the anticline. Flat plain in the middle-right: Despoblados; peak in the uppr-cight: Cerro
Ortiga, 5648 m ad.
b) Subvertical, NNE-SSW &king andesitic dyke near PorteaieIo Despoblados (sample locality
mb197a). The dark part (lower-cight)represents the chilled maiglli.
c)Andesite with au& (cpx) and plagioclase (plag) phenocryns in a fme-grained partiy chloritised
ma&. Clusters of chlorite (CM)and magnetite (mt) are probably alteration products. Sample
98thb4 1b, parallel nicols,
9 Same thme as c) but with crosseci nicols.
e) Andesite with plagioclase, biotite (bi) and homblende (hbl), the latter oveqpwing biotite, in a the-
grained devitrified Sample 99thb197a, parallel nicols.
fl Same fhme as e) but with croaed nicols.
 The Cerro de las T6rtolas Formation and Infiernillo Intrusive Unit

Sample Aac (Ma) Rock type, location Comment

98thb89a +
15.41 0.15 Medium-grained slightly Reliable ages.
Biotite (Biotite) porphyritic diorite to granodiorite
Homblende 15.52 + 0.63 in diffuse contact with porphyritic
(ml. tom1 dioritdandesite (98thb89b) from
fusion) India Solitaria.
Coord. üTM: 406.24367 12.074
98thb89b +
15.73 0.33 Plagioclase and homblende Reliable age
Biotite (total fusion) porphyritic dioritelandesite in
diffuse contact with medium-
p i n e d slightly porphyritic diorite
to granodiorite (98thbS9a)from
India Solitaria. Coord. UTM:

Biotite (total gas) with large magrnatic biotites The total-gas age is given. because it
(weakly altered, the biotite is is probably the closest to the m e
partly chloritised). Sample
location: Libra Este rit 4000 m.

99thbl63b
Homblendc

99thb185ri
B iotite
I
13.88 I0.72

16.02 $0.24

I
coord. W:405.550167 16.130.
Fresh hypabyssal andesite
porphyry. Apolinario valley,
Coord. üTM: 402.97516735.000.
Dacitic flow covering the
gnnodiorite at ~ o t r e h ~ ~close
to P. 5494 m. Cmrd. UTM:
os.
a
Reliable age

a reliable age.

400.67516746.175
+
001hb253a
Biotite
00thb259a
15.66 0.44

15.32 f 0.33
.
Diorite from Porfiada, Lama.
Coord. UTM: 406.100/6757.650.
Fine grained diorite from near Pan
Reliable age

The ige was obtained from the

I
Plagioclase (single step) de Azkar, Filo Federico. Coord. second of two heating steps and is
UTM: 405.9 1016752550 reliable. The first step exhibits some
excess 9.

Petrograpliic description. The Cerro de las T6rtolas Formation rocks consist

mainly of biotite, augite, homblende and plagioclase-phyrîc andesite flows, commonly

with relatively large phenocrysts in a fine-grained to aphanitic mauix.

The intrusive facies are either relatively coarse plagioclase-porphyritic to

equigranular granodiorites-to-diorites, with green homblende and biotite as major mafïc

constituents and srnall amounts of augite, or homblende and plagioclase-phyric diorites

with a fine-grained matrix.

Biotite and hombiende are generally more abundant in the Cem de las T6rtolas and

Infiemillo rocks than in the Escabroso Group. whereas augite is much mer. However, it

is often difficult to assign a particular rock to either of these units on the basis of

petrography alone. Field relations are shown in Fig. AI-5,and microscopic textures in Ai-

6.
~ h Cerro
-
Fig. AI 5:
e de las Tortolas Formation and the InfiemilIo Intrusive Unit:
a) Cern de las Tortolas. 6380 m a s.1.): a remnant of a large volcanic edifice and type-ldity of the
Formation (Looking SE from the Vacas Heladas prospect).
b) Andesitic flow on top of P. 5494 m. Potrerillos ( locality of sample 99ihb185a).
C) Contact between an andesitic porphyry (A) and a granodiorite (G) at India Solitaria. The contact is
gradationai and it is unclear which rock intrudes the other. The temperature gradient at the tirne of intrusion
was small. Sample site for 98thb89a and-b. The andesite is chernically distinct from the grandionte and
therefore. does not represent a marginal facies of the latter.
 -
Fig. Ai 6:
Microscopie aspects of ihe Cern de las Tortolas Formation and the InFemilIo Intrusive Unit:
a) Augite (cpx), biotite (bi) and plagioclase (plag) in aphanitic matrix. containhg microlites of the sarne
minerals and homblende (hbl). Note that hornblende phenacrysts occur elsewhere in the rock (sarnple
99thbt Sa, plane polarised Iight).
b) Same frame as in a) but with crossed nicols.
c) Granodiorite h m indio Solitaria plagioclase and homblende occur as phemrysts in a finer-grained
maIix cowisting of anhebal quartz (qa), potassium-feldspar (kfsp) and biotite. The homblende has k e n
altered to pale green, fibrous actinolitic amphibole (sample: 98thb89a).
d) Sarne fiame as in c) but with crossed nicols.
Sample Age (Ma) .Rock type, location Comment
98thb10b 11.98 k O. 18 Welded, biotite-ptiyric lithic crystal Reliable age
Biotite tuff fiorn ~zufreras.Coord. üTM:
406.19316701.883
98thb1la +
1 1.50 0.17 Layered biotite-phyric crystal tuff Reliable ages
Biotite (Biotite, tot. fus.) from Azufreras. Coord. UTM:
Homblende 12.46 + 0.25 406.09316700.369
( m l . tot*fus.)
98thb l5b +
1 1.67 0.12 Dacitic feldspar-phyric porphyry Reliable age
Biotite from a block in the "block and ash"
deposit on Azufreras. Coord. UTM:
405.744/6700.964
98thb18a 1 1.53 k 0.33 White, non-welded biotite tuff from Reliable age
Biotite Azufreras (Ftiolentu Sur). Coord.
UTM: 406.5 15/6700.452
98thbMb 1 1.26 f 0. 10 Dacitic to andesitic ignimbrke SW Reliable age
Biotite 1 1 of Piwua. Coord. UfM:
397.29816756.067
99thb 135a +
12.67 0.87 Dacitic lithic crystd tuff from north The spectrum displays a
Biotite of Lama, West of forfiada. Coord.: reasonribtc plateau ai higher
504.73016758.050 temperature but is clearly disturbed
at low laser powers. Atmosphcric
contamination is responsible for
the Iarpe error.
99thb l6Sa 1 1.894 1.49 Slightly attered dacitic porphyry Strongly disturbed age spectrurn
Biotite (total gsis) south of Cerro de la Mina, Vacas with clear evidence for recoil loss
Heladas. The biotite is psirtly of 39Ar.The sample has been
chloritised. Coord.: assigned to the Vacas Heladas
409.55016694.860 Formation on the basis of the total-
gas age and the trace element
chemistry.
99thbS20a +
13.42 0.51 Rhyoliric Iithic crystal-tuff from Two size fractions yield the same
Biotite Vatle del Cura. Coord.: age. The biotite contains a Iiuge
330. L60l6695,iOO. Air-photo portion of atmospheric argon and
analysis suggest that the sampled is slightly disturbed at low
outcrop is a landslide deposit. temperattues. The spectrum is
similar to that of the Vacas
Heladas tuffs north of Lama.
Othb25Sa 1 1.04 f 0.17 Dacitic crystal tuff from Reliable age
Biotite Despobf d o s Norte, coord. UTM:
4 13.62016750.075

Petrographic description. Amphibole and quartz-bearing, biotite and plagioclase-

porphyritic dacitic-to-andesitic ignimbrites and air-fa11 tuffs constitute this unit. Crystals
are generdly either euhedral or bmken, the matrix aphanitic. Lithic fragments are rare but

include aitered fragments of older units.

Pyroxene has been observed as an accessory phase only in a block from a "block

and ash cornplex" at Azufreras. Volcanics of the Vacas Heladas Formation can be readily

distinguished from the Cerro de las T6rtolas and older Formations by their ignirnbritic

rather than lava-like style, common, but small, amounts of quartz phenocrysts, normal1y

fresh appearance. general lack of pyroxene and high portion of biotite. Field relations are

illustrated in Fig. AI-7, and rnicroscopic textures in Fig. AI-8.

Fig. AI-?
Field relationships of the Vacas Hel& Formation:
O) Lookig S at butlier of welded, andesitic to dûfitic ignimbrite (blocky cliK "ght) covering the Paleozoic
Guanaco-Sonso seqwnce (reddish, lower left), 1km SW of Pascua, sample locality of 98thb64b is just to the
right of the image. The cliff is approx. 20 m high.
b) Outlier of the dacitic ignimbrite norih of Lama: The rock here is not welded but exhibits a stratification
including conglomeratic horizons containing rounded grauite fragments from the basement (e.g near the base
of the cliff :sample locality of Wthbl3Sa).
C) Dacitic tuffs (da& grey) covering weathed wdstones (light grey, reddish) at Friolentas Sur on
AzuFreras, close to sample-location 98thbl la Looking east, Ximena Contardo ( 1.60 m) for scale.
4 Texture of the welded [gnimbrite south of Pascua (near sample locdity 98thb64b). The juvenile matrix
(grey) contains fiamrnae (dark-grey) and xenolithic hgments ( e.g. black giassy and pale-grey).
~ & o s c o ~ relationships
ic of Vacas Heladas Formation rocks:
a)Dafitic porphyry fiom the Anifrems block-and-ash deposit containing large plagioclase (plag). biotite (bi)
and homblende (hbl) phenocrysts in a fine-grallied rnanix with abundant micmlites of plagioclase and
hornblende (sample: 98thbl Sb. panllel nicols).
6) Sarne fiame as a) but with crossed nicols.
c) Locaily defomed phenocrysts of plagioclase and biotite. and small Iithic fragment (li), in a fine-gained.
deviîrified and argillised ma& Same ignimbrite as in AI-7c, sample 99thb13Saparailel nicols.
4 Same franie as c) but with crossed nicols.
 The Pascua Intrusive Unit

SampÏe - Age (Ma) Rock type, location Comment

Inca 47 +
7.83 0.30 Dacitic porphyry dyke, Prrscua, Reliable age,
Biotite DDH 108, 186.5-186.75 m
99thb130b 7.06 2 2.29 Nevada Norte, Pascuii, weathered The spectrum is disturbed and shows
Biotite (integrated) dacitic dyke with apparent fresh evidence for recoil loss of " ~ r .
biotite. Coord.: Submicroscopicchioritisation is
40 1.610/6757.0 probably responsible for the
1 1 1 disturbance. The age is a rough

Petrographic descrfption. Relatively coarse. biotite. quartz and plagioclase-phyric

dacite, with relatively large subhednl, slightly embayed quartz crystals. The abundance

of quartz phenocrysts (-10% of rock) and the lack of hornblende distinguish this rock

from the Vacas Heladas dacites, whereas the younger Vallecito rocks are more siliceous

and widel y contnin sanidine. Microscopie textures are shown in Fig. Ai-9.
 -
Fig. AI 9:
Microscopie relationships of the Pascua dacite (simple Inca 47).
a) Large. zoned plagioclase (plag) and quartz (qtz). as well as smaller biotite (bi) phenocrysts in a fme-
grained to aphanitic matrix. Quartz is slightly embayed (plane-polarised transmitted light).
b) Same h e as in a) but with crossed nicois.
 The Vallecito Formation

Sample Age (Ma) Rock type, location Comment

98thb29b 6.03 f 0.26 Poorty welded rhyolitic liihic Reliable ages.
Biotite (Biotite) crystai tuff fiom s of Azufieras.
Sanidine 5-52 f O.14 Coord.:408.647/6700.122
(Simidine, total
fusion)
99thb143a 6.16i1.18 Rhyolitic tuff at Paso Vacas The age spectrum shows no
Biotite Heladris. Coord.: evidence for disturbance but
414.900i6696.800 contains high acmosphenc
contamination, which is responsible
for the large error. Clexly belongs
to the Vallecito Formation.
99thb143b 5.51k0.47 Qum-dioriiic to granodioritic Reliable age
Biotite fragment in the tuffs at Paso
Vacas Heladas Coord.:

98thb7 1b
Biotite
1 5.732 0.26
4 14.90016696.800
Rhyolitic lithic crystal tuff,
Montura, W of Cerro la Campana.
Reliable age

Coord. UTM: 405.06 1/6708.724

00thb267a 5.81 .t 0.17 Rhyolitic tuff from the ignimbrite i ReliabIe age
Biotite in the Valle dei Cura, coord.
UTM:425.220t669û.000

Petrograpltic description. Vallecito Formation volcanic rocks are biotite, sanidine,

quartz and plagioclase-prophytitic hyolitic air-fail tuffs and ignimbrites. The crystais are

genenlly broken but fresh. Lithic fragments compose up to CU. 5% of the rocks and are

usually derived from altered older units. Fresh fragments of quartz, sanidine and

plagioclase-porphyritic granite are commonly found in the tuffs ai Paso Vacas Heladas

and represent the unexposed intrusive facies of the unit.

Distinguishing features are the euhedral bipyramidal quartz. the lack of

homblende and the presence of sanidine. Petrographic aspects of this unit are shown in

Fig. AI- 10.

 -
Fig. AI 10:
The Vailecito Formation:
a) lithic c r y d tuff.. (right, grey) overlying breccious base surge deposits (middle section. yellow) and
volcaniclastic oandstones and conglomerates (le& ml).Paso Vacas Heladas looking NW. ûennis Diaz for
scale (sample site of 99thb14Ua b).
6)The Ignimbrite of the u p p r Valk del Cura: A weak subhorizontal welding and a variety of smail lithic
iÏagments can be recoogid Coin diameter ca 2 cm.
C) Micmscopic texture of sample 0ûthb267a from the ignimbrite of the Valle del Cura (parailel Ncols).
Fragmenis of plagioclase @hg) and sanidîne (san), as well as biotite (bi) and euhedral q m (qtz) occur
alongside a silicified lithic fiagrnent (li). in a devitrifieci and p d y hematitised and argillised matrix.
4 Same h e as c) but with crossed nicols.
e) Granite clast h m the n<Bs at Paso Vacas Heladas (a). Sub- to- aahedral phenoccysts of plagioclase.
potassium-feldspar (kfip) and biotite in a liner-grained rnatrk of qurim and plagioclase and alkali-feldspar.
Note that quartz phenocrysts ocfur, but are not shown (sacnple 99tbb 143b. parallel nicols).
fl Same Frtune as in e) but with crossed nicols.
 The Cerro de Vidrio Formation

The youngest evidence for volcanism in the study area is represented by an

obsidian dome at Despoblados Norte. 15 km southwest of Pascua.

One sample yielded 3 reliable plateau ages:

00thb250a was taken at coord. UTM 415.82016749.365 Biotite and the glass

yielded reliable plateau ages at 2.05 t 0.47 Ma and 2.03 i0.23 Ma. respective1y.

Petrographic description. The dated sample consists of about 5-8 % phenocrysts

in a porous glassy, generaily undevi tri fied matrix. Euhedral. weaki y-to-mode ratel y zoned

plagioclase. to 0.5 mm. foms the most common phenocrysts. Also present are euhednl

sanidine, to 3 mm, slightly rounded to euhedral quartz, to 0.3 mm. and euhednl biotite

flakes. to 0.5 mm. Amygdules occur locdly and are filled with fine-grained aggregates of

quartz, but much open space still remains. Spherulites are rare. Petrographic aspects are

illustnted in Fig. A I 4 1.
 -
Fig. A I 11:
The Cern de Vidrio rhyolite dome:
LI)Cern de Vidno dome as seen from the south across the Rio de 1asTagua.s valley (upper-lefi). The sample
locality for Oûthb25Oa is shown by the triangle. The fault which confmes the eastern lunit of the Rio de las
Taguar-valley graben smrcture. and probably played a role in the emplacement of the rhyolite. is outlined by
the stippled line. High peak in the upper-right background is Cerro el Toro (6180 m).
6) Flow-teme of the rhyolite lava (obsidian). The white mas npment more pomus domains (coin diameter
approx. 2 cm).
c) Small phenocrysts of quartz (qtz), sanidine (san). plagioflase (plag) and biotite (bi) in a glassy groundmass.
Quartz is munded (sample 00thb250a. parailel nicols).
d) Same fiame as c) but with crossed nicols. The image shows that the glass is only locally devitrified
normally near cavities (cav).
 The Lower Miocene volcanics from Mesa Higuerita, Chile

One sample from a dacitic crysial tuff was collected at coord. UTM:

300.500/6635.800,( elevation ca. 1080 m a.s.1.) ca. 150 km SW of El Indio, near Ovalle

on the Pacific piedmont of the Andean Cordillera. It yielded a biotite plateau age of 23.07

f 0.33 Ma. The age is reliable. but the spectrum exhibits rninor Ar-loss in the lower laser-

power heating steps. The age is similar to that of the Tilito Formation.

Petrograpliic descriptioii. Phenocrysts are moderately zoned plagioclase and

biotite, together accounting for less than 10% of the rock. The feldspars are either

fragmenta1 or euhedral. and are unaltered. Quartz occurs as an accessory phase,

accounting for less than 1% of the rock. The reddish matrix exhibits worm-like

devitrification, oriented in a flow-texture. The Petrognphic aspects are illustrated in Fig.

AI- 12.
 -
Fig. A I 12:
The volcanic rocks fiom Mesa Higuenîa, NE of Ovalle:
a) The W edge of Mesa Higuerita. iooking south. The angulac unconfomity below the volcanic rocks
is outlined by the stippled line. A subhonzontal Fncture pattern represents a flow-texture in the
uppermost outcrop (length of hammer handle: 50 cm).
b) Microscopie texnw of the dacitic rocks: plagioclase (plag) and biotite(bi) phenocrysts in a
devitrified and hernatised matrix. A flow-texture is visible. Quartz phenocrysts and srnall lithic
fhgments are rare and not show in foto. The rock is interpreted as fme-grained and hgment-poor
ignimbrite due to the often broken habit of the phenocrysts. but it may also be a lava
C) Sarne Frarne as in b) but with crosseà nicols.
 APPENDIXII

STYLES
AND AGE RELATIONSHIPS OF HYDROTHERMALALTERATION

Preface

in this appendix, additional information is presented on the alteration systems of

the El indio-Pascua Beit. Relevant field stations are described, emphasising those from

~ r have been taken. The information herein

which samples dated by the M ~ r - 3 9method

records observations. either in the field or by petrographic methods which the author

considers important.

Defining the extent of the individual hydrothermal systems is commonly

problemaiic. as in many cases different styles and episodes of alteration overprint each

other. A largely geographic approach has k e n chosen. summarising the alteration thnt

occun in or close to the exploration projects as defined by Barrick Gold Corporation and

Homestake Mining. The alteration systems are documented in order of decreasing age.

Some additional data on the minerai chemistry of the alunites are recorded in

Appendix m.
 Late Eocene: alteration related to the Bocatoma Unit

Bocatoma intrusions are particularly common in the Pascua-Lama area. but the

associated alteration is likely to be largely overprinted by later epithermal activity.

Observations from the m a of Potrerillos 10 km S of Pascua are documented and some

petrographic aspects are illustrated in Fig. An-1.

Obsewations from the Potrerillos prospect:

Station and location Litbologies Alteration

99thb 182, coord. UTM: Fine-grained Moderate to strong pervasive
399.80016744650 diorite possibly cut quartz-sericite-pyritealteration of Ma (89.8 t of j9Ar in
5020m by matrix- the diorite plateau).
supported breccia
(hydrothermalor
talus breccia?)
99thb187, coord, UTM: Fine-grained Matrix of the rock is replaced by
40 1.39016746.5 10 plagioclase- biotite and actinolite as well as 36.1 1 f 1.34 Ma (84%
5200m small amounts of chlorite and
porphyritic diorite of ' ' ~ rin plateau).
magnetite.
Veinlets of quartz and sericite
occur Iocally (suikddip 085184).
99thb 191, coord. UTM Lithic crystal tuff The rock is pervasively quartz-
40 l.85Ol6746.1l2 with quartz- sericite dtered. Veinlets to 1 cm
4930m tourmaline I pyrite width contain quartz, tourmaline
veinlets. and Iocally pyrite and have a
Local microdiorite bleached halo (veins: 2S0140).
dykes
99thb192, coord UTM: Darkgrey Q u m - pyrite k tourmaline
40 1.78316746272 aphanitic mafic veinlets < Smm thick. Around
4870m dyke (microdiorite) veinlets a halo of typically 10 cm
cut by quartz- diameter with silicification.
pyrite tourmaline
veinlets
 -
Fig. A l i I :
Bocatoma-felated alteration at Potrerillos:
a) Narrow quartz-pyrite5 tourmaline veinlets cutting very fine-grained diorite. The latter is strongly silicified
in the vicinity ofthe veins. Location: 99thb 192. see table.
b)Photomicrograph of fine-grained feldspar porphyritic diorite. The aphanitic matrix is replaced by a fine-
grained aggregate of biotite (bi, brownish) and actinolite (ut.brighter colom). Magnetite (mt) is probably
also an alteration product while magmatic plagioclase (plag) is still fairly fksh. Sample 99thb187a crossed
NCO~S.
 Late Oligocene -to- Early Miocene: alteration related to the Tilito Formation

The only clear evidence for major hydrothermal activity during this penod cornes

from silica-sinter horizons within the Tilito Formation ignimbritic strata in the

Despoblados area, Argentina (outcrop at coord. UTM: 421.1 1616740.767). No alteration

zone delimited by exploration companies could be confirmed to be Tilito-related.

Early Miocene: alteration related to the Escabroso Group

Shallow-level intrusions wiih associated h ydrothcnnal alteration of Escabroso

Group a p are cornmon in the study area. The alteration assemblages generally indicate

relatively high temperatures and a depth, empirically inferred from geomorphologic

constraints, of 500-900 m at the time of formation. Simples from 3 areas yielded

alteration ages between 21 and 17.2 Ma in age and are described below.

Refiaca

This small alteration zone on the northem flank of Arroyo SancarrOn in Chile has

received only restricted attention by exploration companies. The alteration is generdly

moderate and characterised by locally strongly quartz f sericite altered dacitic tuffs

(probably Tilito Formation) surrounded by a sericite-quartz alteration halo of modente

intensity. Late, generally NW-SEstriking, gypsum veins cut the phyllic alteration locally.

Propylitically-altered andesitic lavas cover the dacitic tuffs and may have acted as a

lithocap.
Observations from Refiaca:

Station and location Liîhologies Altecation * ~ r - - ~date

r
99thb159, coord. UTM: Dacitic lithic tuff,Cryptocrystrilline quartz veins in û Sericite: 19.70 +, 0.79
quartz-sericite altered rock. Late Ma (83.18 of 3 9 ~ r
gypsum veins (up to I O h ) included in plateau).
Cryptocryst;illinequartz- and
gypsum veins strike 275125
Gypsum veins ais0 050fl5
99thbL60,coord. UTM: Dense fine-grriined Strong md pervasive quartz-
sh-tuff sericite alteration. Some gypsum
veinlets strike 288/85

Sanco

This alteration sysiem on the southem flank of the Arroyo Sancmdn valiey covers

a large area and is unusual because it exhibits many alteration assemblages atypical of

epithemai systems.

The lower portions (around 3 8 0 m elevation) locally show crackle breccias and

intense stockwork veining in strongly silicified dacitic lithic tuffs and feldspar-porphyritic

diorite or andesite. The breccia rnatrix and stockwork veins contain abundant zunyite,

which resembles dunite in outcrop. The higher portions of the Sanco prospect are

characterised by abundant cryptocryistailine topa (isotropie in thin-section) and

pyrophyllite, together with quartz, in the alteration assemblage. Thosc rocks also locally

exhibit features of ductile deformation dong steep, northwest-trending structures during

aiteration. In the southwestern part of the prospect, similarly oriented structuresjuxtapose

propylitic and phyl lic dteration assemblages.

Strong silicification with only minor alunite occurs in the SE part of the prospect.

Quartz-alunite alteration, possibly together with some cryptocrystdline topa, was

recognised only in the central parts.

 An overprint by laie jamsite and iron oxides is common throughoui the area but is

likely to be considerably younger than the main alteration. Some petrognphic aspects of

the aiteration ai Sanco ;ire shown in Fig. AII-2.

Observations from Sanco:

Sîation and location Lithologies Alteration uAr-n~rdate

99thb168, coord. UTM: Feldspar - Strong silicification, brecciation
porphyritic and stockwork veining.
Matridveins fiHed with zunyite
andesite, strongly
altered and quartz and possibiy
brecciatcd rnicrocrystrilline topaz. Late fine-
grained jarosite present in cavities
and veins
99thb169, coord. UTM: Quaru bearing Strong, pervasive siiicitïcation Alunite: 20.10 k 1.23
JOS.OS7l6723.26 1 feldspiir with some fine-crystalline alunite Ma (90.2% of 39Ar
4 lOOm porphyritic dacite. (disseminated and cavity filling). ( included in plateau).

99thb170, coord. UTM: ~uctilely deforrned Q u m replaces matrix, and

4O4.765/6723 .O 12 feldspar- microcrystrrlline topaiz with
4 120m prphyritic pyroph;llite alten the feldspars.
andesitddacite In foliated zones silicification and
topazlpyrophylliteoccur in bands.
Foliation strikes 325f80
99thb 17 1, coord. UTM: Strongly silicified Strong pervasive silicification
405 .û43/6722.749 rock (unclear overprinted by disseminated
4 l3Om whether lapilli tuff jarosite and goethite. Rare cavities
or feldspar- are filled with medium grained
PO~P~Y~Y iarosite f aiunite
99thb 172. coord. UTM: Aphanitic to fine- Moderate propylitic alteration in
404.648f6722.778 grained andesite fault contact with moderate to
3 l5Om strong quartz-sericitelpyrophyilite
alteration. Fault strikes 100185.
Fig. AI1 2:-
Aspects of the alteration at Sanco:
a) The Sanco alteration system as seen h m the northeast, The observation points as Iisted in the table are, 1:99thb 169;
2: 99thb170.
b) Outcmp of the locaily foliated quartz,topaz and pyrophyllite altered porphyry. The stipplcd line shows the foliation as
represented by white top-rich bands. Sarnplelocality of99thb 1 70b.
C) Fine-grained quartz (qtz)- alunite (ai) altered rock. Alunite grows in small cavities. Sample 99thb169a, transmitted
Iight crosseci nicols.
4- Cathode luminescence image of topaz-rich zone in contact to silicified (qe) wallrock. T o p is blue. quartz appars
in various shadesof red, the alteration minerals are very fine-grained (Sample99thb 170b, plane-polacised transmitted
light nicols).
Paso Deidad

In the area of Paso Deidad and to the SW thereof, several smdl hypabyssal

andesitic intrusive bodies (homblende: 18.02 f 0.66 Ma) are spatially associated with

strongly silicified and quartz-alunite altered rhyolithic -to- dacitic lithic tuffs. The alunite

is medium to couse-grained and occurs in vugs and veins together with topaz, which

clearly points to a hypogene origin.

Late gypsum veins and locdly jarosite overprint the hypogene acid-sulphate

alteration. Petrognphic relationships are shown in Fig. AII-3.

Observations from Paso Deidad:

Station and location Lithologies

98thb57, coord. UTM: Rhyolitic to dûcitic
4 1 3.60716707.81 1 lithic tuff intruded
47 10m by andesite veins and cavities.
included in plateau).
Svong pervrisive silicification,
4 1 3.8026707.542 crystal tuff white pockets containing alunite
475Om inuuded by and microcrystdline quartz occur
propylitically locally. A small mount of
altered andesite disseminated pyrite has been
observed. Late gypsum veins are
common (suike N-S.subvertical).
Fig. A11 3:-
Aspects of the alteration at Paso Deidad:
a) ~hotomicro~ra~h of quartz (qtz), alunite (al) and
topaz (top) altered lithic mff. Alunite, together with
disseminateci t o m grows in veins and cavities in a
strongly silicifiedhost-rock. Sample98thb57c, crossed
nicols.
h) Same field of view as in a) but as
cathodolurninescence image. Topaz appears bright
blue, quartz is reddish and aiunite. which is only
weakly luminescent. appears dark blue and is slightiy
zoned.
C) Back-scattered electron image of the same sample.
Alunite cements the euhedrd topaz crystals but does
not alter them.
 Middle Miocene: alteration related to the InfiemilIo unit

As is the case for the Escabroso and Infiernillo intrusive rocks, a distinction

between the two correspondhg phases of alteration cm be difficult and has to be largely

based on geochronology. Observations from Libra, Rio Apollinario and Lama Central are

summarised but alteration at India Sditaria, and in some areas on Azufreras and Vehdero

Sur also fonned during this interval.

Libra
The alteration at Libra on the E Ranks of the Rio del Medio valley is distinctly

younger than that at Sanco, despite its somewhat similar charactenstics. The higher parts

of the hill constituting the prospect exhibit strong siiicification, while potassic alteration

is exposed 200 m above the valley-bottom, and tourmaline has k e n reported in simila

locations (Gdludo, 1996). Topaz and andalusite occumng at 4050 m elevation are

evidence for temperatures of alteration comparable to those at Sanco. Fig. AiI-4

illustrates some characteristics.

Fig. Aff 4:-
The alteration at Libra:
a) Quartz-topaz-muscovite altered rocks where sample 99thblJla was taken (triangle). The outcrop in the
foreground is affectai by smng gypsurn veining. ( looking N W at small hiil, c a 4100 m a.s.1. in the lower part of
the prospect).
b) Photomicrograph of feldspar-porphyriticdionte. The fine-grained matrix is replaced by an aggregate of
quartz (qtz) and biotite-clusters (bi, brownish). Opaques are predominantly magnetite (mt), probably an
alteration product. Magmatic plagioclase(plag) is still p d y preserved. Sample 99thb140a,parallel nicols.
C) Photomicrograph of topaz (top) in a fine-grained muscovite/sericite (ser) - quartz mûirix (sample
99thb 14la, mssed nicols).
4 Cathodoluminescenceimage of andalusite (and, pi&) and topaz (blue) in a non-luminescent matrix of
muscovite and quartz (sample 99thb141 a). Andalusite is partly replaceci by sericite (not clearly visible in this
photo).
Observations from alteration facies at Libra:

Station and location Lithologies

99thb 140, coord. UTM: Plagioclase-
405.523/67 16.064 porphyritic
3925m andesite

Moderate illite f quiutz aiteration. 1 1

overprinted by limonite is in 1 1
cont&t with the potrissic 1 1
alteration.
99thb 14 1, coord. UTM: Feldspar- The matrix of the rock is strongly Sericite: 16.60 f 0.53
4O5.389/67 16.403 porpbyritic siIicified while the former Ma (60.7 8 of l9tIr
dacitefandesite, feldspvs contain andalusite and inclided in plateau).
strongly dtered topaz, which are partly overgrown
by sericite.
99hb 1 14, coord. UTM: Plagiodase- Strongly quartz-sericitelillite
405.977167 16.678 porphyri t ic altered. incontact with massive 1 1
4220 m a.s.1 andesite siliceous rock. Contact is a ca. 4 1 1
m wide sheiw-zone (foliation
suikes 345145).
Late jarosite veinlets cut siliceous 1 I

Rio Apolinario

Many small alteration systems are present in the Apolinario valley and are most

commonly hosted by relatively permeable tuffaceous Tilito Formation stnta. Alteration is

generally weak and normally does not exceed modente silicification or quartz-illite

alteration. However, one 3 9 ~ r j odate

~ r was obtained for a quartz-aiunite altered rhyolitic

or dacitic crystd tuff, intnided by a fresh andesitic porphyry, from the northern flank of

the valley (coord. UTM: 402.97516735.000. 4440m).The alunite yielded an age of 14.87

t 0.47 Ma, which matches the age of the porphyry.

Lama Central

This bamen aiteration zone is situated east of the main mineraiisation of Pascua-
Lama and has k e n dated at 13.5 Ma. It is characterised by strongly silicified granites and

fine-grained iithic tuffs and volcaniclastics, but the original rock-types are often difficult

to recognise. The silicified rocks are widely cut by strong stockworks of alunite veins or
248
by crackle breccias with an alunite matrix. Later generations of breccias exhibit a rock-

flour matrix and rounded hgments.

The abundance of alunite and the presence of late-stage native sulphur points to a

considerably shallower depth of formation compared to Libra. This is not surpriskg,

because the erosion of the Azufreras-Torta Surface, between 12.5 and 14 Ma, occurred

contemporaneously with the alteration in this area. Lama Central is sitwted at the edge of

a NNE-SSW striking graben structure (Rio de las Taguas valley graben) and is therefore

assumed to have been dom-faulted to the east after the alteration. Mineral assemblages

indicate that only minor erosion has occurred at the top of the system (which is coincident

with the Amfreras-Torta Surface) since. Aspects of the alteration are shown in Fig. Aii-5.

Observations fkom Lama Central:

-- - - -- -

Station and location Lithologiei Alteration - a ~ r - J ' ~ r date

00thb230, coord. UTM:Hydrothennal Fragments are strongiy silicified; Alunite: 13.33 2 0.29
406.3 I0/6754.170 heterolithic matrix consists of fine to Mri (88.6% of '9Ar
4245m breccia. medium-gnined yetlowish includcd in plateau)
(porphyriticand alunite.
tuffaceous clasts)
00thb233, coord UTM: Volcaniclastic +
Pervasive, strong silicification, Alunite: 13.64 0.84
406.157/6754.185 sandstone or fine- coarse white alunite as weak Ma (83.9% of ''Ar
4280111 gMined lithic tuff stockwork (orientations:276180 inchded in plateau)
1O h , 1 85/78 1 Um,1OO/42,
6/m).
Late native sulphur in vcins.
00thb232, coord. UTM: Hydrothemd Fragments more rounded than in
406.190167542 1O heterolithic locality 00thb230. Generally
3260m breccia, finer-grained. Matrix of siliceous
Rock-flour matrix. rockflow but no evidence for
(porphyritic, dunite. Breccia exhibit flow
tuffaceous and texture: 000170
massive cIasts)
 -
Fig. AI1 5:
nie alteration at Lama Central:
a) Ovewiew of the upper part of Lama Central. Photo taken h m the western limit of the alterationmne. looking
SE. B indicates breccia outcrops, approx. locationofsample 00thb233a..
6)Breccia fabric at the sample location of 00thb230a. Yellow alunite f o m the matrix between the siliceous
fragments. The brecciais clast-supported.
c)Photo-mictograph of sample 00thb230a Coarse alunite (al) grows between two silicifieci clasts (qa; plane-
polarised light).
4Same fiame as c) but with cmssed nicols.
 Middle 40- Late Miocene: alteration related to the Vacas Heladas Formation

Evidence for hydrotheml alteration that occurred between 12.5 and 10.3 Ma is

widespread and can be linked directly to the volcanic activity of the Vacas Heladas

Formation. In the wider Lama area some mineralization, rather patchy, is associated with

this phase of alteration, but further south no significant Au, Ag or Cu anomalies of this

age have been recognised. Vacas Heladas-related alteration widely occurs in proximity to,

or is completely overprinted by, younger hydrothermal systems. Besides the areas listed

below, a few additional occurrences of this alteration style are described in subsequent

sections, in the context of the younger altention and mineralisation zones.

Veladero Sur

Several small centres of alteration appear as "bleached" hills in the area between

Veladero and Veladero Sur. One hypogene alunite simple was dated and yielded a

diable age, which is inferred to be representative for similar zones. It is, however, not to

be excluded that considerably younger alteration, and possibly mineralisation, are present

ai Veladero Sur. illustrations of the alteration in this area are given in Fig. AII-6.
Fig. AU 6:-
The alteration in the Veladero Sur area:
il) View from the southemmost part of Veladero Sur
towatds the NNW. Aiteration on the flat areas in the
foreground may belong to several stages of
hydrothermal activity. Sample 00thb275a was taken
immediately to the right ofthe picture. the Pascua-Lama
(PL) prospect and Cerro Nevado (CN,5550 rnas.1,) can
be seen in the back-ground.
6) Small quariz-dunite altered zone, 4 km N of where
picture a) was taken. The triangle indicates where
sample ûûthb273 was coilected (photo looking NNE.
Cern Oru'ga (CO, 5648 m a.s.1.) in the background).
C) Back-scattercd electron image showingjarosite
(jar) overgrowing alunite (al) in cavities (sample
othb27Sa).
Observations fiom twical outcrom and samoles of Veladero Sur:

Station and location Litbologies Alteration s~r-''~rdate

00thb273, coord UTM: Feldspar- Alunite replaces feldspars and +
12.80 0.26 Ma,
4 lO.S8O/6743.23O occurs in veidets. ~ilicificationin (89% of ' ' ~ r included
4370m matrix. Jarosite and hematite in plateau).
overprint the assemblage to
various degrees.
00thb275, coord. UTM: Dacitic lithic tuff Strong pervasive silicification, CompIicated and
4 10.60016739.190 (some zones may sornewhat vuggy aspect. Fine- somewhat dubious age
4500m be hydrotheml crystalline alunite replaces some spectnim of Jarosite-
breccia) lithic fragments and fills vugs. Alunite mix. Alunite
Fine-crystailinejarosite probably older t h 14
overgrows alunite. Ma, Jarosite I12 Ma
00thb276, coord. UTM: Hydrotheml Clasts are vuggy and silicified but
4 1O.420/6739.420 breccia, siliceous of ainerent rock-types. Marrix is
4490m matrix silicified (somewhat sugary
texture).
Late jarosite is locally common.
Native sulphur occurs in vuggy
sitica rocks 30 m uphill on 4520
m
00thb278, coord UTM: Qum-eye beriring Strong pervasive silicification.
4 1O.ZO/6740.650 lithic tuff (dacitic?) Genenlly sugary texture. Locally
4515m fractures with medium-crystalline
scorodite infill.
Fabiana

Situated on the eastern Bank of the Rio de las Taguas vaiiey, this Homestake

exploration project lies on a major structural intersection between the NNE trending El

Indio-Gavilh structure and the NW-SE onented Pascua fault. Alteration is slightly

younger than the Vacas Heladas Formêtion rocks cropping out immediately E of the

prospect, but was probably related to this magmatic phase. Some petrographic

relationships are illustrated in Fig. AiI-7.

Observations from the Fabiana promect:

Station and location Alteration " ~ r - ~ 'date

~i.
00thb280, coord. UTM: Chaotic breccia Silicified and quartz-alunite +
Alunitc: i 0.03 0.4 1
with powdery to altered hgmcnts in white Ma (96.2 of 3 9 ~ r
porcelaneous porcetaneous to powdery alunite included in plateau).
alunite veins to 2 rnatrix.
m in width Alunite is white and
rnicroctystalline.
00thb281a, coord UTM: Subhorizontally Genenlly strong silicification Alunite: 10.35 f O. 12
4 I2.3OO/67SO.6OO bedded (rnicrocrystalline quartz). Ma (99.5 % of 3 9 ~ r
4410rn volcaniclastic Yellowish alunite as 0.5 mm included in plateau).
sandstones and crystals grows interstitiaily and in
dacitic tuf's open space.
--
(bedding 200120)
00thb28 1b, coord. UTM: Subhorizontally StrongIy q w - a l u n i t e altered. Alunite: 10.28 f 0.16
4 l2.450/6iSO.660 White dense porcelaneous h i t e Ma (65.9 % of 39Ar
441Om o c c m in veins and pervasively. it included in plateau).
sandstones and probably overprints the alteration
i dacitic tuffs 1 described in 00thb281a. 1 1

Fi10 Federico

This exploration zone is situated ai relatively low elevations along the boundary

between the Veladero (Homestake) and Pascua-Lama (Banick) prospects. Drilling has

proven some Au-Ag mineraiisaticn, which is herein considered to represent the oldest

known significant mineralisation of the El Indio-Pascua belt. Field observations were

made near the base of the N Flank of Cerro Pelado and towards the west at the Pan de

Aziicar zone. Quartz-alunite alteration was most abundant near the latter, but alunite fiom
254
a massive 2 m wide vein occurs near a narrow creek, due south of the Lama exploration

camp. Aspects of the massive alunite are illustrated in Fig. AB-8.

Observations from Fi10 Federico:

Station and location hologies Qlteration i r - 3 9 ~date

r
DOthb245, coord. UTM: Massive alunite, Microcrystalline quartz occurs in unite fiom the
wallrock is a partIylvallrock clasts and forms first issive zone: 10.65 k
Pebtecciated ?hasebreccia ma& (somewhat 17 Ma (97.4 % of
iydrothemal or ;ugary texture). 4r included in
huit breccia te f o m together with iteau).
:silicified clasts, quartz as the second-phase breccia
rock-flour and matrix
dunite matrix) It coats the wailrock in a 1 2 m
:controlling fault wide zone, crystals have a
[?) 2 14/74) feathery te&e and are up to
more than 5 cm long.
00thb260, coord. UTM: Quartz and Strong quam-alunite alteration. lunite: 10.85 f O. 13
405.86016752.670 feldspar- Alunite replaces feldspars and, as a (97 % of " ~ r
porphyritic crystal microcrystalline aggregates, cIuded in plateau).
tuff ( m e pervrisivety the rock matrix and
fngrnents) fragments.
Late hematite/lirnonite occurs on
fncture planes.
00thb239, coord. UTM: Aphanitic to Generally moderately silicified,
407.250/6752.8 10 feIdspar but locally strongly overprinted
3960m porphyritic basalt by hematite-goethitef jarosite
fo andesite, some alteration reilacing feldspars, and
blocky/breccious in fmctures and cavities. Locdly
domains porous texture similar to lava-
flow degassing patterns. Late
gypsum veins and
Strong hcturing/foliation:
2 10187 (dextraI offset?) occurs to
the southeast.
00thb240, coord. UTM: Heterolithic Breccia fngments and niff-rnatrix
506.36016752.720 breccia (probably are modeGely to strongly
3970 m as.1 hydrothennal). silicified, breccia mtrix contains
Rock-flour/clay clay, which dm alters the
matrix. feldspar.
Wallrock: Quartz Strong fncture pattern snikes
and feldspar phyric 030i90.
crystal tufT (rare
welded fragments}
Fig. AI1 7:-
The aiteration at Fabiana:
a) Coarse breccia with powdery to porcelaneous fine-grained alunite as matrix and in shdlowly dipping veins (v).
Samplesite of 00thb280a photo Iooking ENE.
6)Silicified volcanicfastic sandstone frorn Fabiam Fine-grained quartz (sil) overgrows quartzfragment (qtz) and
silicified smd-pains. Relatively coarse alunite (al) fills the space between the grains. Sample 00thb281a plane-
polarisedtrarismitted light.
c)Field of view as in b) but under crossed nicols; the original sand texture is better visible in this photo.
Fig. AI1 8:-
Aspects of the alteration at Fi10 Federîco at the bottom of Cerro Pelado, Veladero prospect:
a) Overview of Fi10 Federico, central zone. photo taken fiom the Lama camp looking south. The w p l e site for
0ûthb245a is indicated by the triangle and the stippled line indicates a NE-SW rrending fault which probably
controlled the emplacementof the alunite.
b) Contact of the massive, coarse aiunite zone (al) with a breccia of silicified clasts (SC) and a sugary quartz +
alunite rnatrix (m): near m p l e site of 00thb245a).
C) Close-upof the coarse alunite of 00thb245a
d) Thin-section photo of the same alunite. Microcrystailine opaque phases are responsible for the dark patches
(plane-polarised transmitted light).
 Late Miocene: The main mineralization eveats between 6 and 9.5 Ma

The great bulk of the rnined or proven reserves of Au, Ag and Cu in the area was

generated by hydrothemal activity between 6 and 9.5 Ma, although some early, generally

patchy, mineralisation may be as old as 10.5 Ma (see above). Many of the mineraiised

systems overprint barren alteration, which were &ted in a few cases. These samples are

described herein because of their proximity to the dated minenlisation.

The confmed only igneous rock with an age within this tirne-bracket is a 7.83 2

0.3 Ma dacitic dyke from Pascua.

Geochronological samples, in addition to those collected by the author, were

provided by Piotr Paleczek and Raul Guem, Barrick Chile Ltda., Cari Deyell, MDRU,

UBC, Vancouver, and Alan Clark. Al1 samples listed below were dated during this study

at the Qwen's University ' O A ~ - . ' ~ A ~ facilities.

The Pascua-Lama area

Although several stages of alunite alteration have been recognised at Pascua (A.

Chouinard, written commun., t000), the geochronological data suggest that the events

followed each other over a bnef interval: the alunite ages are within error of each other.

Supergene jarosite appears to have fomed shortly afler the hypogene alteration. The

presence of hypogene jarosite cannot be excluded as one sample (inca26a) exhibits coarse

alunite overgrowingjarosite (Fig. An-10).

Towards the east, in the Lama property in Argentina, the alunite ages obtained

herein are slightly older than those for Pascua proper, reflecting important differences in

mineralisation patterns (e.g., Au was not controlled by hydrothemal breccias, and

 -
Fig. AI1 9:
The sarnple locations for the dunites dated hom Lama (for
coordinates. see text):
a) Pervasive quartz-alunite alteration and chaotic alunite
stockwork in coarse granite, Caracoles Norte (sample
99thb209a).
b)Porcelaneous white -to- yeilowish aiunite vein (between stippled
lines) cutting fine-grained granite. Lower Mono (sample
99ihb2 Ma).
c)Vein of medium-graîned to powdery, white and pinkish dunite
cutting fine-grainedgranite. The vein indicated by the triangle was
dated (sarnple99thb2 1 7a). See hammer handle for d e .
 -
Fig. AII 10:
s alunite and jmsite h m , and near, Brecha Central. P a r u :
~ G c t of
a) Brecha Central (BC),cutting granite (g). The breccia is wt mineialised at this high level ( c a 4950 m as.1.)
but has an alunite matrix. Photo looking SE; sample location for PS-26c.
b) Photomimgraph of the Brecha Central (a). Medium-grained aluaite interpwn with quartz foms the
matri.. (al + qe);the large quartz gains are h m granitic hagments (sample PS-26c, crossed nicols).
C) Photomicrograph of Late alunite (a12) overgrown on jarosite (jar)which itself coats older alunite (al 1 ) and
quartz Such late aiunite is ody locally evident (sarnpk Inca26a, paralkl nicols).
4 Same fiame as in c) but with crossed nicols.
e) Backscattered electron image of Inca26a As in c) and d), an early generation of alunite is coated by jarosite
which itseif is overgrown by younger alunite.
fl Backscattered electron image of the more common relatiomhip as sern in uica26a: lace jarosite veins cut,
and locally brecciate, aiunite.
Samdes fiom fascua collected bv Alan Clark. Julv 1997:

~arnpleand location :bologies Alteration ' ~ r - ' ' ~da

r te
Inca25, Socavon Alex, ~-porphyry Strong pervasive quartz-alunite Alunite: 8.73 f 0.23
4680 m level, 35 m from ~ollay/Colorado alteration. Fine to coarse grained, Ma (85.9 % of 1 9 ~ r
the entrance on south i t?) also in laminated veins cutting the inciuded in plateau).
wall. Coord, UTM: rock (dated simple). ~ a tjarosite
e
400.353/6756.503 overprints alunite locally. Belongs
to the main carly pervasive
guartz-dunite dteiation
Inca26a, Socavon Alex, Q ~ - P O ~ P ~ Y ~Altention
Y similar to Inca25, but Alunite: 8.33 I0.29
4680 m Ievel, 35 m fiom (Chollay/Colorado more abundant late fine- to Ma (89.7 % of I9t4r
the entrrince on south unit?) medium grained jarosite in veins, included in plateau).
wall. Coord. üTM: norrnally-cuttingthe alunite. Jarosite: 5.06 i 0.80
400,353/6756.503 Jarosite locally coats alunite and Ma, unreliable age due
quartz. but is overgrown itself by to atmospheric
coarse alunite. contamination.
Inca33, Socavon Aiex, Quartz monzonite, Strong silicification. Rock is cut Alunite: 8.62 f 0.43
4680 m level, XC-802- cut by enargite- by alunite-eniugite veins S 2 cm Ma (76.8 % of j9t4r
SW, 2.5 rn S from alunite veins wide. included in plateau).
topographie point S A 2 5 White powdery to fine-crystalline
Coord. UTM: alunite-wasseparated from such a
400.490/6756.288 vein,
Bclongs to the fint stage of
miner&ation, post-brecciation.
Inca4 1. Socavon Alan, Mineralized Manix contains alunite and quartz Alunite: 8.54 f 0.33
4360 rn level, end of XC- breccia, locally (fine-crystallineto powdery). Ma (96.8 % of " ~ r
ZONW. Coord. UTM: sulphide-poor. Alunite was dated and probably included in plateau).
400.295/6756.565 Alunitic matrîx. belongs to the first stage of
Quartz monzonitic mineralisation, probably post-
framents. brecciation.
Inca42, Socavon Alan, Minenlized Alunite extends from the breccia Alunite: 8.10 f 0.19
4360 m Ievel, end of XC- breccia, locally mamx, also in veinlets cuning Ma (98.6 % of " ~ r
ZONW. Coord. UTM: sulphide-poor. breccia fragments (monzonite). included in plateau).
400.29516756.565 Alunitic matrix. Alunite probably belongs to the
Quartz monzonitic tirst stage of mineralisation,
fragments. clearly post-brecciation.

Inca45, Socavon Man, Monzonite Modcrate quartz-alunite Alunite: 6.70 f 0.75

4360 m level, end of por~hyty- alteration. Fine-grained alunite Ma (65.9 % of j9Ar
crosscut W e s t to the replaces feldspars in the silicified included in plateau).
SE, Coord, UTM: mamx. Unrcliable age due to
400.32016756.360 ProbabIy belongs to the early atmospheric
pervasive quartz-alunite alteration contamination.
Samdes fiom Pascua coliected bv Cari Devell. 1998- 1999:

Sample and location Lit hologies Alteration * ~ r - ' ~date

~r
PS-26c, Western limit of Upper unstratified Coarse alunite forms the marrix of Alunite: 8.36 t 0.17
the surface outcrop of pan of Brecha the breccia at this location Ma (91.2 % of 3 9 ~ r
Brecha Central. Coord. Central ("magmatic-steam" alunite). included in plateau).
UTM:400.740/6756.232 Minimum age for formation of
4993 m as.1. upper part of breccia
Posa, PS99-03,4680 m Brecha c e n a Coarse transparent alunite from +
Aiunite: 8.78 0.63
level. matrix Brecha Central matrix. (Aiunite- Ma (95.0 % of "Ar
enargite-pyrite, post brecciation, included in plateau).
first stage of minetalisation )
P 17a, DDH- 154.3 t O.Sm, (no detailcd Powdery alunite fiom alunite + +
Alunite: 7.97 1.59
4495111,near surface information) jarosite vein. Probably supergene. (64.2 % of ' 9 ~ r
included in plateau), a
large of
a&spheric argon is
responsible for the
poor age.
P 18, DDH- 1 19,37.7rn, (no detailed +
Alunite, silica kaolinite and Aiunite: 9.14 f 1.98
4993m near surface. information) native sulphur. Powdery aiunite, Ma (77.7 % of 3 9 ~ r
probably steam-heated, was included in plateau).
assessed for geochronology. Large portion of
atmosphenc argon is
responsible for thc
poor age.
Opaline quartz- Corne jarosite with supcrgene +
Jarosite: 7.98 0.43
breccia. isotope sigrüitwc fiom the matrix (95.4 % o ~ ~ ~ A ~
of an opaline quartz breccia included in plateau).

The Veladeroprospect

Only one alunite sample from the immediate Veladero prospect was dated and this
yielded a complex age spectrurn. The sample, 00thb282a. was collected on the eastem
slope of Cern Colorado, in the SE part of the prospect, from a coane alunite vein
(crystais up to several centimetres, with a feathery texture) cuning quartz-eye nch crystal
tuff (coord. UTM: 409.410/6747.200; 4200m). The dunite exhibits a strong
compositional zoning and yields an age spectnim which can only be explained by mixing
of two different types of alunite. The cores of the crystals consist of natroalunite (Na
per formula unit 2 1) and yield an age of around 11 Ma, connasting with the rims (Na/K
p h << l), which are ca. 8 Ma old. Back-scattered electron and element distribution
images are shown in Fig. AiI- 1 1.
 -
Fig. Ai1 Il:
The alunite h m the E flank of Cern Colorado, 4200 m a. s.l., SE piut of the Velndem prospect:
a) Strongly quartz-aiunitealtered rhyolitic crystal M s , cut by coarse alunite veins (represented by the stippled
line). Looking S.Rodrigo Castagno for scale.
b) Back-scattered electron image of the alunite h m a vein. This technique reveals that the natroalunite
(darker)is brecciatedand recemented by the alunite (sample 00thb282a 40 nA sample current. 200 scans @! 10
sec.).
C) Element distribution image of K (K-ka). The slightiy darker areas are coincident with the natroalunite
(Same field of view as in b), 40 nA. 200 scans @ 30sec.).
Tlie Vacas Heladas prospect

This prospect is the southemmost alteration zone dated in this study. Only enatic

high values of Au are reported (Arcos, 1997), but exploration activity in recent years has

been iimited and M e r investigations are needed to understand the system better.

The ages obtained in this study define to two hydrothemal episodes, the earlier

around 9.5 Ma, the later postdating Vallecito volcanism at 5.1 Ma. Aspects of the

alteration are shown in Fig. An-12.

Observations Fom Vacas Heladas:

Sample and location Lithologies Alteration ~ r - ~ date ' ~ t

99thb 1Oza, -b, trenches Rhyolitic to dacitic Silicification is pervasive, and 'ellowish medium-gr.
near Cerro Amarillo, heterolithic quartz f o m matrix in brecciated zones. lunite, thb 102a: 9.59
coord. UTM: and fcldspar- Barite is comely crystalline and 0.2 1 Ma (93.3 % of
409.19016695.360 porphyritic ccystal grows in open space;, medium- 'kinciuded in
4410m tuff, locally irained alhite needlcs overgrow lateau). Yellowish
brecciated barite. Late fine-grained yellowish ne-gr. alunite: 9.76 f
alunite occurs in simple thbl02b .64 Ma (79.3 % of
in vugs. ' ~ inr lat te au).
99thb 100%North-east of Rhyolitic to dacitic Quartz-alunite. Quartz replaces owdery to
Cerro Vacas lieladas hetcrolithic quartz rock matrix; alunite white orcellaneous alunite
(a.ka Cerro de la Mina), and feldspar- powdery to porcelaneous, replaces .orn vein: 5.09 f 0.13
coord. UTM: porphyritic tuff. Fragments and feldspar, and l a (90.7 % of "Ar
409.06016695.360 occurs in veins (- l -3 cm wide). icluded in plateau).
4400m Alunite confined to a narrow 30 rn
I I 1 wide zone. Late gypsum fills
hcnucs.
99thb103, Top of Cerro Rhyolitic to dacitic Strong pervasive silicification,
Amarillo, coord. UTM: ash-to-crystal tuff. alunite locally replacing feldspars,
409.77010696.239 To the east in and associated with opaline silica
15 1Om probable fault in veins (?). Andesites to the east
contact with kesh are weakly to moderately
andesites (fauit propyiiticdly altered Jasperoid
probably NNE- veins are common in the latter
SSW suiking (jasper veins strike -0 10185)
99thb 166, SE flank of Massive siliceous Pervasive silicification (vuggy
Ceno Vacas Heladas, brecciated rock texture). Barite grows in leached
coord. UiM: (probably former vugs, chalcanthite or simiIar
409.29316694.94 1 lithic tuff) copper sulphate occurs locaily
4380rn aIso in vugs.
Alunite very rare in some
Fig. AII-12:
Aspects of the aiteration at the Vacas Heladas prospect:
a) ~recciawith silicified clasts and siliceous matrix (DenisDiaz for d e ; location 99thb 166 in the southem
part of the project Looking NNW at outcrop).
b) Photomicrograph of bante (ba) ovewown by quartz (qtz) and narrow blades of aiunite (al) growing in
cavities. Late jarosite (yellow) overgrows alunite locally. Sarnple 99thb102a parallel nicols.
C) Cathodoluminescence image of the same sample, sirnilar field of view. Barite has brîght blue colours.
quartz and alunite are oniy weakly luminescent and appear siigfitly reddish and dark-blue respectively.
Tbe Veta Veronica, Tambo district

This small but relatively hi&-grade vein was exploited CU. 3 km NE of Cerro
Elefante, where the main Tambo mine operations are centred. The parallel but smaller

Polonia vein system is situated Ca. 1 km M e r north. Evidence for stem-heated

alteration occurs at an elevation of 4750 m, considerably above that on Cern Elefante.

Fig. AD43 illustrates aspects of the alteration at Veta Veronica.

Obsewations fiom Veta Veronica:

Sample and location Lithologies

Rhyolitic to âacitic
99thb 104, small open pit
where the Veronica vein quartz and
was mined, coord. UTM: fcIdspar-phyric
409.790/6705.460 tuff. present locally, particularly in
Cut by quartzose open space.. W& CO modente
replacement vein. hematite and kaoiinite alteration
overprints the rock (strongest
distant fiom the vein).
99thb105, top of the Rhyolitic to âacitic Strong vuggy silica alteration. Not possible to date
dope above the Veronica lithic crystal t u f White powdery illite occurs in the illite or alunite (too
vein, coord. üTM: ( q u a :id vugs and replaces somefiammae. much atmospheric
4 10.138/6705.655, feIdspu-phyric, Native sulphur locally occurs in ( argon).
47SOm weak welding)
Porcelaneous alunite occurs in

99thb 106, top of the Rhyolitic to dacitic

PoIonia zone, Ca. 1 Km lithic tuff (30% porcelaneous alunite replaces
N of -1 05. Coord. UTM: fragments). fragments and occurs in fractures
409.92816705.540, (strike: 06940, 31m and 290145,
4670m 4/m). Late gypsurn and jarosite in
hctures,
99thb 107,between Rhyolitic to dacitic Strongly quartz-sencite (+ clay)
PoIonia and Veronica c m 1 tuff (?), altered (original rock dificdt to
veins, coord. LITM: feidspar-porphm. identifjt).
409.784/6705.966, Srnall fault filled with limonite
44501x1 (strike 060/48) 1
Fig. AI1 - 13:
The Veta Veronica, NE of Cemi Elefmte:
a) The mal1 open pit where the NNE striking Veronica vein was mined. The wallrock is strongly silicified Tilito
Formation niff with various amounts of alunite (Photo looking NNE, triangle indicates the site of sample
99thb1Ma).
6) Photomicropph of the quartz-alunite (qtz. al) altered wall-rock of the Veronica vein. The matnx of the
rhyolitic to dacitic lithic tuff is sbongly silicified, and former fragments or feldspars are alunitised. whereas
sligiitly ernbayed magmatic quartzeyes are still preserved (sample 99thb 1O4a plane-polarised üansmitted Iight).
C) Same field of view as in b) but under crossed nicols.
The main orebodies of the Tambo mine

The geochronological results reveal that hydrothermal activity took place over an

interval of more than 3 m.y. Alunites from different levels and stages of the hydrothennal

systems were dated, starting fiom an early, Vacas Heladas-related barren event, through

to mineralisation between CU. 8 and 8.8 Ma in the Cerro Ele fante area, and around 7.2 Ma

near Canto Sur. Some petrographic aspects are shown in Fig. AII-14.

Samples from Tambo collected bv the author:

Sample and location Lithologies Alteration - ~ r - " ~ date
r
98thb13a. Brecha Clast-supported Coarse yelIowish to transparent +
10.42 0.28 Ma, (48.1
Silvestre, coord. UTM: hcteroliihic breccia alunite ccments the breccia. Clasts % of j9,4r included in
408.252l6702.487, with abundant generalIy silicified, some vuggy. plateau). Somc argon
4435m open-space Late hematitdgoethite coats the Ioss at low tcmp., but
aiunite diable dateau.
 -
Fig. AI1 14:
Altemtion at Cerro Elefante, Tambo:
a) Cern Elefante as seen fiom NNE. the white zone (SH) represents stearn-heated alteration inctuding native
sulphw. The mined mineralized bmcias and veins on the western and southem flanks ofthis hi11are not visible
in this view.
b) Photomicrograph of coarse alunite (al) ftom the matrix of the Kimberly breccia in contact with simngiy
silicified(qtz) clasts. Sample: KB-OS, transmittedfight, crossed nicols.
C) Photomicrograph of the matrix of Brecha Silvestre. Alunite forms namw blades growing into open space.
Sample98thb 13%crossed nicols.
d) Same view as in c) but cathodoluminescence image. Alunite is variable in luminescence and individual
crystalsare slightly zoned, as visible in the various shades ofdark-blue. Quartzexhibitsreddish colours.
Sam~lesh m Tambo collected bv Cari Deyell:

1
Samplc and location Litbologies
KB-02, Kimberly, coord. Late alunite vein
1 Alteration R ~ r 2 ' date
~r
dunite: 8.17 k 0.84
Ma @est step, 92.6 %
,f j9~r).Some
xoblems heating the
ample, but age is f

I KB-08, Kimberly, coord. Alunite-cemented breccia, alunite associated with late

UTM:407.76716703.577, scorodite.
Hypogene, paragenetic stage 3.
Ma, (89.5 % of " ~ r
induded in dateauL
Coarse-gnined vein alunite with barite, walthierite,
Reina vein, NW of Au Ma, ( 100% of I 9 ~ r
Wendy, approx. coord Hypogene paragenetic stage 2. included in plateau).
UTM:407.20016700.050,
Quartz-aiunite altered tuffs (Ti1ito Fm.).
Paragenetic nage 1, eariy wallrock alteration.
included in alateau).
Coarse-gnined banded alunite vein.
Kimberly, approx. coord. Magmatic s t e m minor hemtite overprint (post stage (90.3 % of '9Ar
UTM:407.000/6703.000 3). included in plateau).
4050m Sevcre problerns in
heating the sample
reld ttiis poor age.
LN-02, (lab#: T35), Thin pink veinlet of Ca-bearing dunite, traces of pyrite Alunite: 8.63 f 0.41
Kimberly wea, approx. and quartz. Ma (87.1 % of l 9 ~ r
coord. UTM: Ca-vein alunite paragenetic stage (post stage 3). included in plateau).
406.000/6704.000,
4260m
KB-40, (rab#: Ti 7a) Near-surface stem-heated quam-kaolinite-alunite- Alunite: 8.86 f 0.38
Kimberly near top of native sulphur alteration. Ma (91.7 % of 1 9 ~ r
Cerro Elefante. Approx. included in plateau).
coord. UTM:
408.000/6702.500,
4460 ma.s.1.
CS-08, (lab#: T02a) Late alunite vein, fine-graine4 overgrowingstage 3 Alunite: 7.25 k 0.14
Canto Sur, approx. aiunite. Ma (88.4 % of " ~ r
coord. UTM: Late jarosite overgrows this late stage alunite. included in plateau).
406.250/6706.050,
4474m
Sam~lesfrom Tambo collected bv Piotr Paleczek and Raid Guem, 1997:

Sample and location Sample materiil Y ~ ~ - 3date9~r

PPMCS, Canto Sur, Coarse yellowish alunite fiom breccia matrix. Alunite: 7.08 f 0.19
coord. UTM: Ma (89.3 % o f 3 9 ~ r
407.050/6705.090, road included in plateau).
cut.
PP09ENA. Elefante Fibrous white alunite from veinlets (mineralised Alunite: 6.13 f 0.79
Norte, coord. UTM: zonc) Ma (89.6 % of 3 9 ~ r
407.82516703.800, Ievel included in plateau).
4121. Large atrnospheric
contamination,
unreliable age.
PP13WEA, coord. UTM: Alunite-cemented breccia (up to 9glt Au). Alunite: 7.97 f 0.37
408.50016701.865. banco Alunite is lenticular and belongs to the mineralising Ma, (59.6 % of "Ar
4135 m, block 7 stage. included in best step).
Some heating
1
problems but reliable

Alteration in the Arujireros area

As the name implies, azrfre (sulphur) is common in this area ca. 3 km West of

Cerro Elefante, Tambo. Native sulphur is part of widespread stem-heated alteration

developed in the northwestern part of the Amfreras hi&-plain, ai Sol Poniente and along

the NW-SE striking Azufre fault. It is evident that several stages of alteration overprint

each other, and it is possible that the only sarnple dated in this study belongs to a

relatively insignificant young event. Apart fiom some small, mineraiized bodies of vuggy

silicified tuffs around Fnolentas, in the eastem part of Amfieras, no material has been

mined. Field relations of some of the localities are illustrated in Fig. AII-15.
 -
Fig. Ai1 15:
,bpects of the alteration in the Azutieras area:
a) A relatively narrow stem-heated alteration halo affecthg a Vacas tieiadas block-and-ash deposit dong Falla
AzufiP (buried in rubble, approxhate trace indicated by the stippled line). SOindicates a concentration of native
sulphur near the fault; alunite (ai) occurs in porcelaneous veins slightly M e r away. Fresh dacitic blocks (fdb)are
preservedoniy t O m away. Photo looking south, sample locality for 98thb 1Sc (porcelaneousdunite vein).
b) Native sulphur dong hctures and conglorneratic layers in the sediments at the northem part of Anifieras
(location 98thb2).
c) Quartz-phyrictuf& (pale-grey) deposited on fine-grained feldspar porphyry (dark- grey ). Both units are quartz-
aiunite altered. Powdery to porceilaneous veidets of alunite occw in two generatiom: generation 1, outlined by
the white stippled line, is mcated at the contact; generation 3 (black stippled line) cuts both units (location
98thb3, Sol Poniente).
Observations tiom A m fieras:

Sample and location Lithologies Aiteration ' A d % date

98thb 15, near Falla Block and ash Strongly controllcd by NW-SE Alunite fiom veinkt:
M e , coord UTM: deposit. Dacitic striking fadt (Falla Amfie).In +
7.66 0.23 Ma, (3 1.9
405.74416700.964, porphyry blocks infadt: Mtive suiphur, ciay and % of 3%included in
4420m ash maîrix, Vacas powdcry alunite in ash-matrix, plateau of 2 best steps
Heladas Fm. dome. Iate gypsum. 2-5 m SW of fault: with the least
porcelaneous aiunite replacing atrnospheric
feldspars and in veinlets. contamination).
Unaltered Ca. 5-1 0 m ffom fault. Reliable age.
98thb2, northem part of Waterlain Solfataric alteration, native Alunite may be older
M e r a s , coord UTM: sediments, graded sulphur- predominantly
- in coarse than 1 1.5 Ma because
405.1 W67O 1.985. Ca. bedding in layes, and on h?ict&s. Rcst of it does not cut the
4400m sandlsif tstones to rock weakly quartz-clay altered. sediments which are
conglomerates. 'The underlying tufis are weakly underlying Vacas
Quartz-porphyritic quartz-alunite altered, cut by Heladas tuffs
lithic tuffs porcellaneousalunite veins. Late
underlying hematite staining.
98thb3, Sol Poniente, Fine-gnined Pervasive quartz-dunite alteration Dating the alunite was
coord. UTM: feldspar porphyry (alunite is microcrystallineand attempted, but did not
404.53 1/670 1.78 1 overlain by quartz- white replacing feldspars and as yield reasonable
4285m phyric rhyolitic to narrow pinkish, white and resuIts. Previous
dacitic tuffs. yeilowish veinlets (to -1 cm Barrick K-Ar date:
wide). 2 generations of veins: one 14.1 f 1.3 Ma
is muicakd at the tuff contact. but
both exhibit similw habit.
98thb8, NE of Sol Matrix-supponed Fragments are comrnonly strongly
Poniente, coord. UTM: coarse heterolithic silicified but argillised clasts are
404.8941670 1.8 16 breccia, present. Matrix modentely
subrounded clasts silicified, with veinlets of
up to 30 cm. gypsum.

The Sancurrbnproject

Although this prospect incorporates significant Au-Ag mineralisation, no orebody

large enough to being mined has been defmed. However, the alunite ages correspond well

with those for mineralisation in the rest of the district. Stearn-heated aiteration, including

native sulphur, is reported fiom the top of Cerro Don Lucho (Williams, 1998). Fig. AII-

16 shows some aspects of the alteration.

 -
Fig. AII 16:
As~ectsof the alteration at S a n d n :
O) Alunite cemqlted (al) breccia with strongly quartz-alunite altered tuffaceous clasts (cl) on summit of Cern
Don Lucho. Sample-site of Wtbhl74a.
b) Green s c o d t e vein cropping out a the portal of the Zorn Inferior tunnel (4290 m). Sample 99thbl73a was
taken h m a nearby alunite-cernent4breccia
c) Photomicrographof991hb 174a Siliceous clasts (qtz) in a quartz-alunite matrix. Coarse late dunite gmws in the
remainingcavities.TratlSmitted Light, crossedRicols.
d)Cathodoluminescence image ofthe same sampie. Quartzappears in reddishcolours,bu! the late alunite is almost
nonluminexent. Some bright blue zones may repment an earlier stage of alunite. not distlliguishable in
transmittedlight.
Observations h m Sancarron:

Sample and location Lithologies Alteration u ~ r - 3 ' ~date

99th 173%Portai of
Zorro Inferior tunnel
(4290 m). Coord. UTM:
408.000/6727.650
99thb 174%Top of Ceno
Don Lucho, coord
UTM:407.72016728.430
4490 m
r
Rhyolitic to Strong, pervasive quartz-aiunite Alunite fiom breccia
dritic. lithic alteration. Alunite fonns breccia matrix: 7.65 f 0.16
crystal tuff,cut by cernent (fragments are siliceous). Ma
fragment- Scorodite rich veins to 30-40 cm (98.4 % of ' 9 ~ r
supported breccia wide are observed. includcd in plateau)
with alunitic
matrix.
Rhyolitic to dacitic
volcanicIastic
conglomerate-to-
tuff, cut by
siliceous breccia.

The Rio del Medio low-suijidation vein

This only known rnineralized entirely low-sulphidation vein in the district is

situated 3.5 km N of El lndio. 1t is a partly brecciated quartz-rich vein containing some

Ag sulphosalts such as stephanite and freibergite (R. Peralta, pers. commun., 2000). A

variety of carbonates including rhodochrosite, dolomite and calcite, occur. The walirock

is an andesite, exhibith g only a relatively narrow quartz-sericite k pyrite alteration halo.

The age spectmm of sample 98thb4a suggests that the alteration related to the vein

overprints an older event. Sample OOthb4d yields a reliable age for the vein formation.

Aspects of the dated samples are shown in Fig. An-17.

The dated samples of Rio del Medio:

Sample and location Litbologies Alteration u ~ r - 3 ' ~date

r
98thb4a. 3975 m bench Fine- to medium- Moderate to strong quartz-sericite Sericite: 9.39 f 0.58
in open pit, SW corner. grained andesite + pyrite alteration. Probably M a (total gas age,
Coord. üTM: CU. 3 m fiom vein. overprinting an older event. argon loss occurred.
406.875167 12.765 Probably mix between
2 alteration events)
OOthb4d, 3940 m bottom Quartzose part of Host rock fragments are strongIy Sencite fiom fragment
of the pit E wall. Approx. the vein incluâing quartz-sericite aitered +
in vein: 7.63 0.4 1
coord. UTM: host-rock Ma (85.7 % of " ~ r
406,89016712.790 fragments included in plateau).
Fig. AN - 17:
Apects of the alteration of the Rio del Medio vein
a) Sample-site of 99thb4d. on the east wail of the open pit. Sarnple was taken fiom a brecciated part of the vein
which has not bcen exploited(pale rocks in centre; Kevin Heaiher for raie).
b) Photornicrographof quartz-sericite-pyrite (qtz, set, py) alteted andesitic wallmck of the Rio del Medio vein.
Sample 98thMa, plane-polarised transmitted light.
C)field of view as in a)but undercrossed nicols.
El Indio district alteration and mineralisation

Alteration minerais associated with several veins in the El Indio, Viento, Jalene

and Campana workings have been dated, together with a few samples fiom alteration

zones on surface. Petrographic relationships are s h o w in Fig. AII-18.

Sarn~lesfiom the El Indio area collected bv the author:

Sample and location Lithologies Alteration ' ~ r - " ~ rdate

99thb7 1c, Mon- 2 km Feldspar- Andesites are silicified, some Alunite:745 f 0.56
SW of Cerro la porphyrytic feldspar is replaced by kaolinite. Ma (87.7 % of 3 9 ~ r
Campana, coord. UTM: andesite, overiain Coarse, yellowish alunite fills included in plateau).
405.060/6708.725 by basal (talus?) fiactures (sample from a 070/84
breccia and oriented fracture, density of h c .
Vallecito Fm. tuffs 10/m.
Tuff matrix, argillized basal
breccia slightly silicified.
Jay 1, DDH-JA-8,375.4- Qw-ic h Quartz-sericite t pyrite aiteration Sericite: 7.75 f 0.35
375.6 m, immediate breccciated (f in immediate vicinity of vein. Ma (73.5 % of 3 9 ~ r
envelope of the Jalene pyrite. enargite) included in plateau).
vcin. intermediate-
suiphidation vein.
Samdes fiom El indio collected bv Alan Clark, Julv 1997:

Sample and location Lithologies Alteration m ~ r - 3date

g~r
Incal4, Mula Muerta Enxgite
- rich vein Quartz-sericite in vicinity of vein. Sencite: 7.62 2 0.29
vein c&tacto Dos, 3845 1 1 1 Ma (81.3 % of 39Ar
m Ievel included in plateau).
Incal5, Paihuano vein, Quaruose vein Quartz f sericite Sericite: 6.57 f 0.30
3865m level, Camera Ma (84.3 % of " ~ r
included in plateau).
Inca2 1, lalene vein, Intermediate IHitdsericite, i kaolinite, late IllitdSericite: 3.46 î
Level3925 m, Punta 8, sulphidation quartz veinlet 0.43 Ma (67 % of I 9 ~ r
ficm western margin of 1 rich vein. 1 1 included in plateau).
vein (footwall).
Inca23, Viento vein, Pyrite-enargite Quartz-sericite Sencite: 7.02 f 0.24
Level3885 Norte, vein Ma (93.3 % of 'etIr
107 NE Crosscut. included in plateau).

Sam~lesfkom the El indio area collected by Piotr Paleczeck and Raul Guerra. 1997:
---

Sample and location Lithologies Alteration - ~ r - ~ 'date

~r
PP1 ICW, Campana Pcrvasive, powdery alunite, Alunite: 12.06 2 0.39
West, 405.4 10/67 10.100 possibly sîeam-heatcd. Ma (99.9 % of " ~ r
included in plateau).
98thb66, Campana West, Strongly silicified Not directly dated. Fine-grained dunite in veins/rnatnx.
close to location of rock, brecciatird to Jarosite and hematite Iocally stain the alunite yellowish to
PP 11CW, coord. UTM: very strong 1 reddish.
405.446/67 10.055, stockworkof Late clay and gypsum present. This outcrop is near
4320 m a.s.1 dunite etc. Former PPI 1CW and may be equivdent.
andesite (?).
PPI 2CBB, Campana B Enargite-rich vein Fine-grained dunite occurs Alunite: 6.2 1 f 0.26
vein, 4 130 m level, DR together with alunogen and is Ma (95% of ' 9 ~ r
142, section 65 SW intercalated with enargitc included in plateau).
 -
Fig. LUI 18:
Sericites dated h m El Indio, Viento and Jalene:
a) Fine-grained sericite (ser) and possibly illite (brownish) together with fme to coarsely crystailine quartz (qtz)
and pyrite (py). Sample Inca23. Viento vein, transmitted light. parailel nicols.
b) The same field of view as in a) but with crossed nicols,
C) Sericite-flakescoating quartz grains and Iining cavities.
Sample Inca 15, Paihuano vein, crossed nicols.
4 Alternathg layers of pyrite and quam in the Idene vein. Sencite was deposited together with quartz ktween
two iayen of pyrite. SampleJay 1, crossed nicols.
 Late Miocene to Piiocene: young, pst-mineraüzation hydrothermal activity

As aiready mentioned in the context of the alteration at the Vacas Heladas

prospect and the Ialene Vein, evidence for alteration related to Vallecito Formation

volcanism and even younger, can be found in the El Indio belt. Hot springs with water

temperatures up to 100°C are still active at Despoblados and Anoyo del Gollete in

Argentina and at Baiios del Toro in Chiie, indicating ongohg hydrothermal activity.

However, alteration zones postdating mineralisation are nonnally of very restricted

extent. Two localities with evidence for young alteration are listed below.

Station and location. Description

99thb96, Lowermost ModerateIy welded rhyolitic lithic crystal tuffs (Vallecito Formation).
Quebrada El Azufre Ca. 4 0verlying61der(~ilitoFm.?). stronay silicified rhyolitic to dacitic crystal
km S of Cern Elefante. tuff, containing some quartz- tourmaline veinlets (1 15/88).The Vallecito
408.577/6698.060, niffs are generally fiesh, but local1y cut by fine-gnined pale-grey quartz ,
31 10m veins (to 2 cm wide, trending 280165). Those veins have a narrow alteration
halo (chlorite repiaces biotite, qumz and ciay part 1y replace mamx and
feldspars respective1y.
99thb1 11, Quebrada Vacas Phreato-magmatic vent of Vallecito Formation age. Wallrock: dacitic to
Hel&, coord UTM: rhyolitic l i t k crystai tuff, qwm-clay altered. ~ a l l r o c kis inmded by an
4 13.966î6696.747, e&ntially monolithic breccia consisting of silicified wailrock-fragmentsin
4640m a quartz-hematite-clay mamx. The breccia can be difcctly correlated with
the basal conglomerGe underlying volcaniclastic sandstones and
congiomerates belonging to the Vallecito Formation.
 III
APPENDW

Preface

The chronology of hydrothermal alteration defmed herein for the El Indio-Pascua

belt, and incorporating both economic and uneconornic systems, is based predominantly

on M ~ r - 3 9incremental-heating
~r analyses of hypogene alunite group rninerals (Appendix

W ) . In the interest of'both comprehensiveness and potential re-evaluation of the inferred

ages. this appendix records cornpositional data for the analysed samples, complernenting

the fieid and petrognphic information provided in Chapter 2 and Apprndix II.

Analytical procedures
Electron microprobe analyses were conducted on most dated alunites (Table AIII-

1) and on selected jarosite (Table AiII-2) samples on a Applied Research Labontories

SEMQ electron microprobe. Operating parametea included an accelention potent ial of

15 kV and a sample current of 40 nA.

Analyses were performed in the energy-dispersive mode (EDS),scanning 6 times

an area of 20 by 20 microns for each analysis. This procedure was necessary to avoid

significant loss of Na and K during analysis, but has the disadvantage that srnall-scale

zoning cannot be detected. Within the context and scaie of this study, however, this type

of analysis was generally suficient. The standard used was a hypogene, coarse-gnined

alunite from Marysvale (Stofiegen and Alpers, 1987). The analytical data. in wt.% and

calculated for 14 oxygens per formula unit, are tabulated in Table AIII-1 (aiunites,

natroalunites) and Am-2 (jarosites), and specific aspects of the chemistry are presented

graphicaily. The calculated totais are very close to 100% for most analyses but some

282
porcelaneous samples gave oxide sums of only ca. 97 %. This could be an effect of some

replacing
~~0 ' K or Na in the crystal structure.

The Analytical Data

Na and K contents, Le.. alunite-natroalunite solid-solution relationships, have

traditionally received attention, because for geochronological purposes the potassium is

critical. The analyses herein show that, even in the few natroalunites, K constitutes

around 5 W.% of the mineral, more than enough to satisQ the requirements of the " ~ r -

%r method (minimum K-contents depend on the age of the specirnen but would be of

the order of 0.2-0.5 W.% ).

A district-scale overall trend in alunite composition through time is not apparent

fiom the analytical data (Table AIII- I ) but alunites from specific hydrothemal systems

tend to have similar chernical characteristics which, in some cases, are distinctive. For

instance, the Ba content is significant in the alunites from Sancarron, while for most other

analysed samples it lies below detection limits.

Fig. AiII-1 shows a clear negative correlation of the K and Na contents for the

analysed alunites. The observed trend indicates solid solution of K and Na, without major

involvement of other elements for the A-site in the crystal. An empirical correlation of

KrO with the size of the deposits is also apparent. Thus, alunites from the large Pascua

prospect are at the hi&-K20 extremity of the compositional range, whereas those from

the smaller Tarnbo deposit scatter towards markedly higher Na20 contents. Although this

observations may be an artefact because the alunites were not systematically collected for

chernical analysis, Deyell et al. (submitted) report a large compositional range for alunite-
group minerals from Tambo, whereas those fiom Pascua Vary much less in KzO/NazO

ratio (C. Deyell, written commun., 2001).

The K20Ma10 ratios of alunites fiom several locations fiom the Pascua-Lama-

Veladem area are ploned versus age in Fig. AIII-2. A trend towards higher KzO-contents

ihrough time seems to be evident. Similarly, a westerly trend towards high K contents is

apparent when the strongly zoned sarnple form Veladero is not considered (see also Fig.

2- 14). En contrast, the K20/Na20ratios of alunites in the El lndio and Tambo districts, as

shown in Fig. AIII-3, exhibit a broad increase in NazO with time. However, systematic

sampling and analysis of alunite occurrences would be essential to provide a foundation

for f i e r discussion on this topic. It c m probably be concluded, that the alunite

chemistry is controlled by the evolutionary characteristics of the individual alteniion

systems and does not reflect large-scale regional and temporal trends.

The author acknowiedges that the analytical data documented in this appendix are

sparse and even accidental. They were determined as a bais for interpretation of the " ~ r -

r for the wide range of alteration systems in the El uidio-Pascua belt, rather than
3 9 ~ages

a contribution to ore-genetic arguments. Nonetheless, the apparent interdeposit variation

in average K20/ Na20 ratios (Fig. An-1) is a potentially important feanire which

deserved M h e r evaluation.
 ' XFilo Fedenco '

XVeladero oid
Vetadem yaung .

Fig. AI11-2:
log(KzO/NaQ) versirs age for samples from the Pascua-Veladero
tnnssect. A temporal, and westerly, trend to higher K contents is
apparent, aithough the two genentionç of dunite from Veladero span the
entire compositional range.
1 O El lndio /
I
!

Fig. AICI-3:
log (K20/Na20)versus time for the samples From El Indio md
Tambo districts.
A broad temporal trend to lower K contents is apparent, contrasting
with that in the Pscua-Veladero m a .
l ~ u r c coanc finep. ovcrgr. jar cur by jar porccll~neow
3iui 0.00 O. 14 0.14 0.38 0.19 0.00 0.42 1 73
no1 0.00 0.21 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.12
.urOi 37.68 37.80 37.46 37.37 37.27 37.11 37 9 1 35.10
PIOS 0.48 O. 73 0. 73 0.69 0.33 0.28 0,39 0.28
Fe0 0.00 0.24 0.23 0.00 O. 17 0.00 O 00 O. 14
Ca0 U.15 0.00 O. 18 0.00 0.00 O. 18 0.00 0.00
.Va JO 0.37 0.29 0.2Y 0.52 0.55 0.40 0.47 1.25
11110 11.U5 9.91 10.73 10.62 10.74 10.60 10.86 9.58
so i 37.12 37.13 37.80 36.88 37.48 37.01 37.49 36.42
lfrO 11.98 13.04 13.15 12-99 12.99 12.85 13.11 12.74
Ba0 0.00 0.20 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.00 0.00
SOM 99.84 99.59 100.90 99.60 99.71 98.71 100.65 97.37
SUI I o O 0.0 I 0.0 1 0.026 0.0 13 O 0.029 0.122
TU1I o O 0.01 1 O 0.008 O O O 0 006
AU1 40 3.077 3.074 3 .O2 1 3.050 3.O4 1 3.069 3.063 1,922
P/llo 0.028 0.042 O 043 0 .O4 0.0 19 0.017 0.012 0.017
Fd140 O 0.014 0.0 13 O 0.0 1 O O O 008
.&/110 O O 0 O O O 0 1)
Ca'IIo 0.01 1 O 0 013 0 O O 013 O O
.)o/I~o 0.05 0.039 0.038 0.07 0.074 {).OH i).~a~ 0 171
IV140 0.977 0.872 0 437 0.938 0.948 0.947 0.95 O.Yh4
9140 1.430 1.923 1.94 1 1.917 1.948 1.945 1 .Y29 1.93 1
Hlflo 6.000 6.000 6,000 6.000 6.000 6.000 6.000 6.000
B d 10 O 0.005 0.005 O O 0.004 O O
Ale 8.73 8.73 8.33 8 33 8.33 8.62 8.38
trror O 23 0.13 0.29 0.29 0.19 0.43 O. 17

Table A l l l - l
'The mslyticd thta fur ilunttc-gmup mincnls from ihc El Indio-Pascu, bcli.
m a l y s u for ~lunitcs~ssociarcdwith economic and rubcconomic L'ppcr Mioccnc
centra arc tirtcd from N to S. followcû by uldcr uncconomic alteniion systcm.
L AIWI continucd
Lami Filo Feâerico ha de kilt, Lami Centrai Fabirii
Supl* 99thb209r 99thb214a 99thb117a OOtltb245a 00rhb260a 00thb230a 00thb230a 00ihb281a
Tamn v q coure fsp. ml. r d . CO- ICI. corne r d corne
3JUt 0.20 0.00 O. 12 0.00 0.48 O. 44 O. 14 0.51
L AIII-1 continucd
Velrbrro rod VeI.drro Sur

TeUwc bladcd centre nm nm centre

3lU1 0.96 0.30 0.47 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
nor 0.13 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
.Ur01 37.43 36.59 37.82 38.17 38.1 l 35.10 37.89
pz01 0.5 1 O. 19 0.54 0.00 0.62 0.94 0 15
Fe0 0.87 1.BO 0.40 0.00 0.00 2.14 0.00
Ca0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.00
.Va10 3.61 3.33 3.11 3.74 12 3 0.16 3.90
Kau 5.26 6.71 6.40 5 23 9.26 10.71 1.38
SOI 36J37 36 92 36.71 37.52 37 32 36.42 j7.25
Ma0 13.08 12.9 1 13.01 13.01 13 IO 12.66 12.90
Ba0 0.00 0.00 0.20 O. 16 0.46 0.00 0.00
SUM 98.73 98.73 98.67 97 93 i 00.29 48.12 Y6 48
Sul40 0.066 0.02 t 0.032 O U O 0
riIf40 0.007 O 0 O 0 O O
.4Ul40 3.033 3.006 3.082 3.1 17 3.084 2.940 3.1 14
P/I& 0.03 0.01 1 0.032 O 0.036 0.056 0.009
Fdf 40 0.05 O. 105 0 023 O 0 O. 127 0
*tfg/I40 O O O 0 O O O
Cd140 0 O O O 0.015 O 0
.VU1Ju 0.481 0.45 0.417 0.50 1 0.164 0.021 0.527
ul40 0.461 O 596 O 564 0 461 0.81 I 0 971 U 39
Pl40 1.903 1.931 1.905 1.946 l.9Y 1.942 1.949
full# 6.000 6,000 6.000 6.O OU 6.000 b,000 6.000
Bdllo O O 0.005 0.004 0.012 0 O
Ale 12.8 IL8 15.71 8 !I
tA I ï k I coatinucd

Tmvn coane coanc f ~ prcpi.

. coarse incdiumgr. nuidump. cosne coanc
I 0.22 0.16 0.43 0.1 1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
no2 0.00 0.00 0.00 O.2O 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Alroi 37.62 37.67 36.99 37.30 37.37 37.77 37.05 37 56
Pzoi 0.35 0.23 0.32 0.80 0.77 0.47 0.47 0.00
Fe0 0.00 0.00 0.14 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.31 0.00
Ca0 0.10 0.08 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.14 0.07 0.00
.Va 10 1.53 0.36 0.25 1.47 1.54 3.55 0.63 1.61
Kr0 8.87 11.14 1t 2 0 8.6 1 R.89 6.20 10.16 8.28
Sot 37.40 37.85 37.46 36.83 36.85 37.73 36.87 37.45
llrO 13.03 13.1 1 11.99 12.95 12.90 13.1 1 12.85 12.89
Be0 0.39 0.32 0.24 0.75 0.00 0.00 0 3 O. 16
Smf 99.51 100.90 1OO.OI 99.09 98.30 98.98 98.84 97 94
SUI40 0.0 15 0.01 1 0.03 0.007 O 0 O 0
TU140 O O O 0.01 0 0 0 0
AU2 40 3.061 3.057 3.019 3.053 3.070 3,055 3.057 3.089
P/Ilo 0 02 0.013 0.019 0.047 0.045 0.028 0.018 0
Fdlo O O 0.008 0 0 0 41 O18 0
Ill/llo 0 O 0 O O 0 0 O
Co/Ilo 0.007 0.006 O 0.006 O 0.01 1 0.005 0
.Vo/llo O.2OS 0.048 0 033 0. 197 0 208 0.473 0.086 0.218
K/II u 0.782 0.975 0.9119 0.763 (1 791 0.543 0.907 0.737
YI4u 1.Y 38 1.950 1.947 1.920 1.927 1.943 1.938 1 .96 1
fVI4i, 6.000 6.000 6.0UO 6.000 6.000 6,000 6.000 6.000
Bdl4u 0.0 1 O.UO9 0.007 0.02 0 (1 0.01 2 0.004
Alte 7 65 7.86 7.86 7.45 6.21 6.21 7 08 7 08
Z RUkI continurd
Tiaboi r c i Tambo ite8,Leited V a c u Hetrdir
-pie PPl3WEA KB-08 99thblOJa 98rhblSc 99rhb105s 99thb100s 99thb102a 99thb102a
Tmre coane corne medium porccllancous porccllrncous porcclianww old gcn. nccdla
3du1 0.00 0.22 0.38 1.59 1.15 0.00 0.85 0.16
no1 0.00 O. 18 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.12 0. 14 0.00
Ali01 37.3 1 37.75 36.85 34.04 34.98 36.28 37 32 37.51
Pz01 0.84 0.45 0.35 0.59 0.69 1.28 O. 75 0.18
Fe0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.65 0.5 1 0.57 0.00 O. 13
Ca0 0.11 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.10 0.12 0.10 O. 18
.Va 10 0.9 0.00 O. f 5 0.28 O. 54 0.61 O. 73 1 42
KIO 11.12 I 1.58 11.19 10.98 10.95 10.4 t 9.86 9.26
soi 36.76 37.14 36.57 35.99 36.00 35.39 36.40 36.70
Ha0 12.94 13.03 12.80 12-55 12.65 12.64 12.46 12.86
8iO 0.00 0.00 O O0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
SUM 99.63 100.35 98.52 96.67 97.55 97.44 99.1 1 98.40
Sul40 O 0.015 0.027 0.114 0.082 O 0.059 0.01 1
721140 O O. 009 0.006 O 0 0.007 0.008 O 000
AU! I o 3.057 3.070 3,052 2.876 2.932 3.043 3.052 3.093
P/llo 0.05 0.026 0.02 1 0.036 0.04 I 0.07 7 0.044 0011
Fdl40 O O O 0.039 0.03 0.034 0.000 0.007
.b/g/140 O O O 0 O O 0.000 0.000
CdIIu 0 008 O O 008 O 0.008 0.009 0.007 0.013
.Va//4o 0.072 0 0.02 1 0.039 0.074 0.086 O 098 O. 193
Ullo 0.986 1.020 1.003 1.004 0.991 0.945 0.873 0.127
9/40 1.918 1.923 1.928 1.936 1.92 1 1 .a90 l.gY6 1 .927
If/lIo b,000 6.000 6,000 6.000 6.000 6,000 6.000 6.000
Taturc bladcd bladcd bladcd medium gr. c a m e gr. medium gr. medium gr.
z 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.4 1 0.09 0.20 O.? 1
no2 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
. U r 01 37.62 36.49 37.55 38.14 37.57 37.79 37.89
Pz01 O. 16 0.48 0.56 0.57 0.42 0.39 0.69
FcO 0.00 0.68 0.00 0.39 O. 16 0.3 1 0.00
Ca0 0.00 0.00 0.12 0.32 0.39 0.00 0.00
SU8 0 0.36 0.33 O. 17 1.U 1.76 1.18 1.2 1
KI 0 11.31 11.10 11.29 9.02 8.25 9.75 7.83
SOI 37.77 36.50 36.99 37.20 37.16 36.70 37.11
HIO 13.05 12.73 12.95 13.17 12.98 12.95 13.05
6.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.17 O00
Table AIII-2: Analyses-for Jarosites
-

Veiadem Sur Poscw Sancamin

Sample ûûthb273a j ûûthb275a Inca25 Incli26a Incd6a 99thb174a
texïure overgr, id overgr. al fine gr. vein cuts al rim on qtz-al fine gr.
Si0 0.36 0.36 0.30 0.58 0.62 0.57

Fe203 43.14 42.59 4 1.73 43.44 43.13 41.41

SUM 97.55 94.38 94.75 97.19 96.83 96.41
 " A R ~ ~ AANALYTICAL
R DATA

Ceneral remarks
The total fusion and laser step-heating J0Ar-39~r
geochronological data are

presented in this appendix. For each sample the measured isotopic ratios are included

with, normally, four graphs showing the 3 9 ~ r / ' ovs.

~ r3 6 ~ r b ocorrelation
~r diagram, the

age vs. the fraction of "Ar released, the cumulative volume of " ~ r ,as well as CalK, CUK

and % atmospheric 'OAK Al1 errors are given at 2a.

The data are listed in the following order:

98thb4a to 00thb283a

Jay 1

Inca 14 to Inca 47

KB-02 (= KB-Vein) to KB-08

PS-26~

Where two aliquots of the same sample were measured, the data are presented

together in the same graphs. Sampie 98thb4a was dated in 1998 and 1999, sample

99thb221a in 1999 and 2000. The resuits of these individual runs are presented

separately and show that the data are reproducible throughout the study.

For exact sample locations refer to Appendices 1 and II, analytical techniques are

described in Chapter 2.
4a Ser Bp
 Fraction 39-

LOO >
i
i
 4.
8.75t4.71
Ll. 13 5.09
11.97 1.13
11.89 0.50
L2.02 0.52
12.34 0.70
12.15 0.59
12.12 0.59
12.01 0.50
11.79 0.22
Fraction 39-

1.0

Fraction 39Ar
a Bia

Fraction 39Ar

0.0 t.0
Fraction 39-
muurad v a L i o r 8 u m x U - 1 0 crl IR?. A l 1 arrorm ara 2 r #tan& mtror. X n U i r t O 08-0.c-O0
 Fraction 3 9 A r

. , . , . 1 . 10

O a 6 6 8 IO If O .O 1.0
Powmr (W) Friction 39-
 Fraction 39-

0.0 1.0
Friction 39-
 Sb Bio

0.000 0.001 O . O02 0 .O01 0.004

3 6Ar/lOAr Fraction 39-

0.0 1.0
Fraction 39-
mutard valmi ara r 18-10 03 m. U l acmrm a r a 2 t aC'.idird a m r . ~a-a am-mc-00
 Fraction 39-

0.0
Fraction 39-
Xaiti.1 40/36r 215.13
Carralatiosi Agar 6.01
*
*
13.56 -
(11(8 0 .)). iaochroo b a t r # 0.42 and 2.15)
0.25 Us (100.OI oL 39Ar. at.g# u r k d by .)

muor.6 volini. u e x U - 1 0 cm3 m. A l 1 arrorm irm 1 t #-rd 0-r. Intriif0 08---O0

 Feld Bp

VohmO 39Kr 13.U la-10

xnt.gr.t.d Ag.: 5.51 2 0.19 na

Point 361u/4OIc 19&/40& r C&/K % 4 O l t m %39- 40&*/3SX 4.

2.00 0.00282L:O.d0~076 0.110998~0.000779 0.016 0.024 83.07 20.11 1.500~0.204 5.16i0.74
e 7.00 0.001416 0.000045 0.378238 0.00222S 0.016 0.024 42.24 79.89 1.514 0.037 5.52 0.13
 h Peld gp

a.0 L.0
Fraction 39As

O ? . , , , , , . 7 f l
O 1 4 6 a0 12
Powir (W)
 P a r
1.50
c 3.00
7.00
i.00
e 2.00

< 3.00
r 4.00
5.00
7.00
 - - . I
O.OO& t
O a 4 6 I 10 u 0.0 1.0
Pawmr (W) Friction 3 9Ar
 0.0 1. O
Friction 39-

LOO
1

1.8
Friction 39-
4b Bia &
 0.0 1.a
Fraction 39-

0.001 4 . . . . , , . . 1
8.0 l.P
Fraction 39-
57a Bia &

0.0 1.0
Friction 39-

LOO

LO

1
 Friction 3 9 A r

r
.a
l
A
'
0 i

5
1I o.al
i-
l
i
J Value: 0.001007
* 0.000010
a a ' 4 a LO l2 0.0 1.0
P o w i r (II) Fraction 39-
- -
, r r 7 . , , .

0.0 1.0
Fraction 39Ar
platmau mm: 7.45 : 0.54 m ( 17.7% O$ 39Ar. i t i p m u r k d by r)
 Fraction 39-

0.0
Fraction 39-
Uuor.d ml- u8 x U - 1 0 cm3 m- U l mrmra u o 2 r a t m mrmr. rntrlmI0 08-Dac-O0
o : , , . . . . . . .

Friction 39Ar

0.0 1.0
Fraction 39-
lO8.090
3 OB. 090
308.090
300.090
106.090
89. Bio

0.0 L.0
Friction 39-
 Fraction 39-

0.0 1.0

Fraction 39-
0.0 1.0
Fraction 39Ar

0.D 1.0

Friction 39-
Parnt 40U 3 )Ar 31Ar 37- 3 6- B l i n * 40- Am. 40/36
7.00 18.889:0.Q28 2.86120.019 0+511:0.007 0.262:0.005 0.022tO.OOL 0 .O27 293.402
Fraction 39Ar

Friction 39-
 Fraction 39-

0.0 I.0
Fraction 39-
 Fraction 3 9 A r

9.0 1.0
Prrction 39-
 6.0 1.0

Fraction 39Ar

LOO
1

O t 4 6 I I O La Q.0 I.0
Qowmr (W1 Fraction 39-
 L.0
Fraction 39Ar
Uuotrd r o 1 u u m ara x U-10 a m. A l 1 atrorm u m 7 x m t . n d u b amr. I n t r i r t O 08-Dac-00
 Fraction 39-

LOO

1
l

0.0
Fraction 39-
 - -
O O T B 79. 99-28 Bi0 a

Bouur.4 wolii... are r U-10 a 3 m. Ut m r s u r i u o 2 I ae.ridud mrror. fn+rirfO 08-WC-O0

 1.0
Fraction 3 9 A r
Fraction 39Ax

1.0
Friction 39Ar
 Fraction 39-

O t a 6 a ;O 12
Powar (W)
 -
OOTB 6 5 . 99-98 Bi0

Fraction 39-
 Fraction 39-

2 j
p, -'---,-
O.'

"
cl
- - - -
i-

0.0 1.0

Fraction 39-
V o l m o 391: 9.98 x 1s-10 m
fnt.g+atod Aga: 11.99 : 1.95 Ii
 Fraction 3 9 A t

LOO

1
839-
22-10
19.00
13-70
10.43
LO. 11
9.70
5.73
8.35
 -
OOTR 7 2 . 99-r Bio 80

0.0 1.0
Fraction 39-

0.0 1.a
Fraction 39-
3b Bio 8p
 Fraction 39Ar

LOO .

0.D L.0
Fraction 3 9 A r
146a Bio Bp
O O T B - 7 5 .. 99tW146a Bio hp

Friction 3 9 A r

0.0 1.0
Fraction 39Ar
00TB-107: 99#&159b Ser 80

C.D/loac 160/6
l u i t 11.5 q
OOTB -7 4 : 9-0a Ser

Friction 39-

D t a a 4 10 ll
Powmr (W
 0.50 4.306tO.014 0.093t0.002 0.005:O 001 0.005~0.0Ol 0.0L6t0.001 O. 103 295.411
< 1.00 6.849 0.021 0.950 0.012 0.015 0.001 0.007 0.002 0.011 0.001 O. 104 295.441
Ç 1.50 9.947 0.024 1.7m 0.021 0.02s 0.002 0.009 a.002 o.008 0.001 O. rot 195.441
< 2.00 5.847 0.018 1.040 0.012 0.016 0.001 0.007 0.002 0.006 0.001 O. LOI 195.441
2.50 3.459 0.019 0.598 0.009 0.009 0.001 0.006 0.001 0.004 0.001 0.103 295.441

Uauurad voltiua as. % U - 1 0 cr3 ln?. Al1 .-ri atm 2 t a W d u d arrar. triCrhl0 08-me-O0
 Fraction 39-

All arrora u m 2 x it&d otmr. Iiitr-0 08-ûmc-00

 0.0 1.0
Fraction 39-

ri
m.. 1t
u 1-
1658 Bio bp

Friction 39-

"
U
0.0 L. O
Fraction 39-

0.0 1.0
Fraction 39-
'il
;J

O*O 1.0
Fraction 39&

0.5 1.0
Fraction 39-
 oolma
~utird u m x U-10 a3 m. Al1 ermtm u m 2 r st.odud mrror.
Fraction 3 9 A r

1-0

Friction 39-
muurad o o l m o u m x U-10 d m. U 1 artoco ara 2 r o c i n n r t a o t r o r -
Friction 39-

Fraction 39Ar
 Fraction 39Ar

-2
I
 Fraction 39-

0.001

0.0 1.0

Friction 39-
 Fraction 39-

0.0 1.0
Fraction 39-
 -
OOTR 7 7 . 99-196a Bio Bp
0.0 x.0
Fraction 3 9 A r

0.0 &.O
Friction 3 9 A r
 *3 S A X
0.83
2.61
9.21
14.55
16.13
20.81
35.81

3SAX
 1.0
Fraction 3 9 k

LOO , 1

if I
i I
 Fraction 39-

Lao
I
t
0.0 L.0
Fraction 39-

0.0
Fraction 39Ar
 0.0 1.0
Fraction 39-

LOO
1

0.0
t .O
Friction 39-
 -
OOTB 8 7 . 99tu-

Prrction 39Ar

0.0 1.0
Fraction 39Ar
 -
OOTB 93. 99-4. Al hp

O. 0 1.0
Fraction 39-

0.0 1.0
Fraction 39-
OOTB -88.. 99tu217a Al hp
 Fraction 39-

100 ,
 Douer
1.O0
1.50
2.00
c 2.50
< 1.00
= 4.00
r 1.50
c 7.00
c ,.a0
0.50
1.15
1.00
c 3-00
c 5-00
c 7-00

9.00
OOTB 71. - 99tbb2aOa B i 0 L-
0.60

0.0 1.0
Fraction 39-

LOO 1

i
1 1
 - .
OOTB 84. 99-1. Rio Bp
 Fraction 39Ar

0.0
Friction 39-
Fraction 3 9 k

1.0

Fraction 39-
VOIUW 3 s ~ t 0.11 x la-10 a m
X~tagr4t.dAgmi 13.7) : 1.19 IL.
 1.0
Fraction 39-

0.0 &.O
Friction 39-
Otu238e Bio 80
0.0 L.0
Fraction 39Ar

0.0
Fraction 39Ar
Fraction 39-

1.0

Fraction 39-
" , , . . . . . < .
0.0 1.0
Fraction 39-
Cm/Doi r US/14
Wu.: 1.0 rg
 Fraction 39-

O t * I a LO la
Powar (1)
Platornu 4 m r 11.Oa : 0.17 IL. ( 95.5% o f 3 9 U . rt.08 r u k d by 4
 Fraction 39&

0.0 K.0
Fraction 39Ar
 Friction 39-

0.0 1.0

Fraction 39Ar
Po1.r 36*r/40lt 3 Blt/4Olt r C a O 3 9 4OAr*/39K 4.
0 4 1
0 .O L.0
Friction 39Ar

0.0 t.0
Fraction 3 9-
Can/)om: 165/8
l u i t 1.0 mg
 Fraction 39-

0.0
Fraction 39-
Fraction 39-
m-37: 00tu267a Bio Bp
Fraction 39Ar

Prictfon 39-
o. a 1.6
Fraction 3 9 A r

0.0 t.0
Fraction 39-
 Fraction 3 9 A r

LOO >
t
4
1

0.0 1.0
Fraction 39-

Wouurod volliui iro x Il-10 cm3 W . hl1 arror8 u a 2 x 8- .rra=. E i i c r h L O O#-Dmc-O0

L a i t h l 40/36: 2 3 . 4 g O (1IIiD i 0 . 1 3 , i i o c h r o n bmh..n 0 . 1 1 and 2.63)
C o c r o l a t l a n 40: 1 0 . 1 4 : 1 - 0 4 1U (100.01 of 39Ar. i t o p i u r k d by ai

P l a t e a u 4.: 10.03 t 0.41 U ( 96.28 of 3 9 U . 8 t - i r u k . 6 by cl

 Friction 3 9 A r

#
i

Fraction 39-
0 4 , . . . . . 7 . . T
0.0 1.0
Fraction 39-

0.0
Fraction 39-
'l
B . . , . . , . .

0.0 1.0
Fraction 39-
Fraction 39-
Om203a Bio
0.0oJ . , . ,

0.0 L.0
Friction 39-
Vol- 3%: 4-45 t 18-10 d W
Int.gt4tmd A g i r 7.87 : 0 . 3 1 üa
 l
O
0.0 t .O
Fraction 39Ar

LOO i
i l
a14 Srr &
 Fraction 3 9 A r

0.0
Fraction 3 9 A r
5 Ser hp

Fraction 3 9 A r

LOO ,

0.0 '.O
fraction 39-
1 Ser Bp
1 Ser 89

Fraction 39Ar

0.0
Fraction 39Ar
 Pair
0.20
c 0.50
< 0.71
c 1.00
c 1.50
3 .O0
1.10

Pair
0.0 1.0
Fraction 39Ar

0.0 1.0
Fraction 39-
 LOO 1
t
4
!
i
i
I
1

o.,o,: , , , . I
0.0 1.0

Fraction 39Ar
0.0 1.0
Fraction 39Ar

0.0 L.Q
Fraction 39-
6a Jar Bp

Fraction 39-

LOO >

1
 Friction 39-

0.0 1.0

Fraction 39-
 Fraction 39-

LOO

1
4O l t 39 A r
Fraction 3 9 A r

Friction 39Ar
 Fraction 39Ar

0.0 1.0
Fraction 39A.r
ca17 Bia BE
 Fraction 39-

0.0 L-e
Friction 39Ar
 Fraction 39-

O. O 1.0
Fraction 39-
V o l u y 39%: 2-04 x 18-10 ei3 YI,
Int.qr8t.d r g . 8 5-45 t 0.79 IL.
 0.0 1.0
Fraction 3 9 A r

LOO

"'i
LI
 0.10 0.015:-0.002 0.001:-0.001 0.001i-0.001 O.OO2:O.OOl 0.001~0.000 0.017 308.090
< 0.40 1.604 0.010 0.345 0.004 0.009 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.003 0.000 0.017 30l.090
r 0.60 3.315 0.014 0.910 0.008 0.023 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.000 O. O17 308 .O90
< 0.80 1.324 0.008 0.335 0.004 0.009 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.000 O. 017 308 .O90
c 1.20 1,853 0.007 0.4@3 0.005 0 . 0 1 3 0.001 0.002 0.001 0.002 0.000 O.Jl7 308.090
0.0
Fraction 39-
Clir/?0.i 156/1
lui: 24.0 q
 Fraction 39Ar

4.0 $.O

Fraction 39-
U M t m d rolumu m r m x U-10 d W . A l 1 artors ara 2 x a t i a A l r d e m r . X n t r l i r O 08-0.c-O0
 Fraction 39-

0.0
Fraction 39-
Uuurd mlumoa i r m r 11-10 a 3 Itl. A l 1 orroto u m 2 s o u r d u d error. tocriil0 OI-D«-OO
Fraction 39Ar
P a i r 4OAr 39& IMr 37- 3 611 Il& 40U h r r 0 i 40/36
Fraction 39Ar
O .OOO o.001 o. o a r 0.003
36Ar/40Ar Fraction 3 9 k

LOO

i
 APPENDIXV

ADDITIONAL
GEOCHEMICAL DATA

Additional samples not presented in Chapter 6

Duplicate analysis of 98thb41b, both analysed at Memonal University. Newfoundland

Factors used to normalise the major element data to 99.6 % totals in Table 6-1

ICP-MS detection Lirnits

Analytical techniques are described in Chapter 6

Addirional samples, noî presented in Chapter 6
Higueda VaUeciro Vacas Heladas Escabroso Infiernillo
Sumple 00thb283a 98rhb71b 99rhb1651 98thb74u 99thb112a
Sioz 73.30 7 1.55 66.90 61.94 64-36
Ti0
&OJ
Fe O (Fe totd)
Mn0
Mg0
Ca0
K20
Na20
Plos
total
Duplkate sample
Unit
Major Elemcnis (wt %) 98rhb41b 98rhMl b-2 Difference
Si0 60.79 60.73 0.05
Ti0 0.7 8 0.78 0.00
A1z03 16.5 1 16.55 -0.04
F e O (Fe total) 6.06 6.01 0.04
Mn0 O. 12 O. 1 1 0.00
Mg0 2.62 7.59 0.03
Ca0 5.13 5.06 0.08
,Va O 3.02 3.07 -0.04
K20 2.95 3.O0 -0.05
ho5 O. 18 0.18 0.00
rotal 98.24 98.17 0.07
Loss on Ignition 2.14 2.16 -0.02
Tr.-elem. XRF (ppm)
S 6449.982 65 14.065 -64.083
Cl 1 18.445 95.770 22.675
Sc 14.052 13.502 0.550
V 129.072 129.985 -0.9 1 2
Cr 5.085 3.727 1.358
Ni 0.000 -6.835 6.835
CU 28.739 28.972 -0.233
Factos wed in Table 6-1for nomlising major elements to 99.6% total wt. 46 o.rides
sample 00rhb250a 98thb29u 99thb143a 99thbl43b 00thb267a 99thb 1306
0.99 1 1.K!S 1.O24 f .O32 0.996 1.014

sample Inca47 98rhb106 98thbl l b 98thb15b 98rhbl8a 98thb64b

sample 99thb135a 99thb220a 00thb252a 98thb63c 98thb89a 98thb89b

factors 1.013 1.01 1 1.010 1.019 1.O 19 1.O08

sarnple 99rhb163b 99thbI8Sa OûtIlb253a 00thbZS!Ja 98thM l b 98thb42c

factors 1.019 1.016 0.993 0.992 1.014 1.O05

sample 98rhbS4a 98thb57a 99rhb1IOb 99thb197a 99rhb201a 99thb146a

facro rs 1.013 1.015 1.01 1 1.O09 1.017 1.015

sample 99thb149a 99thb196a 99thb22la 99thb184a 99thbSl3a OOthb238a

factors 1.036 1.01 1 1.O20 1.004 0.99 1

sample 99thb139a ûûthb265a

factors 1.018 1.005

Max. Limit of Detedon, ICP-MS

PP=' Actlabs MUN
 VI
APPENDLX

ADDITION
AL FIELD OBSERVATIONS

Field observations were entered in field-log data tables using the codification established

by K. Heather in 1997. These tables have not been edited in detail and do not incorponte

new analytical results or thin-section observations. Selected tables are listed in this

appendix.

Field-stations, locations

Lithologies

Alteration

Samples

Codification for rocks:

1: basaltic; 2: andesitic; 3: dacitic; 4: rhyolitic; 6: clastic sedimentary; 7: mafic to

intemediate intrusive rocks; 8: felsic intrusive rocks; 10 breccia

L: lavaflow: P: pyroclastic, V: volcaniclastic; 1: synvolcanic shallow-level intrusions

Aiteration strength: l = weakest, 5= strongest
oc. X Loc.Y Ekv. Workdrte Ouccrop AMoC Country Province
400682 6756155 4950 Chilc
Obmcd Chilc
Ob~cnid Chilc
Obscrvcd Chile
Obmcd îhilc
obvrvcd îhile
Talus Chilc
Talus Chilc
Obvrvcd ChiIc
Observai Chilc
Observai Chilc
Observcd Chilc
Obxrved Chile
Obxrvcd Chilc
Obscrvcd Chilc
Obxrvcd Chile
ObservCd Chilc
Ob~crvcd Chilc
Obxrvcd Chilc
Talur Chilc
Obxrved Chile
Obmcd Chile
Obmed Chi Ic
Obsnved ChiIc
Obscwcd Chilc
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Obsavcd Chile
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Ob~crvcd Chile
Obxrvcd Chifc
Obxrvcd Chile
Obscrvcd Chilc
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Obsaved Chile
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400905 6746040 5400 Chilc [V
6746511 5200 Observecl Chile IV
6746775 5120 Obscrvcci Chde IV
6746667 5030 Obmed Chile IV
6746477 4990 Obvrved Chilc IV
6746411 4930 Obmd îhilc IV
6746171 4870 Obscrvcd Chilc IV
6756684 4890 Obvrvcd Chile IV
6745785 4580 Obscrvcd Argcntina San Juan
6740767 4100 Observcd Argentitl3 San Juan
6740170 JI80 Obxrvcd rbgcntin3 San S u n
6734170 4430 Obscrvcd n r g m t m San Juan
6755985 3770 Obmcd Argentinil San Juan
6737521 UIO Obwed A r g e n t h San Juan
6736460 4630 Obxrvnf Argmtim San f u n
6736333 4750 Observd Argentina San Juan
6736737 4600 Obsmcd ..2rgmtina San Juan
6738484 4300 Ob~avcd Argcntina San Juan
6753936 4865 Obsmcd Argeniina San Juan
6754137 4830 Obscrvcd Argent ina San J u n
6754136 4730 Obxrvcd Argcntina San Juan
6754831 4035 Obscrvcd Argentina San J u n
6756765 JMO Obsmcd t\rsrnrtn;i San Juan
6756562 4805 Obsavcd Argcn tiru San Juan
6756686 4710 Obscrvcd Argcntina San Juan
6756506 4600 Obwrvnl t\rgoitim S m Juan
6756253 4530 Obmcd Argcntin;i San Juan
6756152 4540 Obxrvcd :bgcntina San Juan
6755870 US0 Obmcd h g c n t ina San Juan
b754012 4580 Observed hrgcnttna San Juan
4575 Obmcd San l w n
6754488 4575 Obscrvcd San Juan
6755 104 Obxrvcd San J u n
6755614 4150 Obxrvcd San Juan
6755573 4490 Obmd San Juan
6695100 3820 Obscrvcd San luan
6690292 3930 Obscrvd San J m
6694945 3810 Obxrvd San Juan
6696153 3815 Obxrved San Juan
6697184 3820 Obmd San Juan
6733939 Obwrvnl San Juan
6733784 0bstn.d San Juan
6757450 Obscrvd I895(8 1) .kgmtim San Juan
6757550 4810 Obmd l89S(8 1) Argnitina San J u n
6757650 4860 Obscrved l89S(8 1 ) Argentma San luan
6753170 4245 Ob s m d 1897(81) .irgcntUw San Juan
6754160 4205 Obmed 1 897(8 1) Argentinil San Juan
6754210 4260 Obvrvcd San luan
6754185 4280 Obxrvcd San Juan
6754270 4280 Obscmcd San Juan
6754310 4205 Obscrvcd S m Juan
6754370 4130 Obmd San Ju;ui
6754581 5030 Ob-cd San Juan
67550113 Observcd Srin Juan
6751810 3960 Observeci San Juan
6752720 3970 Obvrvcd
6752443 4020 Obxrvcd
6754270 4700 Obscrvrd
675UIO 4700 Obscrvcd
6754510 4880 Obscrvcd
6755720 4732 Obscrvcd
6749370 4430 otnnvcd
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414630 6749700 4520 12/03/2000 Talus Argcntim San Juan
00-ab-0252 Ob~ervcd Argentha S m Juan
00-hb-0253 0bsCrdeI.i l89S(8 1) Argcntina San Juan
00-thb-0254 Obscrved Argcnrina Son Juan
00-hW55 ObscTvcd Argentinil San Juan
00-thb-O256 Observai kgcnh San Juan
00-ihbO257 Obrtrvcd Argcnnm Siln Juan
00-thb0258 ObxnId Argrntk San luan
00-thb-0259 Observeci 1897(81) Argmh San lunn
00-ihb-0260 Obsmcd l897(81 ) Argcntim San Juan
00-tbb026 1 Obrrvcd Argaitim Sm Juan
00-thb-0262 Obxrvcd Argentira San Juan
00-thM1263 Obscrvtd iîqcatina San Juan
00-thb-0264 Obvrvcd Argcntim San Juan
00-thb-0265 Obscrvcd Argrntim San J u
00-thb-0266 Obscrvsd l 74(96) Argcntim San Juan
00-thb-0267 Obxrvcd 174(96) Arptim San lm
00-thb-0268 Obwrvcd 174(96) Argentira San Juan
00-thb-0769 Obmcd Argnitim San Juan
00-r hW ? X Obscrvcd l75O(8 1 ) Argcntim San Juan
00-ihb-027I Tillus Argcntim San Juan
00-thbû272 Obscrvd Argentin;, E n Juan
00-ihb-0273 Obxrvnf Argentinil San J m
00-thb-0174 Obwrvcd Argentim San l u
00-thb0275 Ob~crvcd Argaitim San Juan
00-ihb-0276 Obxrvcd rlrgencin;i San lw
00-thMt77 Obvrvcd Argentinri San Juan
00-thb-0278 Obxwd Argrntuia Srin lutin
00-thb0279 Obmni ttsgcnnm San Juan
00-thb-0280 Obwved Argcntim San Juan
00-ihb-0281 Obxrvcd Argentinil San J m
00-thb-0281 Obscrvd i\rgaitim Sian Juan
00-thb0283 Obxrvcd Chilc 1v
00-thb-0284 Obxrvcd Chilc IV
00-thbOZS5 Obrrvd Chilc IV
PPl lcw CamplICd Chilc IV
PP 13wa CornpiI d Chile iv
pmna Compilcd Chile IV
KB-08 Cornpilcd Citilt IV
KB4Z Compild îhilc IV
PWs Compilcd Chilc IV
PS26c Compilcd Chile tv
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a
Rockc. Assembla c
10 Alunite-Native Sulphur-Quartz I Urrccia Mairix 4 Stem-Hcated
Qunrtn Keplacing Brwciu Fmgiiicnis 4 Silicification
Alunitc-Qpülinc quartz-~icinatiic -
Vcins ( 1 mni Ini) 3 Advanccd Argillic
Nutivc Sulphur-Quartz Pcrvasivc 4 Sulfotanc
Native Sulphur-Quartz Rcplacing niatrix on1y;Pcrviisivc 4 Sulfotanç
Quam. Rcptocing Clmis 4 Silicification
A l uuiic-Quartz -
Pcrvasivc;Vcins ( 1nim l ni) 4 Advanccd Argillic
Aluniie-Quartz Pcrvasivc;Vcins ( lriim - 1tri) 4 Advanccd Argillic
Qwrtz-Sericite-Pyritc Pervrisivc 4 Phyllic (Scriciiic)
Quariz-Scricitc-Pyrite Pcrvasivc 4 Phyllic (Sericitic)
Scriciic-Native Sulphur-Pyriic Prrvusivc;Sclvügcs 4 Phyllic (Scricitic)
Limaniie-Qucrrtl-~1cniutiic-Clays-NeticSulpliur Pcrvnsive 3 Supçrgenc
Qumi Rcplücing C'luis 4 Silicificntion
Naiivc Sulphur-Gypsuni-Clays Rcplocing niatrix only 4 Sulfoinric
Cloys-1,imoniic-lIeniatiie I'cwasivc 3 Supcrgcnc
yuam Rcplücing mutrix \ phrnocrysts 4 Silicification
Alunite -
Siockwurk Vcins ( 1 niin Ini) 4 Advonccd Argillic
Quartz Urcccia Matrix;Pcnwivc 3 Silicificaiion
Gypsuni Disu.niinütcd;Vcinlcts (O. I - Inin 3 Supergcne
Quartz-Sericite-Cluys Hcplacing niiiirix \ pbcnocrysis Phyllic (Sericiiic)
Quartz-Scriçiic-Clays Phyllic (Scriciiic)
Chlorite-Clays-Quaru Rcplucing rriatnx \ phcnwrysis Propyliiic
Quurtz Rcplncing Clrists Silicificotion
Chlorite-Cluys-Quariz Replacing riiatrix \ phenixrysts Propylitic
Clnys-Quanx-Chlonie Rcplücing riiütnx \ phcnocrysts Propylitic
Qwnriz Pcnlüsivc Silicification
1icrnaiite-Clays Pcnlasivc Supcrgcne
Alunitc-Quartz Replncing Urccciü Frigiiicnts Advnnced Argill ic
Alunite Urccciü Mutnx Advancrd Argillic
Qumz Replacing Clasis Silicification
Aluniie-Quiirtz Pcrvrisive Advnnced Argillic
Ciypsurn-Nutivc Sulphur-Clays Flooding Sulfoianc
Quartz Rcplaçing iiiüinx only Silicification
Chloriic-Clays-Quartz Hcplaciny niüinx \ phcnixrysis Propylitic
Quunz-Cloys Kcplacing niüirix \ phcntxrysili Argillic
Alunitc-Clays-Quam Kcplacing iiiairh iinly Advunccd Argillic
Clays-Qunnz Rcplacing matrix \ phcnocrysts 2 Argillic
Chlaritc-Epidoic- tiernutitc-Cnlciic ~ e & c i n matrix
~ \ phcnoçrysis 3 Pmpyliiic
Chlorite-Heinntitc-Qunriz-Scncitc Rcplncing mütrix \ phcnocrysts 2 Propylitic
Chloriie-Calcitc-Heriiatiic-Epidote Rcplacing niatrix \ phcnncrysts 2 Propyliiic
Clays-Quartz-Pyriic Rcplucing mliirix \ phcnwrysis 3 Argiliic
Chloriic-Hciiiaiitc-Mognetite-Calciie Rcplacing niatrix \ phcnacrysts 2 Propyliiic
ChIohic-Cnlcite-Clays-Quanz Hcplncing niainx \ phcnocrysts 3 Pmpy1itic
Alunitc-Hcmatiic-Qunne Rcplacing mnirix \ phenocrysts 4 Advanccd Argillic
Alunitç-tfsmatitc-Quarn Kcplücing Brcccia Fragriicnis;l3rc 5 Advanccd ArgiHic .
Quartz-Pyrite-Scricite Rcplacing nintrix \ phcnocrysts 4 Phyllic (Scricitic)
Clays-Quurtz Rrplacing matnx only I Argillic
Quariz Rcpliicing matrix only I Silicificution
Ilcmntiic Rcplacing Clasts;Brcccia Matrix 2 P
Quartz Replacing niutnx only 2 Silici ficuiion
Chlorite-Culciic-Clays-Epidote Replncing mntrix \ plient~rysts 3 Propylitic
Quartz-liernutitc Pervasivc 2 Silicificution
t Jcmutite Replacing niatrix unly P
Hcniatiic-Chlurite-Epidotc-Culciic Rcplncing rnntrix \ phenocrysts I Propylitic
Chlorite-Lalciic-Heinutitc-Mulnchiic Pervilsivc 2 Propylitic
Calcitc-Chloriir-Quunr Rcplrrcing niairin only 3 Propyliiic
Heinatite-Quartz Pcrvasivc 2 Silicificaiioii
Alunitc Friciure Filling 2 Advunccd Argillic
Chlorite-Epidotc-liciiiatite I'crvasivc 2 Propylitic
Pcrvrisive 2 Propyliiic
Epidoie-Calciir-Chlonir-ti~rnüiitc-Qu(1~ Pc~asivc 3 Propylitic
Chluriie-Epidotc Replucing n1m-i~ \ phcnocrysts 2 Propyliiic
t.iriiurii!c Uoxwcdi Filling I Supcrgcnc
Chloritc-Calcite-Epidoic-Quürtz Pcrvasive 3 Pmpyliiic
Chlaritc-Calciie- t 1c111a1iir-Epidoic Pemiisive 3 Propylitic
Quünz-Clays Mnssiw 4 Argillic
Clnys-Quünz Pcrvii~ivc 4 Argillic
Ihloriic-Epidrw Pcrvusive 4 Propylitic
Liinonitc Fracturc F~lling
Cluys-Quunz-Scncitc Penusivc 4 Argill~
Cliloriic-t Ieiiiütiie-Quüriz Pcmusivc 3 Propylitic
Chloriic-lpidotr Rcplacing niuinx \ phcnwrysts 1 Propyliiic
 Clüys-Quartz-Hcmaiitc Pcrviisive Argillic
Chlontc-Epidotc Kcplacing iiirttrix only Propyliiic
8 Chlorite-Epidoic Replacing inutrix \ phcnocrysts Propyliiic
8 Chlorite-Epidatc Weplacing iiistrix \ phcnocrysts Propylitic
2Lc Cluys-Qunrtz Rcplacing iiiiitrix \ phcnocrysts Argillic
2Ld Chloritc Kcplacing phcnocrysis only Propylitic
8 Chloritc-Calciic-Epidotc-Magnciitc Rcplncing mritrin \ phcnacrysis Propylitic
2t Chlontc-Calcite-Epidote-Magiictitc Rcplacing inutrix \ phenocrysts Propylitic
4r Clays-Aluniie-Qumi Rcplacing niatrix \ phcnocrysts Advanced Argillic
4P Gypsum Früciuri: Filling Supçrgenc
21 Chlontc-Epidoic Kcplacing niiitrix \ pheiiocrysts Propylitic
4P Quaru-Pynic- Alunite Pcrvnsivc Advanccd Argillic
4P Gypsuni -
Vcins ( 1 inni lm) Supcrgenc
21 Chluriic-EpiJoie Rcplncing phcricxrysis only Propylitic
8 Quartz-Al unite Perv~ivc;FriiurcFilling Advanccd Argillic
8 Chlariic-Hcinaiite-C'Inys Pcrvasivc Propylitic
6 Alunite Keplacing Clnsts Advanccd Argillic
6 Clays Rcplacing miitnx only
1O Cluys Brcccia Mritrix Argillic
10 Opaline quurtz-Native Sulphur Flocding Supergcnc
2Ph Chloritc-Clnys Hcplücing rii;itnx only I

4 Pg Clays-Heniatiie Fervisive Supcrgcnc

2P Chloriic-Clays Keplacing riiittnx only !*
7 Cluys-Chlorite-Epidaic-Hcniaiitc Pervasivc;Friture Filling Propylitic
8 Chloriic-Clüys-Epidoie I'ervnsivc Propylitic
1O Quartz Pcrvuive Silicificatian
1O Aluniic-Jarosite Urcccia Mairix Advanced Argillic
31 Cliiys-Alunite-l l c i i u W - Q u a m Pcrvasive Advanccd Argillic
3P Aluniic-Clays-tiypsunl-Jarositc-Qumz Pcrvasivc Advanccd Argillic
2L Clays-l4ernaiitc-Quiuiz Pcrvüsive Argillic
2L Quartz Frriciure Filling Silici ficuiion
4v Clnys-Alunile-Quartz I'crvasi vc Advunccd Argill ic
Sti Quurtz Pcrvüsivc Stcarn-Hcuicd
2L Aluniic-Cloys-Ilcniatiie-Quunz t'ervasivc Advanced Argillic
4P Cluys Kcplricing inütnn only Supcrgcnc
2 1. Clüys-Quurtï. Pcrvusive Argillic
Alteration assemblages obscrved
-n-No. ( ~ i w k c . Asrembbge %u. Mode Int. Alt.4Yp
Hematitc Fracture Fil1iny;Rcplacing inatrix 3 Suprgcnc
Quurtz Silicificaiion
Alunite-Cluys Frncturc Filling Supergcnc
Chlorite-Epidoie-t.iciiiaiitc-Magnciiic Pcrvasivc Propyliiic
Chlorite-Epidore Pervasivc Propylitic
Limanite-Hcniniitc Rcplocing mairix \ phcnocrysts Supcrgcnc
Hcmutite-Clays Rcplacing mnirix only Supxgcne
C'hlonic-t~emaiiie-Epidutc-Clnys; Pervasive IDropylitic
Chlanie-Hcniaiitc-Epidoie Pcrvirsivc Propylitic
Chloriic-t-ieinuiiic-L.iinonite Penwive Propylitic
Chlariic-Calcite-Epidatc-Liiiioniic Fnciure Filling;Pcnlnsivc Propylitic
Quiirtz-Liiiionitc Pervasive Silicificaiion
Quartz Rcplucing inutnx only Silicificntian
Chlorite-Epidotc-H~'1iiniitc IBervasive Propylitic
Chluriic-Quunz IBcnmivc Propylitic
Qurirtz-Srici te Rcplaciiig iiiutnx \ phsnocrysts Phyllic {Sericitic)
Gypsuni-Jarosite Fracture Filling Supcrgcnc
Qumz-Liinanitc Mussivc Silicificütion
Chlorite-Culcitc-Epidotc-Mûgnctite Pcrvuivc Pmpylitic
Chloriic-Epidocc Rcplacing phcnwrysis only Propylitic
Chloritc-Epidoic Replacing niatnx \ plicncwysts Propylitic
Clays Rcplacing inairin only Supcrgcne
Chlorite Hcplacing phcnwrysis only I'ropy lit ic
Qumz Repliwiiig niütrix only Silicification
Clays-Quuriz Hcplncing müirix only Silicification
Quunn-Hcmaiiic Rcplncing inlitrix only Silicification
Quünz-C'lays Prmuive Silicificütion
Tounnnlinc-Qumz -
Vcinlets (O. I liiini) Silicificaiion
Quanz-Chlorite-) Iciiiaiiic-Mrignctiie Pcrvasivc l'ropyliiic
Chlorite- t ieiiiatiic-Culcite-Mngnctiic Pcrvasivc Propylitic
Clüys fiorders o f Urccciu I:rigincnts Argillic
tIciiiutitc-Quartz Drccçia Mutnx
Cluys-Quarte Pcrviisivc Argillic
Ciypsum-Liiiwnite I:racturc Filling Supcrgcnc
Alunitc-Cluys-Quünz Pemüsivc Advunccd Argillic
Ciypsuiii Fnciurc Filling Supcrgcnç
Allerdon wsemblages observed
Roclrc, Assembla c
Advanccd Argillic
Chlurite-Epidotc-Menciite Pcrvasive I Pmpyliiic
Quanz-Pynic-Sericitc Pcrviisivc 3 Phyllic (Scricitic)
Clays-Aluniic-Quurtz Pcrvüsivc 3 Advnnccd Argillic
Gypsum Fraciurc Filling 2 Supcrgcnc
Clays-Epidotc Rcplücing phcnocrysts 0nly;Fract 1 Propyliiic
Chlorite-Epidatc-tieniatitc-Quartz Pervasivc 1 Propyliiic
Clays-Hcmatitc-Qum Pcrvosivc 2 Supcrgenc
Chlorite-tiernotiic Kcplacing tiiütnx \ phcnwrysis I Propyliiic
Cluys Heplacing mainx only I Supergcnc
Jurosiic-Quurtz Rcplacing rnairix only 2
Q u m - Jmosiie Ureccin Matrix 2
Hciiiatitc-Qwnz-Scnciic Prrvrisivc 2 Phylliç (Scncitic)
Uiotiie-Qunw-Pyritc Fervasive 2 Potassic (Diotite)
Clays-Qunriz-Limoniic Rcplacing riiatnx \ phcnocrysts 2 Argillic
Aluni te-Qunrtz Pcrvüsivc 4 Advanccd Argillic
Jnrositc -
Cavity Lining Filling Supcrgcnc
Chlurite-Epidote-Mügnet~ic-Toun1iuiinc-Cillciic Pcrvasivc 3 Fropylitic
Clays Replricing mütrix only 1 Argillic
ticmuiiic-Qurinz Keplacing muirix only 2 Silici fication
Quartz-iicricitc Rcplacing matrix \ phcnacrysu 3 Phyllic (Sencitic)
Chlorite-Magnctiic Rcplacing miiirix only;Dissciiiina 2 I'ropyliiic
ChIofite-Epidoic-Magnctitc I'crvnsive 2 Propylitic
Cbloriic-Mugnetite-Pyri te-Tounnalinc Pervnsivc 2 Propylitic
(iypsun~ Friicturs Filling 2 S upcrgcnc
Chlorirc-Epidoie Replücing phcnocrysis only 1 Propyliiic
Clays-Quartz Pcnlasivc 3 Argillic
Aluniic-Qiüinz Pcrvirsivc 5 Advnnccd Argillic
Chloriic-Crilciir-Ep~d~1~-~1cn~~ti1c-Mi)gne1ile Pcrvcu;ivr 3 Propylitic
licniaiiie-Opilinc quartz Perv;islvc 4 Silicificütion
Chloritc-Hviietiir Pcrvasivc 2 Propylitic
Quartz I'cnllisive 4 Silici ficütion
Cülcitc-Chlorite-Biotitc-Milg11c11tc I'crviiriivc 2 Poiassic (13ioiiic)
Cluys-Gypsurii-Liiiioniie Kcplacing pbcntxrysts only;Frict 4 Suprgcnc
Clüys-Quonu Prrvasi~c 3 Argillic
Cliiys-Quartz I~crviuivc 3 Argillic
 Rcplacing Breccia Fragmcnts;Bre 4 Argillic
3P Clays-Hcniatiti Rcplacing Clnsis;Rcplacing mntn 2 Argillic
3 1. Cluys-Quartz Rcplacing mairix \ phcnocrysts 2 Argillic
3L Clays-Hcmatitç Rcplacing inatrix \ phenwrysts 2 Argillic
1O Quurtz Pcrvasivc 4 Silicificotion
1O Q u m Pcrvasivr 4 Silicificaiion
IO Qumr Pcrvosivc 4 Siiicificaiion
1O Goethite tjorders of Brcccia Frigi1icnts;Fn 2 Suprgcnc
10 Quam Pcwusive 5 Silicificaiion
10 Alunitc Urcccia Matrin 4 Advanced Argillic
1O Qum Brcccia Matrix;Rcplaciny Urccci~3 Silicificaiion
10 Native Sulphur-Alunite -
Fmcturc Fil1ing;Cavity Lining F 3 S t e m - Heatcd
1O Quartz Pcrvasive 4 Silicificatian
7b Chloritç Rcplûcing phcnocrysis only I Propylitic
2I Alunitc-Clnys-Quartz Rcplncing phcncxrysis only 4 Advanccd Argillic
1P tiemaiite-Quartz Hcplncirig phcnocrysis only;Pcrvi 2 Silicification
1P Cloys-Litnonitc Fmcturc Filling 2 Supcrgcnc
3v Chloriie-Epidoic f'cwasivc 2 Propylitic
J Clilontc-Epidoic-C'alciic-I4eri1iitite Replucing phrnwrysts only I Propylitic
IL Hcrnaiitc-Goclhite-Quui1't iBcrvmivc 4 Silicificotion
4P Clays-Qum. Rcplacing iiiritrix \ phcnocrysis 3 Argillic
II' Quanz fDcrvasivc 5 Silicificriiion
3P Quanz-Naiivc Sulphur Cnvity Lining - Filling;Stockwork 3 Stcri~ii-Hcaied
ia Qiionz-Native Sulphur Urccciu Mütrix 4 Silicificaiion
List 01u m p l n
Stadm,Na. R o c k Slmplc-No Orlplarl latention Note
98-thM)0()? 6 98thb000Ic 57: Hjndwnplc droptonc
52 Agc ~ati&53: Thin Section
57: H;inrkmpl~5S Gcochcmirtry
52 Agc Dolin@: X-ny Diffnnion (XRD)
57: Handumplc
52: Apt DaiineEl: X-ny Difiction (XRD)
52 Agc DuacingSj: X-ny D i h a i o n (.W)
52 Apt Daune%:X-my thiihmon LW)
52 Agc Datine;5J: X-ny Dih m o n (.XRDI
51: Agc DYing5-l: X-ny Difiction (;YRDi
5L Agc Dating;54: X-ny Difiction (W)
57: Handwmplc
52 Apc Dam@: Thin !kction;S.l: .Y-ny D i h G i o n tXRDi
53: Thin Smion;57. b r l u m p l c
53: ïhin Scction;54. X-ny Dithaion IXRD)
52 Ayc Doting
52: Ayt h t i n y
57: HuiCuqlc
57: Hsrulumplc
57: findwmplc
53: Thtn Section
52: Age Datmy;57: iiimbmplt
53, Thui Sectton35: Grochcmutry
52: Agc htuiy;57: klrnhmplc bioiitc. wnrdinc. rmphtbola
52: Ayc Daiing53: l h i n Section;5J: .Y-ny Diffraction (XRD) coam sluni~t
57: HÎnrLÏimplt;5I: A p h t i n g
5 5 Ckochcmisay;57: C h M p k fmh B k A
51: Agc Daunll;53: Thin Saion
5L Ag+ D;iiing;53: Thin ScciioaSJ. .Y-ny Difhction IXRDI
52: Agc Dating$3: Thin Scction biatite. unidinc
55: Gcc~hemutry
57 HJn6Implc Pcbblc dykc
57 Handumplc:55: Gcostinnisny compare othcr rhyotita
53. Thin Section
57: H~ndrjmple
57: HandrImptc
57: Handumple
57- t&ndumplc
57 Hyibmplc
57 FhndsJmplc
52 Agc Djting;S3. Thin Scaion
53 ï h n Seaion
57 khnhmplc
5J: Ayc o;iiing$j: Thin Section J~W~IIC
52 Aye Datin0.53: Thin Seaion ~lunitc
57 Hyidumplc;55- Gtochcmurry YSL~CEI~O?
51: Agc Dating33: Thin Seaian Biotiie. unidinc
57: H;rnduntpk
57: t(Jnhmple alunitc'?in m u t x
57 Handsaqlc conglornmts alunite?
57: Han<lwmplc
57: Handwnrplc
57 Hsadsarnple alunitc and Jcd texturc
57: kn<Lumplc r d f m h rndcsiic
55: GIochcmuay.57: Hsndumple Dikc m t c m l
52: Ayr ûaiing Amphibalc?
53: Thrn Section32 A p Wtuy amphibolc7
55: Geochanurry
57: HuiiLrunpft
ST HmhmplrJ5: t e o d i m i r t y
53: ïhin Srnion52 Agc ï)Jting K- pu. datublc'?
53: ïhin Sedion32 A g Düting Amphibole.?
57: Hanriwmplc
57: HandsamplrS2 Agc b i n g
57: Hjndwmptd2 Agc DYing
27: Hyidumplc
57: Himhnplt
57: Hsndwmpk
57: HsDdsunplc
57: HYdwmplc
53: Riin Scaio052 Agt Ihting
53: Riia Scaro052 Agc W g
51: A p Duing53: Thin Scaion
2L 57: klandsjmplc5k Geochcmiray
8 57: Hindumptc
8 53: fhin Sectios55: Gcochcmisrry
8 5 2 A p Djting
8 53: Thin Section52 Ayc Dnting
fL 5 7 Huidwmplc
21 53: Thin Scaio~55:Gcochemuny
JP 57: H;Yidumplc
JP 53: Thin Scetlon;SI: Apc Daitng
JP 57: HMdumplt
8f 52: Agt Duing$3: Thin Section
81 57: Hsndwmple
81 53: Thin Smion;SL: A p h t i n g fmh p o û i o n t c
6 57: Hmdumplc Mau udimcatr'!??
10 53: Than Section
IO 5.l: .Y-ny Diffrac!ion (.YRD);57: HYidumplc
JPx 57: HÎndwnple
JPh 57: HanJumplc
4Ph 55: Geoehtmirtry
JPh 57: Hands1mple;52 Agt Duing
JP 53: Thin Stetion;55: Gcochcmirtry
1O 53: Thin SCC~IOKSI:A p DatangM X n y thffi;iction
3P 57: Hanrlumplz52 Agc Diutny
JV 57: H ~ n h m p l c
SH 57. hdsamplc
JI' 57: Hjndumplc
JP 57: HÏndumplr,52; A p htin0;55: Geochcmury
21 52: A p DDnnp ~ ~ u n ivcin
ic
4P 57: Hîndwmplt i m h amphibalcl
IL 52: Agc Dating55: Gcoehcmutry;5I' E l y i b p l c F m h amphiolé!
IL 57: Hmîumptc;5L: Agc M i n g Alunilc?
ZL 52 Agc Dating55: G*>chmiurry.J7: Hsndumple
JL 57: Hsnciwmplc
3P 57: thtkn1plc.55. Gcoshcmüiry;SZ Agc Datiny
3P 57: Hi1ndsi1mplc;52: Age Dainy
3P 5 1 A p Dating5k Geochcminry;57: Hmdumplt
3P 5 2 Agc [htm0;57' HanJurnplc
?L 5 7 thJwmple;5L: Ayt Djtinp
ZL 51: Hnndumplc
IL 57: itui-lt
IL 5 2 Agc Dating55: Ga~hcrnurryj7HYukunplc fmh amphiboles
8 53: Thin Scction;5Z: A p üating 81.amph. K-spnr
tI 53: Thin Saion;52: Ayc Chtiny Ampb Bi
21 57 HjnbImplr.52 Agc Djting Btoiitc
2L 52 Ayc h n n p Atunitc
IL 52 Ayc Dotuig$i- HYidumpte Green ~lunitc
3.. 57: h n d u m p l r U : GaKhanuty.5I: A p Dairng
2L 57: tLndumplzP: Agc h t t n g
x
2L 51: Agc h n g
JP 57: I.lmhmptc brccctous rock
.iP 57: HIndUmplc Wuimk
JP 57: HIndwmplc V m
JP 57: Hanrtumple Vcin
10 57: Hui&mple bnccioui m k
10
JP Alunitc
JP Wailmk
JP Esnit. alunite
JP ?0wdcry J ~ W ~ C
JP Aiwtajuosirc vcurla
JP WJlrock with alunile
JP Vcin *-alunite
JP Atunrtt
rp Alunitc
JP dunite
4P KnCltC
JP
6
IL
2L
10
2l
21
3
 siliccous rock. dunitcl
supctpnie dunitc
Alunie?
lnmuion Wrndy
glauy swff

52: A p Dstiny
52: A p Lhanp
52 Agc Doting
57: Huidumplc
57: bndumplc
52 A p Chiing hornblcndu
57: bncirainplc cfysul ruff
5 7 b&mple:$2: Agc Dating LOWCT unit wncitc
52 Age Doruig57: HIndwmplc fmh rh~od;icifc
5 2 Agc Dsnng K-S~U
52: Agc honp35: Gnichcmutry
55: Gcochcmirtry;57: Hadiample
52: Agc Danng55: Geochcmutry
51: Agc Ckring
57: mdrîmp1c
5 2 Age ûmny
52 Agc D a i m d i CGllldumplc
52; Age Damg-$7: t l u i b p l c
52 Aye Dating
57 hndumplc
52 AgC hit?rg 1Iun1tc
57: ! f a m h l Q l c Toumlinc
52 Ayc Chimg;57. HuuLumplc Vrllcc1m
52: Agc ûatiny Fngmcnts
57. h&mplc;52: Ayc D ~ t i n y JCflClteCltC
52 A p DItmy VJIICC~IO'?
52: Ayc Wtmg37. Hui&ample
52 A p htiny biotiic
52: Agc Dsimg xnctic?
52: A p Dating alunlfc!
52 Age Ditring Alunitc
57- HIn&ntplc
57 kknttrjmplc
57 b&arnplc;52 Ayc Datrny

second. biotirc
rlunitc?

rtuniic
rlunitc
uncite

Bioiirc
Alunite''
A lunite
rIun1tc
KnCltlCltC
foliotcd ronc
~ ~ o n d sbiotitc
ry
Juniie
Alunitc
Wallwk

SIww mm
Alunitc
Junltc
Hcavy. with f a w l i n c
IcrielcCItC
Hombkndc
Hornblcndc
57: Haadrunplc CbiUtd mPrpin
57: HuidumpIt;52: Agc Datiuy Homblaidt
52 Agt Dowig35: GcochanUtry dyk. ph&
52: A g Donng alunite?
57: Huidumplc Biotitt pxurbmorphs
52: A s üanng Alunilc
52: Agc üating Alunitc
55: Cieodicmuty.J2: Agc Djting f m h gnndiuritc
52 Agc Daiing Aluniic
57: HYulrYnplg52 Apc Daiing Pouiblc dumie
52: A p ûaiing 31wtc
52: Agc Dating55: Ccochcmutry Vsllccito?
52 Agc DaiingS5. Geoehem~~rry Vslleeito'?
57: Hjnûumplq52: A p Dumg
52: Agc Dating Alunite
52: Ayc Doting Xhiit
5:: Handumplc;52: Agc Dûting Alunite miivc sulphur
57- Hjndumplc diontt
51: Agc Daung;65: Geochmiisrry Cosne btniitc
56: lwrapr Amlysis Brac11
57: H3ndrunplc;5f: A K Doiing
~ Alundc
57: HYuIumple;53: Thïhm !kCti0n3'. Apc b t i n y Vein
57: Hyidumple oidet pni.van
55: Gcochrmuiry:57: Hmllumpk r d fmh andesilc
57: Hm<L3mple;52; Agc Daiiny fmh dionic
57: )Ijndwmple Alunile
52: A p h i i n g Aluniic
57. i!.!.n&umplc
57. Hjnbmple
52 Apt h n n y f m h lupar
55: ~ h c m ~ r ~ . A5 p2 Datiny
:
57: Hyidumplc52: A p Diiinp
57. ttuiJumplc
52 Ayc Dating57: Hmdstmplt Aluniic
52 Apir h t i n g
52 Ayc Doring
57- Hîn<Lwmplt;54 .Y-ny Diffmction (XRD)
52 A p Wting
57: Hîn&mptt:51,: Ayc Daring
52: A p Dattny Alunitc r d c o r n
52 Agc hlint$7. tI;inifumplc powdery aluniic
52: Agc ûatui~5f.H ~ ~ m p l c
57: itui&mplc
52 Ayc Dating53: Thin Secrion
57: t t n h m p l c
56: Irotopic Amlysu
56: Isotopic Awiysis
52: A p b r i n y Ruib wrnple
52: Agc ïhung Rsuls l~mplc
52: Ayr h n n g Dac Kimbcrly
5 2 Agc Datrng Luc van K i k r l y
52 A p h n n g Canto Sur min
52: Agc Dzting ûaic mincr;iltkltion
2000, GSA A n n d Meeting, Rem, Nevada
REVISED METALLOGENETIC MODEL FOR THE EL JNDIO - PASCUAILAMA A U (-
AG, CU)BELT, REGIONES EMV, CHILE, AM) PROVINCM S A N JUAN, ARGENTINA.
BISSIG. Thomas; CLARK,Alan. H.; LEE, lames, K. W.: Department of Geologicai
Sciences and Geological Engineering, Queen's University, Kingston ON Canada K7L,
3N6,bissig@geoiadmgeol.queensu.ca.;HEATHER, Kevin B.: Barrick ChiIe Ltda., Barrio
Industrial, Sitio 58, Coquimbo,IV Region, Chile.
Neogene epithermal activity in the now-mgmatic EI hdio beit (Lats. 29" 15' - 30" S) has
been interpreted by Kay et al. (1999: Soc. of Econ. Geol. Spec. Publ. 7) as a product of hydrous
magmas generated during the supplrnting of homblende by gamet as a residual phase in
thickening orogenic crust above a flattening slab. Minerdization in the El indio-Tambo district
was considered to be affliated with the Cerro de las Tdrtolas iI andesitic suite (ca. 10-13 Ma:
conventional K-Ar dates) and the ca. 5.5-7 Ma Vallecito Fotptign rhyolites. This mode1 is
reassessed in the light of new mapping by Bamck and new Ar- Ar step-heating data for
volcanic and hypabyssal units and hydrothermal alteration assemblages. providing a bûsis for
the correlation of petrochemical trends and mineralization. Several magmatic-hydrothennal
episodes are now recognised: t. Escabrusu, and II. In/iernillo/Cerro de lac T6dlar, large1y
andesitic with minor dacit:, S m N ù 2.4-3.9, 18.02 f 0.66 (30) to Ca. 20 Ma and 14.88 i 0.72 to
16.02f 0.24 Ma. respeciiveiy, with ostensibly b a n . high-T. advancd-qillic alteration: III.
Vacas Heladas, dacitic and andesitic, SrniYb 3.844.82, 11.26 f 0.10 to 12.67 f 0.87 Ma, with
barren advanced-argillic aiteration; IV. Au (-Ag, Cu) Minerakation, a succession of epithermal
+
cvents generating: the giant Pascua/Lam high-sulfidation deposic cluster (Pascua: 8.10 0-19 -
+ +
8.73 f 0.23 Ma, post-ore dacitic dike: SmiYb=4.24,7.83 0.30 Ma; Lama: 9.00 0.22 - 9.40 k
+
3 16 Ma); the Tambo high-sulfidation breccia-complex (7.97 0.37 - 8.24 i 0.15 Ma); the Rio
del hiedio low-sulfidation vein (7.63 I0.41 Ma); the El indio-Campanû-Viento high-to-
moderate sulfidation vein-systems (6.21 f 0.26 - 7.62 f 0.29 Ma), and the Canto Sur high-
sulfidation hydrothermal breccia (7.08 fO. 19 Ma). Rhyolites of the Vallecito Formation
( S m5.28-5.86; 5.51 f 0.47to 6.03 f0.26 Ma) postdate the mineralization. Intervals of
uplift, and hence c m s d thickening. are defined independently by regional trosional events
recorded by the previousiy unrecognised Fronten-Deidad (15-17 Ma), Azufreras-Torta ( 12.5-
14 Ma) and Los Rios (6-9 Ma) pdiplains. Epitheml Au (-Ag, Cu) mineralization therefore
occurred entirely in the Late Miocene in association with magmas largely derived from the flat
subducting shb or a deepcrustal anatectic environment in which gamet was a residud phase.
The deposits were emplaced during the episode of crustai thickening and uplifi which generated
the Los Rios pediplain.

Keywords:
EiJndio, Chile-Argentina. a ~ r J 9 ~ Metdlogeny,
r, Pediplains
Deyell et al.. submitted to Chemical Geology

C.L. Deyell'. R.O.Rye b. G.P. Landis b, T. Bissig

a Mineral Deposit Research Unit. University of B.C..Canada

b
US.Geologr'al Survey, Derrver. USA
'Queen's University. Kingston. Canada

ABSTRACT
The Tambo deposit in the El Indio-Pascua belt of Chile (Lats. 29'20' and 30' S) is a
high-sulphidation Au deposit hosted in dtered Teniary rhyodacitic volcanic rocks of the 23-27
Ma Tilito Formation. Episodic magmatic-hydrothed activity in the district occurred over at
lcast 4 Ma and is characterized by eight stages of acid sulfate alteration. including al1 of the major
types described by Rye et al. (Econ. Geol., 1992):mogmatic hydrothennul, magrnutic steam.
steam heoted and apparent supergene. Two stages of Au (I Ag) minenlization. hosted in barite
and dunite within tectonic-hydrothermal breccias. are recognized at Tambo (Jannas et al.. Econ.
Geol., 1999).
In this study the geochemistry. stable isotope. and fluid inclusion gas compositions of
alunite were investigated furthrr in order to beiter understand the details of high level mgmatic
hydrotheml processes. Alunite % r ~ ' ~ ages ~ r constnin the timing of alteration and the duntion
of the hydrotheml system. Pre-ore alteration occurred ca. 10 to 11 Ma and is related to Vacas
Helûdas rge volcanisrn. Alunite occm in the mauix of barren, high-level breccias and as fine
intergrowths of alunitequartz t clays selectively replacing feldspan and purnice fragments.
Stable isotope systematics suggest a magmatic hydrothennui origin overprinted by later rnagmatic
srearn. h l y - o n stage alunite (8.7 k 0.2 Ma) that occurs in open spaces of the breccia rnavix
with baite, gold Iwalthierite has 6% values (24 to 27%0)typical of magmatic hydruthemal
alunite which reflect equilibrium between aqueous H2S and SOa=. Ruid inclusion gas &SISO2
ratios of about 6 indicate mildly reducing conditions during ore deposition. Late gold co-
precipitates with a third stage of alunite (8.2 10.2 Ma) that is characterized by neuly uniform
chernical compositions and 6% values similv to those for associated enargite (1%~). Ahexition
is transitional between magrnatic hydrotheml and magmatic steam and vapor-phase Au
transport is inferred. Alunite is isotopicdly and chemically similar to post-ore. coarse. banded
alunite Ihemtitequartz veins that cross-eut the Tambo breccias have disequilibriwn CO2-
CO--H2-SO2 gas species in fluid inclusions. Such magmatic steam alunite formed during the
expansion of rapidly ascending SO&h magrnatic s t e m and m y be related to hydrodynamic
changes induced by regional erosional events. Alunite-humgite veins (8.63 f 0.41 Ma) occurred
intermediate to the two mineralizing events but is unrelated to the much younger huangite-bearing
Campana B vein at El Indio. Stem heated alunite (8.86 f 0.38 Ma) derived from the oxidation of
H2S is preserved at upper elevations and overlaps with Stage 2 ore deposition. Late alunite I
jarosite (7.25 I0.14 Ma) in cross-cutting veins and overgrowths is chancterized t y
disequilibnum A ' ~ O ( ~ ; -values
~ but has a range of 6D values that suggest that some alunites
recognized as supergene were relateci to the oxidation of sulfides during the collape of the
hydrothermai systea

Key words: alunite. El Indio-Pûscua Belt, acid-sulfate. stable isotope. epitheml