Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis
Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis
Scope and Objectives
Scope
This unit describes how inadequate design, materials,
surface preparation, application, and curing may
cause early coating failure. Common causes of coating
failures, how to identify failures, and when laboratory
analysis may be helpful are also covered.
Objectives
After completing this unit, students will be able to:
• Recognize the common causes of coating
failures.
• Identify coating failures by type.
• Describe field investigations of coating failures
and basic laboratory techniques for coating
analysis.
Introduction to Coating Failures
All organic coatings have a limited service life usually
because the organic binder will slowly degrade.
However, some coatings will fail much sooner than
expected for any number of reasons related to
inadequate design, incorrect materials, or improper
surface preparation, application, and curing.
Here are four terms commonly associated with coating
failures:
• Catastrophic coating failure. Coating failure
that is sudden, very dramatic, and serious.
• Coating defect. Surface or film imperfection
(flaw), deficiency, or incompleteness that
deviates from a specification or industry-accepted
condition.
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• Coating degradation. Loss of coating materials
and/or properties resulting from service or
weather conditions.
• Coating failure. Loss of a coating’s function
or purpose, i.e., a condition when it no longer
protects the substrate, provides an attractive
appearance, or serves some other function, such
as providing a non-slip surface.
The unit supplement contains pictures and descriptions
of coating defects and failures, along with causes and
remedies.
Impacts and Costs of Premature Coating
Failure
Coating systems may protect structures and
equipment for many years. Premature coating
failures, particularly early in the coating service, can
have costly consequences for both the owner and
the contractor. The contractor typically warrants the
coating for one year and is responsible for repairing
coating defects that occur during this period. Some
of the more significant issues with premature coating
failures are:
• Substrate repairs or replacements
• Coating repairs or replacements
• Plant downtime
• Product contamination
• Environmental contamination
• Unsatisfactory appearance
• Costly litigation
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Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Substrate Repair or Replacement Environmental Contamination

When coating failures occur prematurely, the
substrate is no longer protected. Often, the failure is
localized, so that only certain substrate components
are affected. If allowed to further deteriorate,
plant operations may be impacted with safety and
appearance also compromised. When a process unit
or a structure such as a bridge is taken out of service,
maintenance typically includes steel replacement as
well as repainting. Costs associated with replacement
are usually greater than costs of repainting.
Corrosion may cause stored liquids and other
products to leech out and contaminate the surrounding
environment.
Unsatisfactory Appearance
Color fading, streaking, uneven loss of gloss,
and staining may become unacceptable. Cruise
ships, amusement park rides, and public facilities
regularly receive thin topcoats to maintain a pleasing
appearance.

Coating Repair and Replacement

Costly Litigation
Deteriorated coatings require repair or replacement
Disputes concerning causes of coating failures
to provide continued protection. Also, early coating
and who is ultimately responsible for correcting the
deterioration indicates that continued deterioration
problem can take years to resolve.
and a reduced service life are likely.

Coating Properties Required for Good

Plant Downtime
Sometimes a facility must suspend operations for
unscheduled maintenance resulting from early coating
deterioration. This downtime can be much more
costly than repair or replacement work because of loss
of owner revenue when production is interrupted.
For example, if the premature failure of a tank lining
requires that the tank be taken out of service, the
entire process may be shut down or alternative
arrangements must be made to keep the system
functioning. Conversely, if the necessary repairs can
be made during normal downtime costs will be much
less.
Product Contamination
Performance
Adhesion
All coatings must bond well to their substrates in
order to perform successfully. Chemical bonds are the
strongest but very few coatings have these primary
bonds. All organic compounds, including coating
binders, are covalent, which means they are weaker
in adhesion than chemical bonds.
In order for a coating to bond well to a substrate,
it must wet the surface well. When substrates are
contaminated with oil, they are harder to coat.
Adequate surface preparation promotes good coating
adhesion by removing substrate contamination and
creating a surface profile (coating “bonding sites”).

Coating failure can contaminate stored foods,

beverages, aircraft fuel, and nuclear plant coolant,
among other things.

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 Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis
Cohesion
Cohesion is the internal adhesion that causes a
substance to stick together rather than break apart.
Leveling
Leveling is the ability of a coating to flow evenly to form
films of uniform thickness with a smooth, continuous
surface. Good leveling prevents such surface
irregularities as brush marks and orange peel.
Rigidity/Flexibility
Coatings may be hard and rigid or flexible, even
elastomeric. Hard, rigid coatings may have good
resistance to impact and abrasion damage and to
solvent and chemical attack, but they are not resistant
to temperature changes.
Film Impermeability (Barrier Protection)
Most coatings protect substrates from deterioration
by forming barriers against aggressive environments
(water, salt, and oxygen). Coating binders provide
most of the resistance but pigment may also be
important.
Solvent and Chemical Resistance
Because linings vary greatly in their ability to resist
different chemicals, care must be taken to select the
right product.
Natural Coating Degradation
Light, heat, and moisture always present in the
environment, particularly in exterior exposures, all
contribute to the deterioration of organic coatings
by attacking the coating polymer and playing upon
any weaknesses in its physical and chemical
resistance.
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Ultraviolet (UV) Light
Ultraviolet light is a major factor in the degradation of
coating polymers. Surface chalking, yellowing, fading,
or loss of gloss are all evidence of UV exposure.
Adverse physical changes in the form of embrittlement
or hardening may also be present.
UV light greatly accelerates oxidation in organic
polymers. It is particularly damaging to certain epoxy,
phenolic, and aromatic polyurethane and polyurea
polymers.
Heat
Coating degradation occurs faster in exposures to
higher temperatures.
Water
In penetrating coatings, water can:
• Cause osmotic blistering
• Cause the coating film to swell to produce
stresses
• Provide a medium for chemical reactions to
occur
Film Stresses
Stresses in coating films result from shrinkage during
curing. Shrinkage is caused by loss of solvent and
by cross-linking during curing. In most cases, curing
continues long after film formation. Greater solvent
loss and greater cross-linking creates greater coating
internal stresses.
The total stress of a coating system increases as each
additional coat cures. When the total stress exceeds
the adhesion of one layer to another, disbonding can
occur at the weakest link, which could be between
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Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

coats or between primer and substrate. If one of the
earlier coats applied has poor cohesive strength,
cracking can result. Cyclical heating and cooling
introduce additional tensile stresses.
Structural Designs on Metal That
Accelerate Corrosion
Improper structural design can accelerate metal or
coating deterioration These design factors should
be considered in the planning stage—sooner rather
than later.
Crevices
Crevices are found in structural components that are
bolted, riveted, or skip-welded together. They are
difficult to coat and a lack of oxygen promotes metal
corrosion. When crevices are present, all weld spatter
must be removed in advance of coating.
Contact of Dissimilar Metals
the design stage. If not eliminated by design, it may
be necessary to drill ”weep holes” for water drainage
later.
Faying Surfaces
Faying surfaces are joints in steel structures formed
by riveting or use of high strength bolts rather than
welding. Most coatings are unsuitable for use at
the joint itself because they do not have the proper
coefficient of friction to maintain the joint in a static
state. However, inorganic zinc-rich coatings perform
well in this service.
Structural Designs That Present
Coating Problems
Complex Structural Configurations
Many structures have trusses, latticework, and other
complex designs that are difficult to protect with
coatings and are thus more prone to corrosion.

Dissimilar metals in contact with each other are Sharp Edges

prone to accelerated galvanic corrosion. The more
When sharp edges are coated, the surface tension
active metal in the galvanic series will corrode first
of the paint causes it to draw back and leave an
while protecting the less active metal. The greater
insufficient film thickness Rounding and grinding
the difference in electrochemical activity between
sharp edges may make them easier to coat uniformly.
the two metals, the greater the rate of accelerated
Stripe coating before or after applying a full coat of
corrosion. When two different metal components
primer can also improve coating thickness.
must be joined to each other, an insulator should be
placed between them to prevent electrical contact and
Effects of Substrate Properties on
galvanic corrosion.
Coating Performance
Water Traps The chemical and physical nature of a surface to
be coated may have a very profound effect on the
Water traps are design features, such as upward-
performance of different coating systems. In general,
facing angle irons, that permit rain or other water
textured surfaces provide more bonding sites and
to collect, which accelerates coating and metal
thus have greater coating adhesion than smooth
deterioration. Water traps should be eliminated in
surfaces.

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 Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Coatings on metal structures are susceptible to

underfilm corrosion where holidays expose the
substrate. Zinc-rich and inhibitive primers may be
used to deter underfilm corrosion.

The effects of different substrates on coating

performance are summarized here:

Table 7-1

Coating Defects Associated with Different Substrates

• Hot-Rolled Steel Coating loss with disbonding mill scale

• Cold-Rolled Steel
• High -Strength Steel
• Aluminum
• Galvanized Steel
• Concrete
• Wood
Coating disbonding from smooth mill scale
Limited coating adhesion over flash-rusted surfaces
Underfilm corrosion
Limited coating adhesion unless pre-treated or abrasive blasted
Limited coating adhesion because of low surface profile unless blasted with a
hard abrasive
Limited adhesion of some coatings unless pre-treated or blasted with soft abrasive
to avoid damage to soft metal
Underfilm/filiform corrosion
Limited adhesion of coatings to zinc-coated surfaces (varies with extent of zinc
oxidation)
Saponification of oil-based coatings by surface alkalinity
Saponification of oil-based coatings (e.g., alkyds) by surface alkalinity
Limited adhesion to smooth troweled surfaces
Incomplete coverage of rough surfaces
Incomplete treatment of surface irregularities (e.g., bug, holes, fins, tie-rod holes,
cracks, etc.) before coating
Loss of coating and concrete surface layer by laitance
Blistering and disbonding of coatings from moisture migration
Limited coating adhesion to flat-grain wood
Limited coating adhesion to hard woods (e.g., oak and ash)
Water-soluble brown redwood and cedar stains on latex paints
Coating cracking from wood dimensional changes with change in moisture
content

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Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Defects and Failures Associated with should be applied to check ease of application, hiding,
the Coating Itself leveling, curing, etc.

Wrong Coating System Choice for Particular

Service
Early coating defects or failures may occur if the
coating system is not appropriate for the intended
service. Poorly selected systems exhibit chalking,
erosion, checking, cracking, or discoloration.
If a coating has been stored under adverse temperature
conditions or is beyond its shelf life, it may no longer
be suitable for use.
Defects and Failures Related to Adverse
Ambient Conditions

Coating defects and failures related to adverse

The specification writer is responsible for specifying
ambient conditions during surface preparation or
an appropriate coating system. However, coating
coating application and curing were discussed
contractors interested in doing the work should
earlier. Coating under those conditions listed in the
raise questions to the owner about any specification
specification and in the manufacturer’s product data
requirement that seems to be inappropriate.
sheets will minimize this problem.

Incompatibility with Existing Coating

Defects and Failures Related to Surface
If an existing coating system is to be topcoated, the Preparation
topcoat must be compatible with the existing finish
Surface preparation requirements consist of meeting
coat. Typically, this means the two must be of the
specified levels of cleanliness and profile. Common
same generic type. The specification writer should
coating defects/failures associated with inadequate
make sure that this is the case. Applying a test patch
surface preparation are:
of the proposed topcoat will provide evidence of
bleeding, disbonding, or other adverse effects.
Cleanliness Deficiencies

Poor adhesion (caused by contamination)

Incompatibility in the Coating System
Osmotic blistering (caused by residual salt
The specification writer should specify that all of contamination)
the coating materials in a system be procured from Crawling (caused by contamination by grease or
the same supplier and that they comprise a system oil)
recommended by the manufacturer for the intended Intercoat delamination
service.
Profile Deficiencies
Error in Coating Production or Storage
Poor adhesion (caused by profile too low)
Reputable manufacturers perform quality control Pinpoint rusting through coating (caused by profile
testing to detect any significant errors in paint batches. too high)
If there is any doubt of coating quality, a test patch

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 Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Defects and Failures Related to • Laboratory analyses

Application • Preparation of report

Common coating defects associated with inadequate

Collecting all pertinent documentation and historical
application are:
data includes:

• Project specification, including all attachments,

Application Technique
submittals, and amendments
Sagging (too heavy a coat)
• Documents referenced in project specification
Dry spray (droplets unable to flow together)
• Manufacturer’s data sheets, often required as
Poor intercoat adhesion (application after recoat
project submittals
window)
• Daily QC reports, QA reports, and any required
Improper curing (application before recoat window
corrective actions
or without induction)
• Contractor’s process control procedure
• All correspondence between the owner and
Low Film Thickness
the contractor, coating supplier, or other parties
Less substrate protection/coating adhesion concerning the project
Holidays • Historical data on structure previous uses and
coating work (to extent available)
High Film Thickness

Cracking of rigid coatings
Wrinkling (of alkyds)
Osmotic blistering (solvent entrapment)
Coating Failure Analysis:
Documentation and Historic Data
At the first signs of coating defects, note the type,
extent, and distribution and decide whether:
• The defects should be monitored for further
changes
• Simple localized repairs will resolve the
problem
• A failure analysis should be undertaken
If a failure analysis is needed, it should be conducted
by a qualified expert in a systematic manner:
• Data collection and documentation
• Field observations, tests, and sampling
From the project specification and its supporting
documents, the necessary actions to complete the
project properly can be determined. These suggested
actions should be compared to those actually taken,
as described in the daily QC reports.
The daily QC reports contain information on the
prevailing conditions, timing and sequencing of work
phases, and any concerns that may have arisen.
Any deviations can be noted for subsequent field
examinations.
The past history of the structure may also provide
clues as to possible causes of the present condition.
A review of plant operations may reveal periods of
high operating temperatures or other aggressive
conditions. The history of the previous coating
system may also provide information that relates to
the performance of the present system.

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Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Coating Failure Analysis: Field around doors and windows, near the ground, in hard-
Observations and Tests to-reach places, etc? Both failed and intact areas of
coating are inspected for visual differences.
After all available important documents have been
read, the coating failures are inspected in the field
Field Tests
using any or all of these special tools:
Field test should be conducted for:
• A still and/or video camera to photograph both
intact and failing areas, both close-up and at a • Dry film thickness*
distance • Coating adhesion*
• A small tape recorder for recording observations • Other properties, as appropriate
and test operations and results in detail
* Almost always run routinely
• Appropriate dry film thickness gages and
standards for calibrating them
Dry film thickness measurements on steel surfaces
• A sharp knife for probing and testing coating films
should be made in accordance with SSPC-PA 2, as
and removing samples
described in Unit 4, on both failed and intact areas
• Adhesion testing equipment (ASTM D 3359,
of coating. It is wise to use a couple of different
ASTM D 4541, and ASTM D 6677)
instruments, including a Tooke gage to measure the
• Sand paper for removing samples of finish coat
thickness of each coat of the system.
and/or determining extent of curing
• A syringe and needles for collecting liquid samples
Adhesion testing should also be conducted on intact
in unbroken blisters
and failed areas. Replicate tests are made in each
• Vials and zip-lock plastic bags for holding liquid
area to determine extent of variations. When pull-off
and solid samples
tests are conducted, the mechanisms of failure should
• Bottle of strong solvent, such as methyl ethyl
also be recorded.
ketone (MEK), to determine extent of curing
• Black felt cloth to measure chalking
Sample Collection
• Marking pen to identify samples taken and
locations where photographs were taken Samples collected at the site may include:
• A low magnification microscope for closer
• Peeled chips of paint
observations
• Finish coats removed by sanding or careful
scraping with a knife or razor blade
Visual Observations
• Paint system chipped from substrate
Failure analysis experts complete visual inspections • Liquid samples in unbroken paint blisters
before testing. They record the types, extent, and • Corrosion samples
distribution of defects and failures using standard • Samples from unopened cans of liquid paint, if
terms and a standard rating system. They pay attention available, for laboratory testing for conformance
to special patterns: Is deterioration concentrated on to specification
the sunny side of structures, on the ocean exposure,

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 Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis
All samples are sealed in clean containers for
laboratory testing, completely identified, and stored
in a manner (chain of receipts) acceptable for use as
forensic (legal) evidence.
Failure Analysis: Laboratory Testing
There are several sophisticated analytical methods
that can provide extremely useful information
when investigating causes of coating failures.
The instruments used in these methods are very
expensive, and special training is required for their
operation. The data received from these instruments
are typically in the form of graphs or charts (spectra)
that require special interpretation, but they are
generally viewed as being much more credible than
simple field observations or tests.
No one instrument can produce all of the desired data,
so the scientists conducting laboratory tests have to
know which is most appropriate.
Optical Microscopy
The information received from a good quality light
microscope with roughly 50X magnification may be
as important as that received from more expensive
and sophisticated instruments. Top, bottom, and
cross-section views of paint chips taken from the site
may reveal:
• Fine film cracking
• Small holes or voids associated with exposure to
moisture, outgassing, solvent retention, or gas
production
• Mildew on the back side
• Rust or mill scale on the back side
• Types and locations of other contaminants
• Visual differences between intact and failed areas
of paint
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• Number of coats of paint and thickness of each
• Locations where delamination or blistering is
initiated
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
A scanning electron microscope (SEM) will supply
not only much greater magnification than a light
microscope but also a greater depth of field. Another
advantage of the SEM is the ability to equip it with an
x-ray spectrophotometer for elemental analysis of the
images produced (determining the chemical elements
present in it). Thus, surface staining by rust can be
distinguished by the iron present from organic staining
or discoloration.
Infrared Spectroscopy
Infrared spectroscopy is the analytical technique most
commonly used in failure analysis of organic coatings.
This technique can:
• Identify organic components
• Create a “fingerprint” for identifying different
organic polymers
• Identify some inorganic coating constituents
• Confirm proper mix ratio of some parts of two-
component thermosetting coatings
• Determine that proper and complete curing of
certain coatings has occurred
• Detect and identify type of chemical
degradation
• Detect grease, oil, and other organic
contaminants
Paint samples can be prepared for infrared
spectroscopic analysis by many different methods.
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Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy High-Performance Liquid Chromatography

Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AA), or atomic
absorption/emission spectroscopy (AES), is used to
determine the amount of certain elements (mostly
metals) in a test sample, such as a coating. The
method can be used to detect the presence of
individual elements but not compounds in pigments
(e.g., iron, but not iron oxide). Typically, AA/AES
is used to determine the zinc content in a zinc-rich
coating or lead content in an existing coating.
Inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy (ICP) is a
similar analytical tool and gives results comparable
to those obtained by AA. ICP is more efficient than
AA in that it permits multiple elements to be analyzed
simultaneously.
Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis
(ESCA)
Electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA)
can check for several elements at the same time by
examining only extremely thin surface films rather
than bulk samples. ESCA has been used to identify
contaminants on the back surfaces of coatings and
soluble salts entrained in a paint film.
Gas Chromatography (GC)
Gas chromatography (GC) is a technique for
separation, identification, and analysis of volatile
materials, such as paint solvents. It can identify
solvent entrapped in liquid-filled paint blisters from a
sample as small as 1 milliliter sample of liquid.
(HPLC)
High-performance liquid chromatography separates
individual usually nonvolatile solid components for
analysis.
Gel Permeation Chromatography
A special type of HPLC which separates the non-volatile
components of a coating based on their molecular
size, or weight. It is very useful for determining the
molecular weight of resins or polymers in the coating,
and sometimes for isolating additives.
Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
DSC subjects samples to a controlled heating rate
in a special furnace to detect the degree of cure of
thermosetting coatings.
Preparing a Failure Analysis Report
The best failure analysis testing will not be credible
unless a good failure analysis document is prepared.
The writer must introduce all of the significant
data systematically to show how a single, logical
conclusion was reached. The data, including such
things as spectra and chromatograms, if they were
obtained, should be presented in a clear, scientific
fashion. Charts, tables, graphs, and printed spectra
can be very convincing in support of field observations
and tests.

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References
1. Hare, Clive H., Paint Film Degradation: Mechanisms and Control, SSPC, Pittsburgh, PA, 2001.
2. Weldon, Dwight G., Failure Analysis of Paints and Coatings, John Wiley and Sons,
New York, 2001.
3. Drisko, Richard W., “Coating Failures”, SSPC Painting Manual Volume 1: Good Painting Practice, SSPC,
Pittsburgh, PA, 2002.

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Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Terms Used in Unit 7

Adhesion (Coating)
Degree of attraction between a coating and its substrate or between two coats of paint that are held together by
chemical or physical forces or both; bonding strength.

Aliphatic
Class of organic compounds composed of saturated chains.

Aromatic
Class of organic compounds containing an unsaturated ring of carbon atoms,
typified by the benzene structure.

Bleeding (Coating)
Diffusion of colored material from a substrate (including previously applied paint films) into a newly applied finish,
resulting in a discoloration of the finish.

Catastrophic Failure (Coating)

Coating failure that is sudden, very dramatic, and serious.

Checking (Coating)
Fine cracking that develops in paint film during prolonged curing and/or weathering that does not penetrate to
the underlying surface.

Chromatography
Method of separating different chemical species based upon selective surface adsorption, or via a “filtering”
effect in the case of gel permeation chromatography.

Cohesion
Internal adhesion that causes a substance to stick together rather than fall apart.

Covalent Bond
Chemical bond in a molecule in which two adjacent atoms share electrons, usually a pair.

Critical Pigment Volume Concentration

Level of pigment volume concentration (PVC) in dry paint, where just sufficient binder is present to coat the
surfaces of all of the pigment particles.

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Cross-Linking
Method of polymer growth by forming chemical links between molecular chains to form a three-dimensional
network.

Defect (Coating)
Surface or film imperfection (flaw), deficiency, or incompleteness that deviates from a specification or industry-
accepted condition.

Degradation (Coating)
Gradual loss of coating materials and/or properties resulting from service or weather conditions.

Differential Scanning Colorimetry (DSC)

An analytical technique used to detect thermal events in a coating. In some instances, it gives information on
degree of cure.

Dry Spray
Rough, powdery, non-coherent film produced when an atomized coating partially dries before reaching a
surface.

Elastomer (Polymer)
Polymer that forms a flexible film that can be stretched to at least twice its original length and after release of
its tension return to its original size.

Failure (Coating)
Loss of a coating’s function, i.e., a condition when it no longer protects the substrate, provides an attractive
appearance, or serves some other function, such as providing slip resistance.

Faying Surfaces
Contacting surfaces where joints in steel structures are formed by riveting or the use of high strength bolts
instead of welding.

Flat Grain Wood

Wood cut with few exposed grain edges that permit paint penetration.

Galvanic Corrosion
Accelerated corrosion from two or more metals in electrical contact and immersed or buried in an electrolyte.

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Gas Chromatography
Technique for separating volatile chemical components of a mixture by using a gaseous carrier to pass it through
a column of adsorbent; see Chromatography.

Gel Permeation Chromatography

A special form of high performance liquid chromatography that separates the components of a sample based
on their size or molecular weight.

High Performance Liquid Chromatography

Technique for separating closely related compounds dissolved in a liquid by passing the solution through a
column of adsorbent; see Chromatography.

Infrared (IR) Light

Invisible part of the electromagnetic spectrum between radio waves and the red portion of visible light, with wave-
lengths between 0.78 and 1000 micrometers (780 and 1,000,000 nanometers); used to characterize chemical
materials such as paint binders by Infrared Spectroscopy. The most useful part of the spectrum is from about
2.5 to 25 micrometers, and is referred to as he “mid-IR region.”

Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy

Spectrographic analysis using infrared light; see Infrared and Spectroscopy.

Leveling (Coating)
Ability of an applied wet coating to flow out to a uniformly thick film with a smooth surface free of irregularities.

Micaceous Iron Oxide

Hard, dense laminar pigment of iron oxide which provides barrier protection by impeding the path of water and
other corrosive agents in industrial coatings.

Novolac Epoxy
Hard, highly cross-linked epoxy polymer with good chemical resistance.

Orange Peel
Coating application (usually spray) defect in which the coating surface has the irregular appearance of an orange
skin because of insufficient leveling of the wet film.

Osmotic Blistering (Coating)

Blistering typically caused when the surface is contaminated by salt or by solvent retention.

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Outgassing
Emission of air bubbles from concrete pores caused by rising temperatures, or other volatile emissions from a
substrate or coating.

Pigment Volume Concentration (PVC)

Ratio of pigment to the total non-volatile components

Polymer
Product formed by one or more molecular structural units (monomers) linked together.

Rheology
Science dealing with the deformation and flow of matter.

Sagging (Coating)
Irregular downward flow of wet paint under the force of gravity to produce a thicker lower edge.

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)

High-magnification microscope that uses a beam of electrons rather than visible light to form an image.

Skip Welds
Welds on metal components that are intermittent rather than continuous.

Solvent Entrapment (Coating)

Failure of solvent to completely evaporate from a paint film before topcoating.

Spectroscopy
Method of analysis of a chemical species by measuring its selective absorption or emission of light of selected
frequencies.

Spectrum
Array of components of sunlight arranged in order of wavelength or frequency.

Surface Tension
Work required to enlarge the surface of a liquid, expressed in dynes/cm; surface tension tends to minimize the
volume and surface area of a liquid.

van der Waal Force

Intermolecular forces, other than hydrogen bonding and covalent bonding, which hold molecules together by
attraction.

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Water Trap
Structural design that permits water to collect.

Weep Holes
Holes drilled into “water traps” to permit the collected water to drain; see Water Trap.

Wetting (Coating)
Process of wet coating coming into intimate contact with a substrate.

Wrinkling (Coating)
Defect that causes small furrows and ridges in a coating film; usually on thick films of oil-based paint.

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 Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Unit 7 Workshop 1
Failure Analysis

(Work in assigned groups.) You are required to visit a site to report on a coating failure. You have been told
that the coatings on the exterior of an elevated water storage tank were applied for maintenance purposes two
years ago, and can be seen to be cracking, flaking, and disbonding on about 40 percent of the visible areas of
the tank. Paint chips falling to the ground appear to have seven layers of paint.

Make a list of the equipment to take with you and prepare a list of questions to ask when you get to the site.

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Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Unit 7 Workshop 2
New and Maintenance Painting Concerns

Working in pre-assigned groups, state the specifier’s main concerns for a coatings project for new construction
or maintenance painting. Prepare to discuss your group’s solution with the rest of the class. Make notes of your
answer in the space provided.

If a company employs an inspection agency to verify compliance with specifications for a paint project, and the
coating subsequently fails prematurely, should the inspection agency bear some responsibility for the failure?

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 Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Unit 7 Matching Exercise

Causes of Early Paint Deterioration

Match the type of coating deterioration listed in Column A with a common cause of deterioration listed in
Colunn B.

Column A Column B
1. Chalking a. Too high a steel profile

2. Bleeding b. Humidity too low

3. Outgassing c. Alkyd incompatibility with concrete

4. Wrinkling d. Alkyd applied too thickly on hot day

5. Solvent retention e. Ultraviolet light degrading coating binder

6. Saponification f. Surface contamination with salt

7. Orange peel Solvent dissolving bituminous substrate or

g. undercoat
8. Topcoat delamination
9. Osmotic blistering h. Wet film applied too heavily

10. One-part urethane uncured i. Too much solven evaoration during spraying
11. Sagging j. Topcoat applied too long after recoat window
12. Pinpoint rusting
k. Improper mixing ratio
13. Dry spray
Inadequate ventilation of closed space before
14. Epoxy uncured l. topcoating

m. Spray application during rising temperatures

n. Inadequate leveling of sprayed wet film

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Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Unit 7 Quiz

Select the best answer for each of the following questions.

1. A coating defect is:

a. A sudden serious failure.

b. An imperfection that deviates from a specification or industry-accepted condition.
c. A loss of coatings materials or properties resulting from weather or service.
d. A loss of a coating’s function or purpose.

2. What is required for good adhesion of coatings to substrates?

a. Excellent water resistance.

b. Excellent rigidity.
c. Excellent barrier protection.
d. Excellent surface wetting.

3. Where does galvanic corrosion occur?

a. At crevices.
b. At joints formed by riveting bolts.
c. At the contact of dissimilar metals.
d. At water traps.

4. The contractor typically warrants a coating for:

a. The life cycle of the structure.

b. Two years.
c. One year.
d. The period specified by the owner.

5. What causes coatings to shrink during curing?

a. Incompatibility with substrate

b. Substrate contamination
c. Exposure to sunlight
d. Solvent evaporation

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 Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

6. Which of these coating defects can be caused by too high a surface profile for abrasive-blasted hot-rolled
steel?

a. Disbonding
b. Discoloration
c. Osmotic blistering
d. Pinpoint rusting

7. Which of these coating defects is associated with concrete substrates?

a. Coating loss with disbonding mill scale.

b. Limited adhesion unless pre-treated.
c. Blistering and disbonding related to moisture migration.
d. Underfilm corrosion.

8. Which of these coatings is most susceptible to cracking?

a. Inorganic zinc-rich
b. Latex acrylic
c. Polyurethane elastomer
d. Polyurea elastomer

9. What is a common cause of osmotic blistering on an abrasive blasted steel surface?

a. Contamination by grease or oil

b. Contamination by salt
c. Too low a surface profile
d. Too high a surface profile

10. What is the first step in the failure analysis of a recently applied coating?

a. Read the project specification.

b. Read the inspector’s daily reports.
c. Read the coating manufacturer’s product data sheet.
d. Conduct a visual observation of the failure.

11. What is a coating defect associated with the coating itself?

a. Poor adhesion caused by contamination.

b. Cracking of rigid coatings.
c. Incompatibility with existing coating.
d. Osmotic blistering.

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Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

12. What is a coating defect associated with surface preparation?

a. Incompatibility with existing coating.

b. Pinpoint rusting through the coating.
c. Sagging.
d. Holidays.

13. What is a coating defect associated with coating application?

a. Sagging.
b. Poor adhesion.
c. Chalking
d. Incompatibility in the coating system.

14. Why is laboratory failure analysis used?

a. It is the only way an owner can prove there is a legitimate defect.

b. It augments field analysis in the event of a legal dispute.
c. Field observations are not admissible in a legal dispute.
d. It is more accurate than field analysis.

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 Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Topics
PLANNING AND SPECIFYING
INDUSTRIAL COATINGS
•  Common causes of coating failures
PROJECTS
•  How to identify failures
(For Owners and Contractors) •  Field and laboratory analysis

Unit 7
Coating Failures

Scope Learning Outcomes

•  This unit describes how inadequate
design, materials, surface preparation,
application, and curing may cause early
coating failure. Common causes of
coating failures, how to identify failures,
and when laboratory analysis may be
helpful are also covered.
•  After completing this unit, students will
be able to:
−  Recognize the common causes of coating
failures.
−  Identify coating failures by type.
−  Describe field investigations of coating
failures and basic laboratory techniques
for coating analysis.

Definition of Catastrophic
Definition of Coating Failure
Coating Failure
•  Loss of a coating’s function or purpose: •  A coating failure that is sudden, very
when it no longer protects the substrate; dramatic, and serious.
provides an attractive appearance; or
serves some other function, as
providing a non-slip surface.

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Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Definition of Degradation Definition of Coating Defect

•  Gradual loss of coating materials and/or •  A surface or film imperfection (flaw),

properties resulting from their service deficiency, or incompleteness that
conditions and weathering. deviates from a specification or
industry-accepted condition

Possible Impacts of Possible Impacts of

Early Coating Failures Early Coating Failures (cont.)
•  Substrate repairs or replacements •  Environmental contamination
•  Coating repairs or replacements •  Unsatisfactory appearance
•  Plant down times •  Accidents
•  Product contamination •  Costly litigation

Coating Properties Necessary Necessary Coating Properties:

for Good Performance Adhesion
•  Adhesion •  Coatings must bond well to substrates to
perform well.
•  Cohesion
•  Coatings must come into intimate contact with
•  Leveling substrates (wet them) to bond well.
•  Rigidity/flexibility •  When the surface tension of the liquid is
•  Film impermeability (barrier protection) much less than the surface tension of the
surface, it wets the surface well.
•  Solvent and chemical resistance
•  Contaminated (e.g., with oil) surfaces have
reduced surface tension and thus reduced
adhesion of coatings.

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 Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis
Effects of Surface Preparation
for Coating
•  Removing surface contaminants to
provide more bonding sites for coatings
•  Providing a textured area with more
bonding sites
Necessary Coating Properties:
Leveling
•  Leveling is the ability of a coating to
flow out after application so as to
obliterate any surface irregularities such
as brush marks, orange peel, peaks, or
craters which have been created by the
mechanical process of application.
Necessary Coating Properties:
Film Impermeability
•  Films impermeable to salt, water, and
oxygen provide substrates with good
barrier protection.
•  The higher the polymer cross-link
density, the greater is the film
impermeability.
•  Laminar pigments can also impart
barrier protection.
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Necessary Coating Properties:
Cohesion
•  Cohesion is the internal force of attraction
necessary for substances to stick together
•  High cohesive forces such as with highly
cross-linked polymers have high cohesion
and chemical resistance
•  As the pigment concentration of a coating
approaches its maximum value, cohesive
strength is lost (e.g., IOZ coatings)
Necessary Coating Properties:
Rigidity/Flexibility
•  A dense, rigid coating may have good
chemical, impact, and abrasion damage
but has limited abilities to respond to
dimensional changes.
•  A highly flexible (elastomeric) coating is
not affected by dimensional changes
but has less chemical resistance.
Necessary Coating Properties:
Solvent and Chemical Resistance
•  Solvent and chemical resistance is
required for lining materials that will
come into contact with these products.
•  Thermosetting coatings with a high
cross-link density can be formulated to
meet most needs.
Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Coatings Degradation by Natural Forces that Degrade

Natural Forces Coatings
•  Organic coating polymers are slowly •  The sun’s ultraviolet light
degraded by natural forces. •  Heat
•  These forces usually act together to •  Water
degrade the polymers.
•  The rate of degradation depends upon
the severity of these forces and the
physical and chemical resistances of
the polymers.

Examples of Designs that

Adverse Structural Designs
Accelerate Corrosion
•  Some structural designs accelerate •  Crevices
substrate and/or coating deterioration or •  Water traps
present coating difficulties. •  Contact of dissimilar metals
•  Faying surfaces

Crevice Problems Skip Weld

•  May occur in skip welds, back-to-back

•  angles, under bolts, etc.
•  Metal corrosion is accelerated in the
crevice by an oxygen concentration cell.

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 Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Crevice Corrosion Water Trap Problems

•  Occur in configurations such as upward-

facing angels or depressions that permit
the collection of rain or other water.
•  You may drain water through weep
holes, but it’s better to face angles
downward.

Dissimilar Metal Corrosion:

Contact of Dissimilar Metals
Steel Nut on Copper Fitting

•  Accelerated galvanic corrosion occurs

when dissimilar metals are in contact
with each other.
•  Avoid such contact or use isolating
insulators.

Examples of Designs that

Faying Surfaces
Cause Coating Problems
•  Faying surfaces are contacting surfaces •  Complex configurations
where joints in steel structures are •  Sharp edges
formed by welding, bolting, etc. •  Difficult-to-reach areas
•  Most coatings do not have coefficient of
friction to maintain joint in static state.
•  Inorganic zinc-rich coatings perform
well.

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Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Complex Configurations Sharp Edges

•  Trusses, latticework, etc. are difficult to •  Paint draws back from sharp edges to
paint. reduce its film thickness.
•  They are also more prone to corrosion. •  Rounding of edges permits application
•  Simple, flat designs are preferred. of greater film thicknesses.
•  Striping edges will also increase film
thickness there.
•  Edge-retentive coatings will also
increase film thickness at edges.

Edge Failure of Coating Stripe Coating of Shipboard Tank

After Priming

The coating on the edge of this deck support has failed and
corrosion has begun.

Coating Problems Associated

Difficult-to-Reach Places
with Different Substrates
•  Often result in poor workmanship. •  Hot-rolled steel: Mill scale; flash
•  May require equipment for access. rusting; and underfilm corrosion
•  Cold-rolled steel: Adhesion of coating
•  High-strength steel: Profiling hard
surface and adhesion of coating
•  Aluminum: Adhesion of coating and
filiform corrosion

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 Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis
Coating Problems Associated
with Different Substrates (cont.)
•  Galvanized Steel: Adhesion of coating
and saponification of oil-base coatings.
•  Concrete: Irregular surfaces; laitance;
efflorescence; and saponification.
•  Wood: Limited adhesion to flat-grain
and hard woods; water soluble stains;
and cracking from dimensional
changes.
Coating Failures Related to
Coating Formulation Limitations
•  Chalking
•  Erosion
•  Checking/cracking
•  Discoloration
•  Chemical/solvent attack
Coating Defects/Failures
Associated with Improper Profile
•  Limited coated adhesion from low
profile.
•  Pinpoint rusting from high profile.
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Defects/Failures Associated
with the Coatings Themselves
•  Wrong coating choice: Coating not
appropriate for particular service.
•  Topcoat incompatible with existing
coatings.
•  Error in coating production or storage.
•  Inherent coating limitations.
Defects/Failures Associated
with Ambient Conditions
•  Coating under those conditions listed in
the specification and in the
manufacturer’s product data sheets will
minimize this problem.
Coating Defects/Failures Caused
by Inadequate Cleanliness
•  Limited coated adhesion
•  Osmotic blistering from salt contamination
•  Fisheyes (crawling or cratering) from oils
•  Inter-coat delamination
Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Coating Defects/Failures Coating Defects/Failures

from Improper Application from Improper DFT
•  Sagging •  Low film thickness:
•  Dry spray −  Less penetration/coating adhesion
•  Inter-coat delamination (recoat window −  Holidays
exceeded) •  Excessive film Thicknesses:
−  Checking/cracking of rigid coatings
−  Wrinkling
−  Osmotic blistering from solvent retention

Typical Steps Taken Documentation Desired

in Coating Failure Analyses for Failure Analysis
•  Data collection and documentation •  Project specification with all attachments,
•  Field observations, tests, and sampling submittals, and amendments
•  Laboratory analyses •  Documents referenced in specification
•  Preparation of report •  Manufacturer’s data sheets
•  Daily QC reports

Documentation Desired Photographic Documentation

for Failure Analysis (cont.) of Coating Failure
•  Contractor’s work plan or process •  Overall view of failure.
control procedures. •  Close-up of failed and intact areas.
•  All correspondence between owner and •  Specify location and time of
contractor, coating supplier, and other photography.
parties concerning the project. •  Supplement with written documentation.
•  Historical data on structure previous •  Video may be used.
uses and coating work.

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 Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Instruments/Tools for
Parts of Field Investigation
Field Observations and Testing

•  Documenting observations using •  Still and/or video camera.

standard terms and rating systems. •  Tape recorder.
•  Measuring coating thickness in intact •  Sharp knife.
and failed areas. •  Dry film thickness gages and calibration
•  Measuring coating adhesion in intact standards.
and failed areas.
•  Photographic documentation.

Instruments/Tools for Instruments/Tools for

Failure Analysis (cont.)
•  Adhesion instruments.
•  Sand paper for removing sample of
finish coat or determining extent of
curing.
•  Syringe and needles for collecting liquid
samples from unbroken blisters.
•  Vials and zip-lock plastic bags for
holding samples taken.
Failure Analysis (cont.)
•  Bottle of strong solvent for determining
extent of curing.
•  Black felt cloth for measuring chalking.
•  Marking pen for identifying samples and
identifying locations of photographs.
•  A low magnification microscope.

Visual Observations Common Field Test Conducted

in Failure Analyses During Failure Analyses

•  Types, extents, and distribution of •  Dry film thickness measurements.

coating defects and failures. •  Coating adhesion.
•  Type extent, and distribution of
substrate damage.
•  Failure patterns.

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Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis
Measuring Dry Film Thickness
•  Follow SSPC-PA 2 procedures.
•  Take thickness measurements in areas
near and remote to failed areas.
Typical Samples Taken
for Failure Analysis
•  Peeled chips of paint.
•  Finish coats removed by sanding.
•  Paint system chipped from substrate.
•  Liquid samples from unbroken blisters.
•  Substrate deterioration (e.g., corrosion)
products.
•  Samples from unopened cans of paints
and thinners.
Laboratory Analysis
of Field Samples
•  Supplements field findings.
•  Laboratory data very convincing and
difficult to refute.
•  Laboratory methods available for
analysis. of binders, pigments, and
solvents.
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Testing Coating Adhesion
in Failure Analyses
•  ASTM D 3359, ASTM D 4541, and
ASTM D 6677 can be used.
•  Conduct replicate measurements as
often as for precision and sampling.
•  Record types of failures in pull-off
testing.
Laboratory Analyses for
Causes of Coating Failures
•  Laboratory analyses provide credibility
in disputes with data otherwise
unavailable.
•  Data often received in charts or graphs
that require special interpretation.
•  Expensive, highly-technical equipment
requiring special training often used.
Laboratory Analyses
•  Optical microscopy
•  Infrared spectroscopy (IR)
•  Atomic absorption spectroscopy (AA)
•  X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy
•  Electron spectroscopy for chemical
analysis (ESCA)
•  Gas chromatography (GC)
•  High-performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC)
 Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis
Optical Microscopy
•  Stereo zoom microscopy (up to 50X)
frequently used.
•  Good on paint film cross-sections.
•  Can measure film thickness.
Optical Microscope:
Observations on Paint Chips (cont.)
•  Types and locations of other
contaminants.
•  Visual differences in failed and unfailed
areas.
•  Number and thicknesses of each coat of
paint.
•  Locations where delamination or
blistering were initiated.
Laboratory Analyses: X-Ray
Fluorescence Spectrophotemetry
•  Provides qualitative and quantitative
analysis of chemical elements.
•  Can analyze lead in paint but not as
accurately as atomic absorption (AA)
spectroscopy.
•  Portable unit can measure lead in
painted surface without removing paint.
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Optical Microscope:
Observations on Paint Chips
•  Fine film cracking
•  Small holes or voids
•  Mildew on front or back
•  Rust or mill scale on back
Laboratory Analyses:
Scanning Electron Microscope
•  Much greater magnification than optical
microscope.
•  Useful in detecting surface
contamination.
•  May equip with x-ray spectrophotometer
for analysis of chemical elements.
Laboratory Analyses: Atomic
Absorption (AA) Spectroscopy
•  Mostly used to analyze metals in
pigments.
•  Can analyze parts per million.
•  Material typically dissolved in solvent
and excited in flame.
•  Inductive coupled plasma (ICP)
spectroscopy can analyze several
metals at same time.
Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis
Laboratory Analyses:
Infrared (IR) Spectroscopy
•  Identifying binder polymers.
•  Detecting off-ratio mixing of
components.
•  Determining extent of curing.
•  Detecting and identifying degradation.
•  Detecting organic contaminants.
•  Identifying some inorganic compounds.
Laboratory Analyses:
Gas Chromatography (GC)
•  Used for analysis of volatile products
such as paint solvents.
•  Different products carried by inert gas
are separated on a heated column of
adsorbent.
•  Sometimes used to analyze liquid in
paint blisters.
Preparing a
Failure Analysis Report
•  May be as important as actual field and
laboratory analyses.
•  Must be honest, systematic, and
convincing.
•  Charts, tables, graphs, and printed
spectra can add credibility.
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Laboratory Analyses: Electron
Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis
•  Analyzes for several elements at same
time.
•  Analyzes only surfaces, not bulk.
•  Can detect contaminants on back of
coating chips and soluble salts in film.
High-Performance Liquid
Chromatography (HPLC)
•  Used to separate mixed high-molecular
weight compounds for subsequent
analyses.
•  Liquid carrier used under pressure on
column of adsorbent.
Summary
•  Early coating failures have costly impacts.
•  Coating failures may be associated with
design, materials, surface preparation, and
application.
•  Failure analysis may be conducted in the field
or laboratory.
•  Adhesion, cohesion, leveling, rigidity/
flexibility, film impermeability (barrier
protection), solvent and chemical resistance
are good coating properties.
 Unit 7 Coating Failures - Causes, Identification, and Analysis

Workshop 1:
Failure Analysis
•  (Work in assigned groups.) You are required to visit a
site to report on a coating failure. You have been told
that the coatings on the exterior of an elevated water
storage tank were applied for maintenance purposes
two years ago, and can be seen to be cracking,
flaking, and disbonding on about 40 percent of the
visible areas of the tank. Paint chips falling to the
ground appear to have seven layers of paint.
•  Make a list of the equipment to take with you and
prepare a list of questions to ask when you get to the
site.
Workshop 2:
New and Maintenance Painting
•  Working in pre-assigned groups, state the
specifier’s main concerns for a coatings project
for new construction or maintenance painting.
Prepare to discuss your group’s solution with
the rest of the class.
•  If a company employs an inspection agency to
verify compliance with specifications for a paint
project, and the coating subsequently fails
prematurely, should the inspection agency bear
some responsibility for the failure?

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