Lecture Notes: CALCULUS 2

By:
Hearty M. Nuenay-Maglanque1
Department of Applied Mathematics
University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines

4.2 Polar Coordinates and Polar Graphs

In this section we will start looking at the polar coordinate system.

Coordinate systems are really nothing more than a way to define a point in space. For instance in the Cartesian
coordinate system at point is given the Cartesian coordinates (x, y) and we use this to define the point by
starting at the origin and then moving x units horizontally followed by y units vertically. This is shown in the
sketch below.

However, there is other way to define a point in two dimensional space. Instead of moving vertically and
horizontally from the origin to get to the point we could instead go straight out of the origin until we hit the
point and then determine the angle this line makes with the positive x-axis. We could then use the distance
of the point from the origin and the amount we needed to rotate from the positive x-axis as the coordinates of
the point. This is shown in the sketch below.

Coordinates (r, θ) are called polar coordinates. It consists of a directed distances and the measure of an angle
relative to the fixed point and a fixed ray (or half line) . The fixed point is called the pole or origin, and
the fixed ray is called polar axis (or polar line)

From here, one may think that r must be a positive number. However, we also allow r to be negative. Below
is a sketch of the two points (2, π6 ) and (−2, pi
6 ).

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Hearty M. Nuenay-Maglanque
hearty.nuenay@ustp.edu.ph
From the sketch above, it can be seen that if r is positive the point will be in the same quadrant as θ. On the
other hand if r is negative the point will end up in the quadrant exactly opposite θ. Also, notice that the polar
coordinate (2, π6 ) describe the same point as the polar coordinate and (−2, 7pi 7π
6 ) do. The coordinates (−2, 6 )
tells us to rotate an angle of 7π6 from the positive x–axis, this would put us on the dashed line in the sketch
above, and then move out a distance of 2.

Difference between Cartesian coordinates and polar coordinates:

• In Cartesian coordinates there is exactly one set of coordinates for any given point.
• In polar coordinates there is literally an infinite number of coordinates for a given point.

Example The following four points are all coordinates for the same point.
       
π −5π 4π 2π
5, = 5, = − 5, = − 5,
3 3 3 3

Coordinates Conversion

The polar coordinates (r, θ) of a point are related to the cartesian/rectangular coordinate (x, y) of the point as follows:

• Polar to Cartesian Conversion Formulas:

x = r cos θ
y = r sin θ

• Cartesian to Polar Conversion Formulas:

p
r2 = x2 + y 2 −→ r = x2 + y 2
y y
tan θ = −→ θ = tan−1
x x
2

Example: (Polar to Rectangular) Given the following polar coordinates obtain the cartesian coordinate
(x, y).

(a) (2, π) (c) (−4, 2π

3 )
√
(b) ( 3, π6 )

Solution:

(a) For the point (r, θ) = 2, π),

x = r cos θ = 2 cos π = 2 and y = r sin θ = 2 sin π = 0.

Thus, the rectangular coordinates are (x, y) = (−2, 0).

√
(b) For the point (r, θ) = 3, π6 ),
√
√
π 3 √ π 3
x = r cos θ = 3 cos = and y = r sin θ = 3 sin =
6 2 6 2
 √ 
Thus, the rectangular coordinates are (x, y) = 32 , 23 .
Example: (Rectangular to Polar ) Convert the following rectangular/cartesian coordinates into polar
coordinate (r, θ).

(a) (1, −1) (c)(−1, −1)

(b) (0, 2)

Solution:

(a) Observe that the point (x, y) = (−1, 1) lies on the second quadrant. Thus
y 1 3π
tan θ = = = −1 =⇒ θ = .
x −1 4
Since θ was chosen to be in the same quadrant as (x, y), use a positive value of r. Thus
p
r = x2 + y 2
p
= (−1)2 + (1)2
√
= 2
√
This implies that the one set of polar coordinates is (r, θ) = ( 2, 3π
4 ).

π
(b) Since the point (x, y) = (0, 2) lies on the positive y-axis, choose θ = 2 and r = 2, and the one set of polar
coordinates is (r, θ) = (2, π2 ).

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Hearty M. Nuenay-Maglanque
hearty.nuenay@ustp.edu.ph
Polar Graphs
An equation in polar coordinates is called polar equation.

Example:
(a)Find a cartesian equation of a graph having the polar equation r2 = 4 sin 2θ.
(b) Convert 2x − 5x3 = 1 + xy into polar cordinates.
(c) Convert r = −8 cos θ into Cartesian coordinates. 3

Solution: (a) Since sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ,

r2 = 4 sin 2θ
= 4(2 sin θ cos θ)
= 8 sin θ cos θ
  
y x
=8
r r
8xy
= 2
r
r4 = 8xy
(x2 + y 2 )2 = 8xy
x4 + 2x2 y 2 + y 4 = 8xy

Thus, the cartesian equation is given by x2 + 2x2 y 2 − 8xy + y 4 = 0.

(b)Plugging in the formulas for x and y in terms of r and θ, we have

2x − 5x3 = 1 + xy
2(r cos θ) − 5(r cos θ)3 = 1 + (r cos θ)(r sin θ)
2r cos θ − 5r3 cos3 θ = 1 + r2 cos θ sin θ

p x
(c) Since r = x2 + y 2 , then r2 = x2 + y 2 . Also, since x = r cos θ, we have r = cos θ. Now by substitution, we
have

r = −8 cos θ
x
r = −8
r
2
r = −8x
x2 + y 2 = 8x
x2 − 8x + y 2 = 0
x2 − 8x + 16 + y 2 = 16 , by completing the square
(x − 4)2 + y 2 = 16

So, this is a circle of radius 4 and center (−4, 0).

The graph of an equation in polar coordinates , called polar graphs , consists of those points having at least one pair
of polar coordinates that satisfy the equation.
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Hearty M. Nuenay-Maglanque
hearty.nuenay@ustp.edu.ph
Common Polar Graphs
Lines

(1) θ = c where c is constant.

This is a line. By converting to Cartesian equation as follows

θ=c
 
x
tan−1 =c
y
x
= tan c
y
y = (tan c)x

this is a line through the origin with slope of tan c.

(2) r cos θ = a

This is a vertical line. By converting to Cartesian equation as follows

r cos θ = a
 
x
r =a
r
x=a

this is a vertical line (a line ⊥ to the polar axis.)

π
• if a > 0 the line is to the right of 2 -axis
π
• if a < 0 the line is to the left of 2 -axis

(3) r sin θ = b

This is a horizontall line. By converting to Cartesian equation as follows

r sin θ = b
 
y
r =b
r
y=b

this is a horizontal line (a line || to the polar axis.)

• if b > 0 the line is above the polar -axis

• if b < 0 the line is below the polar -axis

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Hearty M. Nuenay-Maglanque
hearty.nuenay@ustp.edu.ph
Example. Sketch the graph of the following on the same axis system.
3π
(a) θ = 4 (b) r cos θ = 4 (c) r sin θ = −3

Solution:

Circles

(1) r = c where c is constant.

This is a circle centered at the origin with radius |c|.

(2) r = 2a cos θ + 2b sin θ

√
This is a circle centered (a, b) at the with radius a2 + b2 . By converting to Cartesian equation as follows

r = 2a cos θ + 2b sin θ
   
x y
r = 2a + 2b
r r
r2 = 2ax + 2by
x2 + y 2 = 2ax + 2cy
(x2 − 2ax) + (y 2 − 2by) = 0
(x2 − 2ax + a2 ) + (y 2 − 2by + b2 ) = a2 + b2 , by completing the square
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = a2 + b2
√
which is an equation of a circle centered at (a, b) at the with radius a2 + b2 .

(3) r = 2b sin θ (if a = 0 in (2) ). This is a polar eq’n of the circle of radius |b| units , centered at (0, b).

(4) r = 2a cos θ (if b = 0 in (2)). This is a polar eq’n of the circle of radius |a| units , centered at (a, 0).

Example. Sketch the graph of the following on the same axis system.

(a) r = 7 (b) r = 4 cos θ (c) r = −7 sin θ

Solution:
(a) r = 7 is a polar equation of a circle centered at the origin with radius 7.

(b) r = 4 cos θ is a polar equation of a circle centered at (2, 0) with radius 2 .

(c) r = −7 sin θ is a polar equation of a circle centered at (0, −7/2) with radius 7/2.

Cardioids and Limacons

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Hearty M. Nuenay-Maglanque
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 • (Cardioids): r = a ± b cos θ r = a ± b sin θ
a
These have a graph that is vaguely heart-shaped and always contain the origin with b =1
a
• (Limacon with an inner loop): r = a ± b cos θ r = a ± b sin θ with 0 < b <1
These will have an inner loop and will always contain the origin.
a
• (Limacon with dent): r = a ± b cos θ r = a ± b sin θ with 1 < b <2
These will have an inner loop and will always contain the origin.
a
• (Convex Limacon (no dent)): r = a ± b cos θ r = a ± b sin θ with b >2
These do not have an inner loop and do not contain the origin.

Example. Sketch the graph of the following on polar equations.

(a) r = 5 − 5 sin θ (b) r = 7 − 6 cos θ (c)] r = −2 + 4 cos θ (c)] r = −5 − 2 cos θ
Solution:
a 5
(a) r = 5 − 5 sin θ. Since b = 5 = 1 , the graph of the given polar equation is a Cardoid.
π 3π
θ 0 2 π 2 2π
r 5 0 5 10 5
x = r cos θ 5 0 -5 0 5
y = r sin θ 0 0 5 -10 5

a 7
(b) r = 7 − 6 cos θ. Since b = 6 > 1, the graph of the given polar equation is a Limacon wth dent.
π 3π
θ 0 2 π 2 2π
r 1 7 13 7 1
x = r cos θ 1 0 -13 0 1
y = r sin θ 0 7 0 -7 0
6

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Hearty M. Nuenay-Maglanque
 a −2
(c) r = −2 + 4 cos θ . Since b = 4 = − 12 < 1, the graph of the given polar equation is a Limacon with a loop.
π 3π
θ 0 2 π 2 2π
r 6 2 -2 2 6

a 5
(d) r = 5 − 2 sin θ . Since b = 2 > 2, the graph of the given polar equation is a convex Limacon.
π 3π
θ 0 2 π 2 2π
r 5 3 5 7 5

hearty.nuenay@ustp.edu.ph
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Hearty M. Nuenay-Maglanque
hearty.nuenay@ustp.edu.ph
Rose

The graph of an equation of the form

r = a cos nθ r = a sin nθ
is a rose having
• n leaves if n is odd
• 2n leaves if n is even
Example. Sketch the graph of the following on polar equations.
(a) r = 4 cos 2θ (b) r = 3 sin 5θ
Solution:
(a) r = 4 cos 2θ . The graph of the given polar equation is a rose. Since n = 2 is even , it has 2n = 2(2) = 4 leaves.
π 3π
θ 0 2 π 2 2π
r 4 4 -4 -4 4

(b) r = 5 sin 3θ . The graph of the given polar equation is a rose. Since n = 5 is odd , it has n = 5 leaves.
π π 5π 7π 3π 11π
θ 0 6 2 6 π 6 2 6 2π
r 0 5
√
-5 5√
0 -5
√
5 -5
√
0
5 3
x = r cos θ 0 2 0 −523 0 5 3
2 0 -523 0
5 5 5 5
y = r sin θ 0 2 -5 2 0 2 -5 2 0

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Hearty M. Nuenay-Maglanque
hearty.nuenay@ustp.edu.ph
Exercises

A. Locate the point having the given set of polar coordinates

1. (a) (3, π6 ) 2. (a) (4, π3 ) 3. (a) (1, − π4 )

(b) (4, 5π
5 ) (b) (2, 3π
2 ) (b) (−3, 5π
6 )
(c) (2, 2π
3 ) (c) (3, 3π
4 ) (c) (−4, − 5π
4 )
(d) (5, 11π
6 ) (d) (5, 5π
3 ) (d) (2, − 7π
6 )
(e) (1, π) (e) (1, 7π
6 ) (e) (5, 2π
3 )

B. Find the rectangular cartesian coordinates of the points whose polar coordinates are given.

1. (a) (3, π) 2. (a) (2, − 7π

6 ) 3. (a) (−1, π4 )
(b) (−4, 2π
3 ) (b) (−1, − 7π
6 ) (b) (−2, − π2 )

C. Find the polar coordinates of the points whose rectangular cartesian coordinates are given.
√
1. (a) (1, −1) 2. (a) (3, −3) 3. (a) (−1, 3)
√ √
(b) (−2, −2 3) (b) (− 3, 1) (b) (−5, 0)

D. Find a cartesian equation of the graph having the given polar equations.

1. (a) r2 = 2 sin 2θ 2. (a) r2 cos 2θ = 10 3. (a) r2 = 4 cos 2θ

(b) r2 = cos θ (b) r cos θ = −1 (b) r2 = 2 sin θ

E. Sketch the graph of the equation

1. θ = π/3 2. θ = 3π/4 3. θ = 2

4. r = π/3 5. r = 3π/4 6. r = 2

7. r cos θ = 4 8. r cos θ = −5 9. r sin θ = 2

10. r = 2 sin θ 11. r = −4 sin θ 12. r = −5 cos θ

13. r = 4 − 4 cos θ 14. r = 3 − 3 sin θ 15. r = 2 + 2 sin θ

16. r = 4 − 3 sin θ 17. r = 3 − 4 cos θ 18. r = 6 + 2 cos θ

19. r = 4 sin 5θ 20. r = 3 cos 2θ 21. r = 3 cos 3θ

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Hearty M. Nuenay-Maglanque
hearty.nuenay@ustp.edu.ph