) FIGURE 20.6 — Photomicrographs of various chips ‘obtained in metal cutting: (a) con- tinuous chip in cutting brass; {b) secondary shear zone in cut- ting copper; (c) built-up edge in cut- ting sintered tungsten; (d) serrated chip in cutting stainless steel; and (e) discontinuous chip in cutting brass. Source: PK. Wright, A. Ji ‘Moser, and S. Kalpakjian, FIGURE 207 ——— Shiny (burnished) surface on the tool-side of a continuous chip pro- duced in turning. 601602 20 * Fundamentals of Cutting induce residual surface stresses, which may be detrimental to the properties of the machined pare. ‘Although they generally produce good surface finish, continuous chips are not always desirable, particularly in automated machine tools used widely today. They tend to get tangled around the tool holder, the fixturing, the workpiece, as well as the chip disposal systems, and the operation has to be stopped to clear away the chips. This problem can be alleviated with chip breakers (see Section 20.3.7) and changing machining parameters such as cutting speed, feed, and cutting fluids. 20.3.2 Built-up edge chips A built-up edge (BUE) may format of the tool during cutting (Figs. 20.5d and 20.6c). This edge consists of layers of material from the workpiece that are gradually deposited on the tool (hence the term built-up). As it becomes larger, the BUE becomes unstable and eventually breaks up. Part of the BUE material is carried away by the tool side of the chips the rest is deposited randomly on the workpiece surface. The process of BUE formation and destruction is repeated continuously during the cutting operation. Built-up edge formation is similar to what happens when you walk through mud. Ir sticks to your boot soles, changing the shape of the bottom of the boot as well as the surface texture of the ground, The chunk of mud grows in size, and when it even- tually falls off, the process is repeated as you continue walking The built-up edge is commonly observed in practice. It is one of the factors that most adversely affects surface finish in cutting, as you can see in Figs. 20.6c and 20.8, ‘A built-up edge, in effect, changes the geometry of the cutting edge. Note, for example, the large tip radius of the BUE and the rougt ‘finish produced. Because of work hardening and deposition of successive lay rial, BUE hard- ness increases significantly (Fig. 20.8a). Although BUE is generally undesirable, a thin, stable BUE is usually regarded as desirable because it protects the tool's surface and. reduces wear. As cutting speed increases, the size of the BUE decreases—or it doesn’t form at all. The increasing the rake angle, and using a sharp tool and an effective cutting fluid. A cold- worked metal also has less tendency to form BUE. In general, the greater the affinity (tendency to form a bond) of the tool and workpiece materials, the grea dency for BUE formation. - 203.3 Serrated chips Serrated chips (also called segmented or nonhomogeneous chips) are semicontinuous chips, with zones of low and high sae strain (Figs 20 5e and 20.64). Meals with low thermal conductivity and strength that decreases sharply with temperature, such as titanium, exhibit this behavior. The chips have a sawtoothlike appearance.20.3. Types of Chips Produced in Cutting 603 as thr ta FIGURE 20.8 (a) Hardness distribution in the cutting zone for 3116 steal. Note that some regi times harder than the bulk metal. (b) Surface finish in turning $190 steet with @ built-up edge. {c) Surface 1078 steel in face milling. Magnifications: 15x . Source: Courtesy of Metcut Research Associates, In. Built-up. edge Work Hardness (HK is in the built-up edge are as much 20.3.4 Discontinuous chips Discontinuous chips consist of segments that may be firmly or loosely attached to each other (Figs. 20.5f and 20.6e). Discontinuous chips usually form under the follow- ing conditions: (a) britele workpiece materials, because they do not have the capacity to undergo the high shear strains developed in cutting; (b) workpiece materials that contain hard inclusions and impurities or have structures such as graphite flakes in gray cast irons (c) very low or very high cutting speeds; (d) large depths of ut and low rake angles; (e) low stiffness of the machine tool; and (f) lack of an effective cutting fluid. “Because of the discontinuous nature of chip formation, forces continually vary daring cutting. Consequently, the stiffness or rigidity of the cutting-tool holder, workholding devices, and the machine tool is important in cutting with discontinu- ous-chip as well as serrated-chip formation. If not stiff enough the machine tool may begin to vibrate and chatter (see Section 24.4). This, in turn, adversely affects the sur-604 20 + Fundamentals of Cutting face finish and dimensional accuracy of the machined component and may damage or cause excessive wear of the cutting tool. This result is another example of why itis important to understand the mechanics of cutting processes. 20.3.5 Chip formation in nonmetallic materials Many of the discussions thus far for metals are also generally applicable to nonmetallic materials. A variety of chips are obtained in cutting thermoplastics, depending on the type of polymer and process parameters such 2s depth of cut, tool geometry, and cutting speed. Because they are brittle, thermosetting plastics and ceramics generally produce discontinuous chips. (See also Section 20.9.3.) 20.3.6 Chipcurl Inall cutting operations on metals, as well as nonmetallic materials such as plastics and wood, chips develop a curvature as they leave the workpiece surface, a phenomenon called chip curl (see Figs. 20.6c, 20.7, and 20.9). The reasons for chip curl are still not clearly understood. Among the possible factors contributing to it are the distribution of stresses in the primary and secondary shear zones, thermal effects, the work- @ wb) Chip breaker Beforel : | on clamp ate ako, oni fteot breaker “Tool, © akefece Note ete chip breaker decreases tho Sheurvtare ofthe chip. (8) Chip breaker amped on the ake face ofa cutting tot te siting tools acing as chip breakers ads Prsitive rake rake20.4 Mechanics of Oblique Cutting 605 Os FIGURE 20.10 Various chips produced in turning: {a} tightly curled chip; {b} chip hits workpiece and breaks; (c) continuous chip moving away from workpieca; and (d) chip hits tool shank and breaks off. Source: G, Boothroyd, Fundamentels of ‘Metal Machining and Machine Tools. Copyright © 1975; McGraw-Hill Publishing Company. Used with permission. hardening characteristics of the workpiece material, and the geometry of the rake face of the cutting tool. Process variables as well as material properties also affect chip curl. Generally, the radius of curvature decreases (the chip becomes curlier) with decreasing depth of cut, increasing rake angle, and decreasing friction at the tool~chip interface. The use of cutting fluids and various additives in the workpiece material also influence chip curl. 20.3.7 Chip breakers As stated earlier, long, continuous chips are undesirable because they tend to become cntangled and interfere with cutting operations and can become a safety hazard. This situation is especially troublesome in high-speed automated machinery and in vuotended machining cells using computer numerically controlled machines (see Chapter 39). If all che independent machining variables are under control, the usual procedure to avoid this situation is to break the chip intermittently with a chip brea- keer. Although the chip breaker has traditionally been a piece of metal clamped to the rake face of the tool (Figs. 20.9b and c) which bends the chip and breaks it, most cutting tools are now equipped with built-in chip breaker features of various designs, such as those shown in Figs. 20.9e and 21.2 for individual inserts. Chips can also be broken by changing the tool geometry, thus controlling chip flow, as in the turning operations shown in Fig, 20.10. Ia interrupted cutting operations, such as milling, chip breakers are generally not necessary, since the chips already have finite lengths result- ing from the intermittent nature of the operation. a 20.4 Mechanics of Oblique Cutting Thus far the cutting process has been described two-dimensionally. However, the majority of cutting operations involve tool shapes that are three-dimensional (oblique). The basic difference between two-dimensional and oblique cutting is shown606 20 » Fundamentals of Cutting Workpiece Chip £\ \ aon” 5 iene Taree FIGURE 20.11 a) Schematic illus chip produced with ai (6) Types of f cutting with on oblique tool. (b} Top view showing the inclination ang! nt inclination angles. in Fig, 20.12. As you have seen, in orthogonal cutting the tool edge is perpendicular to the movement of the tool, and the chip slides directly up the face of the tool. In oblique cutting, the cutting edge is at an angle, i, the inclination angle (Fig. 20.11b). Note the lateral direction of chip movement in oblique cucting, This situation is simi- lar to an angled snow-plow blade, which throws the snow sideways. Note that the chip in Fig. 20.114 flows up the rake face of the tool at angle a, (chip ‘flow angle), measured in the plane of the tool face, Angle a, is known as the normal rake angle, which isa basic geometric property of the tool. This is the angle between, the normal 0, to the workpiece surface and the line 0, on the tool face. ‘The workpiece material approaches the tool at a velocity V, and leaves the surface (as a chip) with a velocity V,. We calculate the effective rake angle a, in the plane of these two velocities. Assuming that the chip flow angle a, is equal to the inclination angle i (which is experimentally found to be approximately correct), the effective rake angle a, is a, = sin“! (sin? i + cos* i sin a). (20.7) Since we can measure both i and a, directly, we can calculate the effective rake angle. As j increases, the effective rake angle increases, and the chip becomes thinner and longer. The effect ofthe inclination angle on chip shape is shown in Fig. 20.11c. ‘A typical single-point turning tool used on a lathe is shown in Fig. 20.122. Note the various angles involved, each of which has to be selected properly for efficient cutting, Although these angles on cutting tools are produced usually by grinding (see Chapter 25), this isa time-consuming process. Cutting tools are now widely available as inserts (Fig, 20.12b), which are mounted on tool holders with various angles for positioning the inserts for a particular application. Various three-dimensional cutting20.5 Cutting Forces and Power 607 fa) (b) Clamp p-Teathtder edgeanste rake angle > Cutting edge Back rake angle, + 'BR! Axis \ctearance or and relief angle 1 FIGURE 20.12 {a} Schematic illustration of a right-hand cutting tool. Although these tools have traditionally been produced from solid toob-stee! bars, they have besn largely replaced by carbide or other inserts of various shapes and sizes, a shown in (b] and described in Section 21.5.3. We illustrate and describe the various angles on these tools and their effects on machining in Section 22.3.1. tools are discussed in greater detail in Chapters 22 and 23. These include tools for drilling, rapping, milling, planing, shaping, broaching, sawing, and filing. ey 20.5 Cutting Forces and Power Knowledge of the forces and power involved in cutting operations is important for the following reasons: + Power requirements must be known to enable the selection of a machine tool with adequate power. + Data on cutting forces is required for: a) The proper design of machine tools to avoid excessive distortion of the machine clements and maintain the desired tolerances for the finished part, tooling and toolholders, and workholding devices.608 20 + Fundamentals of Cutting FICE, —— Forces acting on a cutting taal in two- dimensional cutting, b) To determine, in advance of actual production, if the workpiece is capable of withstanding the cutting forces without excessive distortion. ‘The forces acting on the tool in orthogonal cutting are shown in Fig. 20.13. These forces can be easily measured with force dynamometers which are available in various designs and capacities. The cutting force F. acts in the direction of the cutting speed V and supplies the energy required for cutting, The thrust force F, acts in the direc tion normal to the cutting velocity, that is, perpendicular to the workpiece, These two forces produce the resultant force R. Note that the resultant force can be resolved into two components on the tool face: friction force F along the tool-chip interface, and a normal force N perpendicu- lar to it. From Fig. 20.13, we can show the force F to be F=RsinB, (20.8) and the force N as N= Roos B. (20.9) Note that the resultant force is balanced by an equal and opposite force along the shear plane and is resolved into a shear force, F,, and a normal force, F,, It can be shown that these forces can be expressed as follows: F= Fcos @ — F sind (20.10) and F, = F.sin gg + F, cos $. (20.11) Because we can calculate the area of the shear plane by knowing the shear angle and the depth of cut, we can determine the shear and normal stresses in the shear plane.Example: 205 Cutting Forces and Power 609 The ratio of F to N is the coefficient of friction ys at the tool-chip interface, and the angle is the friction angle (see also Eq. 20.4). We can express jz as £ + Forana@ MNO ETF ana’ (20.12) The coefficient of friction in metal cutting generally ranges from about 0.5 to 2.0, thus indicating that the chip encounters considerable frictional resistance while moving up the face of the tool. Although the magnitude of forces in actual cutting operations is generally on the order of a few bundred newtons, the local stresses in the cutting zone and the pres- sures on the tool are very high because the contact areas are very small. The chip-tool contact length (Fig, 20.3), for example, is typically on the order of 1 mm (0.04 in.). Thus the tool is subjected to very high stresses, which lead to wear and sometimes chipping and fracture of the tool. 20.5.1 Thrust force A knowledge of the thrust force in cutting is important because the too! holder, work holding devices, and the machine tool must be sufficiently stiff to minimize deflections caused by this force. For example, if the thrust force is too high or if che machine tool is not sufficiently stiff or rigid, the cool will be pushed away from the surface being machined, This movernent will, in turn, reduce the depth of cut, causing lack of dimensional accuracy in the machined part. Refer again to Fig. 20.13 and note that the thrust force acts dowaward. As the rake angle increases, and/or friction at the rake face decreases, this force can act upward. You can visualize this situation by observing that when 1 = 0, i, B = 0, the resultant force R coincides with the normal force N, In this case, R will have a thrust- force component that is upward, Also note that when a = 0 and B = 0, the thrust force is zero. Direction of thrust force ——— We note from Fig. 20.13 chat Fo=Rsin(B-a@) of F, =F, tan (B - @) Because the magnitude of F. is always positive (say, as shown in Fig. 20.13), the sign of F, can be either positive or negative, depending on the relative magnitudes of 8 and @, When > a, the sign of F, is positive (downward) and when B < a, it is negative (upward). It is thus possible to have an upward thrust force at high rake angles and/or with low friction at the tool-chip interface.610 20 « Fundamentals of Cutting 20.5.2 Measuring forces We can measure forces in cutting operations by using suitable dynamometers (with resistance-wire strain gages) or force transducers (such as piezoelectric crystals), ‘mounted on the machine tool. We can also calculate forces from the power consump- tion during cutting, such as with a power monitor, provided that we can determine the efficiency of the machine tool. 205.3 Power Power is the product of force and velocity. Referting to Fig. 20.13, we can see that the power input in cutting is Power = FV. (20.13) This power is dissipated mainly in the shear zone (because of the energy required to shear the material) and on the rake face (because of tool-chip interface friction). Referring to Figs. 20.4b and 20.13, you can see that the power dissipated in the shear plane is Power for shearing = F,V, (20.14) If we let w be the width of cut, the specific energy for shearing u, is EY, 4 = wv (20.15) Similarly, the power dissipated in friction is Power for friction = FV., (20.16) and the specific energy for fiction u,is FV. Fr a = av oe (20.17) The total specific energy x, is thus He =, + Mp. (20.18) Because of the many factors involved, the reliable prediction of cutting forces and power is still based largely on experimental data, such as those given in Table 20.1. The wide range of values shown can be attributed to differences in strength within each material group and various other factors, such as friction, use of cutting fluids, and processing variables, The sharpness of the tool tip also influences forces and power. Because it rubs against the machined surface and makes the deformation zone ahead of the tool larger, the duller the tool, the higher are the forces and power required.20.5 Cutting Forces and Power 611 TABLE 20.1 APPROXIMATE ENERGY REQUIREMENTS IN CUTTING OPERATIONS (at drive motor, corroctad for 80% efficiency; muttiply by 1.25 for dull tools). Material Specific Energy W.s/mm> hp. minyin2 Aluminum alloys O41 015-04 Cast irons. 16-55 06-20 Copper alioys 14-33 08-12 High-temperature alloys 33-85 12-31 Magnesium alloys 04-06 018-02 Nickel alloys: 49-68 18-25, Refractory alloys 38-96 14-35 Stainiass stools 30-52 11-18 Steels 21-93 10-34 Titanium alloys 30-441 W186 © Example: Relative energies in cutting, —_—_—_ee ee An orthogonal cutting process is being carried out, where depth of cut ¢, = 0.005 in. > cutting speed V = 400 ft/min, rake angle a = 10°, and the width of cut = 0.25 in, [eis observed that chip thickness £, = 0,009 in., F, = 125 Ib, and F, = 50 Ib, Calculate the Percentage of the total energy that goes into overcoming friction at the tool-chip interface, SOLUTION. We can express the percentage as Friction energy _ FV, _ Fr Toral energy EV F’ where F. = R cos (8 - a), and . R= VET = Vie + 155 = 135 Ib, Thus 125 = 135 cos (8 — 10), from which B= 3P612 20 * Fundamentals of Cutting and F = 135 sin 32° = 71.5 bb. Hence »5)(0.5! Percentage = ess 0.32 or 32 percent ses sre TI TY 20.6 Temperature in Cutting As in all metalworking operations, the energy dissipated in cutting operations is con verted into heat which, in turn, raises the temperature in the cutting zone. Knowledge of the temperature rise in cutting is important because «The cise in temperature adversely affects the strength, hardness, and wear resis- tance of the cutting tool. + Increased heat causes dimensional changes in the part being machined, making control of dimensional accuracy difficult + Heat can induce thermal damage to the machined surface, adversely affecting its properties. +The machine tool itself may be subjected to elevated and uneven temperatures, causing distortion of the machine, hence, poor dimensional control of the workpiece. Because of the work done in shearing and in overcoming friction on the rake face of the tool, the main sources of heat generation are the primary shear zone and the ool-chip interface. Additionally, if the tool is dull or worn, heat is also generated by the tool tip rubbing against the machined surface. (See, for example, Fig, 20.25.) “Temperature increases with the strength of the workpiece material, cutting speed, and depth of cut; it decreases with increasing specific heat and thermal conductivity of the workpiece material. The mean temperature in turning on a lathe is found to be proportional to cutting speed and feed as follows: Mean temperature « Vf, (20.19) where a and b are constants that depend on tool and workpiece materials, V is the cutting speed, and fis the feed of the tool, that is, how far the tool travels per revolu~ tion of the workpiece. Approximate values for the exponents @ and b are: Tool material a b Carbide 02 0.125 High-speed steel 0.5 037520.8 Temperature in Cutting 613 FIGURE 20.14 ——— ‘Typical temperature distribution in the Zone. Note the steep temperature gradients within the tool and the chip, A typical temperature distribution in the cutting zone is shown in Fig. 20.14. Note the severe temperature gradients and chat the maximum temperature is about halfway up the face of the tool. The particular temperature pattern depends on factors such as specific heat and thermal conductivity of the tool and workpiece material, cutting speed, depth of cut, and the type of cutting fluid used, if any. ‘The temperatures developed in a turning operation on 52100 steel are shown in Fig, 20.15. The temperature distribution along the tool flank surface is shown in Fig. 20.15a for cutting speeds V of 60, 90, and 170 m/min (200, 300, and 580 ft/min), respectively, asa function of distance from the tip of the cutting tool. Figure 20.13b shows the temperature distribution at the tool-chip interface for the same three cut- ting speeds and as a function of the fraction of the contact length. (Thus, 2ero on the abscissa means at the tool tip, and 1.0 means at the end of the too!-chip contact length.) Note that temperature increases with cutting speed and that the highest tera- perature is almost 1100 °C (2000 °F). The presence of such high temperatures can be verified by observing the dark bluish color of chips (caused by oxidation) produced at high cutting speeds. Chips can in fact become red hot, thus creating a safety hazard to the operator. From Eq, (20.19) and the values for the exponent a, you can see that cutting speed greatly influences temperature. As speed increases, the time for heat dissipation decreases—and thus temperature rises. You can easily demonstrate this effect by rub- bing your hands together faster and faster. The chip carries away much of the heat generated (Fig. 20.16). As cutting speed increases, a larger proportion of the heat gen- erated is carried away by the chip, and litele heat goes into the workpiece. This is one teason why machining speeds in practice have been increasing over the years (high-614 20 # Fundamentals of Cutting ww om 2000) 1100 os La 1s T T j x40of- Work materials AISI 52100 oo 1300 V=170 m/min Annealed, 183 HB 5 & Tool material: K3H carbide 2 1600) ‘e220 = 1400} ; 2 "00 E soak ovo g 100) Foo! shape: 0-7-7-1-0-10-002 in, 4 120 P E 90,300) Fettiuammy | 9 & = 1000 (0.0068 in rev) = 2000 i 60 (200) £ {500 z doo 2 st = avy = soo = an 00 4400 mol gol OOS TOT Toa OUT TOW OUe OBS oP are 010 Distance fom tol tp (in. Fraction ftolchip contact length seared inthe diction o ehip Bo FIGURE 20.15 Temperatures developed in turning 52100 steel: (a) flank temperature distribution; and (b} too!-chip interface tem perature di ioution. Source:B. T. Chao and K. J. Trigger. speed machining, see Section 22.4.1), in addition to the economic benefits in reducing machining costs (Section 24.5), Techniques for measuring temperature. Temperatures and their distribution inthe cutting zone may be determined from thermocouples embedded in the tool and/ or the workpiece. This technique has been used successfully, although it involves con- siderable effort. A simpler technique for determining the average temperature is by the thermal emf (electromotive force) at the tool~chip interface, which acts as a hot junc- Chip Energy () FIGURE 20.16 Percentage of the heat generated going into the workpiece, tool, and chip, as a function of cutting speed. Note that the hip carries away most of the heat. Cutting speed20.7 Tool Life: Wear and Failure 615 tion between two different (tool and chip) materials. The infrared radiation from the cutting zone may also be monitored with a radiation pyrometer. However, this tech- nique indicates only surface temperatures, and the accuracy of the esults depends on the emissivity of the surfaces, which is difficult co determine accurately. 20.7 Too! Life: Wear and Failure The preceding sections have shown that cutting tools are subjected to high localized stresses, high temperatures, sliding of the chip along the rake face, and sliding of the tool flank along the freshly cut surface. These conditions induce tool wear, which, in tum, adversely affects tool life, the quality of the machined surface, its dimensional accuracy,and consequently the economics of cutting operations. (See also Chapter 32.) Tool wear is generally a gradual process, much like the wear of the tip of an ordi nary pencil. The rate of tool wear depends on cool and workpiece materials, rool shape, eutting fluids, provess parameters (such as cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut), and machine-tool characteristies, There are two basic regions of wear ina cutting took flank wear and crater wear. 20.7.1 Flank wear Flank wear occurs on the relief face of the tool (Fig, 20.1725 see also Fig, 20.3 and the side relief angle in Fig. 20.12a) and is generally attributed to (a) rubbing of the tool along the machined sucface, thus causing adhesive and/or abrasive wear (see Section 32.6), and (b) high temperatures, thus affecting tool-material propecties as well (a ) cc} Flank Flank wear fee Crater. depth (KD | Depth-ofeut line t ake Flank “ace wear Depth line FIGURE 20.17 {a) Flank and crater wear in a cutting tool. Too! moves to the left. (b) View of the rake face of a urning tool, showing Tose radius ff and crater wear pattern on the rake face ofthe tool. (View of the flank face of a turning tool, showing the average flank wear land VB and the depth-of cut line (wear notch). See also Fig. 20.20.616 20 * Fundamentals of Cutting TABLE 20.2 epee SSSI RANGE OF n VALUES FOR EQ. (20.20) FOR VARIOUS TOOL MATERIALS High-speed steels 0.08-0.2 Cast alloys 0.1-0.15, Carbides: 02-05 Ceramics 05-07 as the workpiece surface. In a classic study by F, W. Taylor on machining steels (pub- lished in 1907), the following approximate relationship was established: WP =C, (20.20) where Vis the cutting speed, Tis the time (in minutes) chat it takes to develop acertain flank wear land (VB in Fig, 20.17c), n is an exponent that depends on tool and work- piece materials and cutting conditions, and C is a constant, Note that Cis the cutting speed at T = 1. Thus each combination of workpiece and tool materials and each cutting condition has its own n and C values, both of which are detertained experi- mentally. The range of » values observed in practice is given in Table 20.2. Cutting speed is the most significant process variable in tool life; however, depth of cut and feed rate are also important. Thus Eq, (20.20) can be modified as follows: VPed'f? = C, (20.21) where dis the depth of cut and fis the feed rate (in mm/rev or in,/rev) in turning, The exponents x and y must be determined experimentally for each cutting con- dition. Taking n = 0.15, x = 0.15, and y = 0.6 as typical values encountered in prac~ tice, we see that cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut are of decreasing order of importance. Equation (20,21) can be rewritten as T= Cvnyoved anf (20.22) or T= OVd-if- (20.23) For a constant too! life, the following observations can be made from Eq. (20.23). a) If the feed rate or the depth of cut is increased, the cutting speed must be decreased, and vice versa. b) Depending on the exponents, a reduction in speed can then result in an increase in the volume of the material removed because of the increased feed rate and/or depth of cut. Toollife curves. Tool-life curves are plots of experimental data obtained in cutting tests on various materials in different conditions and with varying process parameters such as cutting speed, feed, depth of cut, tool material and its geometry,20.7 Toot Life: Wear and Failure 617 FIGURE 20.18 — Effect ofworkpiecemicro- —ygo/50_100 150 200250, struetureand hardness on 7 too! fen turning ductile cast iron. Note the rapid 2 0 decrease in tool life as = cutting speed increases. 3 Tool materials have been 3 40 developedthat resisthigh = temperatures, such 35, a ceramics and cubic bo- 105 ron nitride, thus reducing wear (see Chapter 21) 300-500 709 900 Cutting speed if min? Ascast b. Ascast Ascast Annealed Annealed Hardness (HB) 285 25 21 153 x70 Ferrite 20 0 6 7 100 Peastite 80% 40 and cucting fluids (Fig. 20.18). Note the rapid decrease in tool life as cutting speed increases and the strong influence of the condition of the workpiece material on tool life. Also note the large difference in tool life for different workpiece microstructures (see Chapter 4). Heat treatment is important largely because of increasing workpiece hardness. For example, ferrite has a hardness of about 100 HB, pearlite 200 HB, and martensite 300-500 HB. Impurities and hard constituents in the material or on the surface of the workpiece, such as rust, scale, slag, ete tions because they reduce tool life by their abrasive ac ‘We usually plot tool-life eurves on log-log paper, », are also important considera- tion. from which we can easily deter- mine the exponent n (Fig. 20.19). These curves are usually linear over a certain range fe curves for a variety of cutting-tool materials. The negative inverse of the slope of these curves is the exponent ain tool-life equations and Cis the cutting speed at T= 1 ‘Too! life (min m/min 50 300 3000 20) oF 3} u 1 100" “300 1000-5000 70,000 Cutting speed ¢fUmin)618 20 » Fundamentals of Cutting of cutting speeds but are rarely so over a wide range. Moreover, the exponent » can indeed become negative at low cutting speeds. Thus tool-life curves may actually reach a maximum and then curve downward. Therefore, caution should be exercised when using tool-life equations beyond the range of cutting speeds for which they are applicable, Because temperature affects the physical and mechanical properties of materials, wwe can expect that temperature strongly influences wear. Investigations have indeed confirmed that as temperature increases, flank wear increases rapidly. Although cut- ting speed is the most significant process variable in tool life, feed f and depth of cut d also are important factors. As fand d increase, tool life decreases, with feed having a greater effect than depth of cut, Allowable wear land. When do we decide to sharpen a knife or a pair of scis- sors? We sharpen them when the quality of the cut begins to deteriorate or the forces required increase too much, Similarly, cutting tools should be resharpened or replaced when the surface finish of the machined workpiece begins to deteriorate and tempera- ture rises excessively, The allowable wear land (VB in Fig. 20.17c) for various condi- tions is given in Table 20.3. For improved dimensional accuracy and surface finish, the allowable wear land may be made smaller than the values given in Table 20.3. The recommended cutting speed for a high-speed-stecl tool is generally the one that gives a tool life of 60-120 min (for carbide rools, 30-60 min). Cutting speeds selected can vary significantly from these values depending on the particular work- piece and the operation, as well as high productivity considerations using modern computer-controlled machine tools. Optimum cutting speed. We have seen that as cutting speed increases, tool life is rapidly reduced. On the other hand, if cutting speeds are lows, tool life is long but the rate at which materia! is removed is also low. Thus there is an optimum cutting speed, as we will see in Section 24.5. TABLE 20.3 ALLOWABLE AVERAGE WEAR LAND (VB) FOR CUTTING TOOLS IN VARIOUS OPERATIONS Allowable wear land (mm) High-Speed Operation Stools Carbid Turning 15 oe Face milling a o4 End milling 03 os Drilling at o4 Reaming 018: 0.15ozs aot aamaeuadunay ve86u1 "7 pue oBYO "| “g:80INOS “saseasau! auiesaduUal aoej12101 diyy 1002 aBesany oy3 se sasvalduy aes seam-s2i819 Aipides Moy atON apiaieD ¢-> 090Z_o081__o0zt__o08 a 0 (9) pue ‘opique® |-9 (a) 19a1s paads- Oi} (2) -aumi@adusa) 2o0,.9107 diy2-|00) eBeiene pue aye: Je9m aemueg diysuonejay cE 12°92 YI y-OF uta, ind sam sone.) ‘YSOIEIUBA ‘2 ‘A i821n0s “suoj|sodwoo pue sjeueIeW [001 sa119q Jo TUaWdo|@Aap ay) Ul JeNlUESse 1 2In)/e} ‘Buz 426A" [061 Jo suusi¥eyDow pue SadAt aut jo APMIS Vy "sesNIIe} JO04 a14corISeIe9 Jo suONeLISHIIt S1ewAY9S 19) “S}00) BuNaND jo AlsLIBA @ Uo PaAsasqo seaM Jo S9dA3 Jo SuONELIEN I nEWAYOS (2) oz"02 auNDId 300) aanyey punose moy onseig “9 ogy amped“ now dp (meu ionng 328M 109019 aur ynoyopdap 20 an0018 Aaeuiiag > 38am 4UELy “T atrpey pue moy 21014 puv Suruayes Buide ‘om surersy ——_youLsa4 “Joo fans paads-U3hyy s2yuo9, @ au sropyidop seu digo sow “9 ao ono vig p ono dle teats ng. ‘eam Joes) (arom uowopina aout AropeoIeg (puoi seam svom Mut auureseg [prs poodsuias sprang Buran suey, pandnasenat curs3sea9 jowatayg, co@ ‘Thermal eracks in interrupted Chamfer cutting 1. Flank wear! wear land 2 Crater wear 3. Primary groove or depth-of-ut fine co Chamter Highspeed steel toot, thermal softening and plastic low 1. Flank wear 2 Crater wear 3 Failure face FIGURE 20.20 {a) Schematic illustr Carbide High-speed steel Ceramic 4. Secondary groove \oxidation wear! 5. Outer metal ehip notch 6. Inner chip note Ceramietodl. chipping and fracture 4. Primary groove or depth-ofeut line 5. Outer metal chip note 6, Plastic flow around failure face ns of types of wear observed on a variety of cutting tools. (b) Schematic illustrations of catastrophic too! failures. A study of the types end mechanisms of tool wear and. fei Venkatesh. re is essential in the development of better tool materials and compositions. Source: VC. FIGURE 20.2) Relationship between crater-wear rate and average tool-chip terface temperature: (a) High-speed steel; (b) C-1 carbide; end (c) C8 carbide. Note how rapidly crater-wear rate increases as the temperature increases. Source:B. T, Chao and K. J. Trigger. Crater wear rate "min x EO" *) ‘Average tool-chip interface temperature "Fi 62020.7 Tool Life: Wear and Failure 621 FIGURE 20.22 — Toot (right) and chip (laft interface in cut- ting plain-carbon steel. The discoloration ‘on the tool indicates high temperature Noto that cides with also Fig. 20.14.) Source: P. K. Wright. ture at the tool~chip imterface. An actual cross-section of ths interface in cutting steel at high speed is shown in Fig. 20.22. Compare the location of the crater-wear pattern and the discoloration pattern of the tool by high temperatures and observe their similarity 20.7.3 Chipping Chipping is the term used to describe the breaking away of a small piece from the cutting edge of the tool, a phenomenon similar to breaking the tip of a sharp pencil. The chipped pieces from the cutting tool may be very small (smicro- or macrochip- Ping), or they may be in relatively large fragments (gross chipping ox fracture), Unlike ‘wear, which is a gradual process, chipping results in a sudden loss of tool material and shape, and has a major detrimental effect on surface finish, surface integrity, and dimensional accuracy of the workpiece. ‘Two main causes of chipping are mechanical shock (impact by interrupted cutting, as in milling or turning a splined shaft), and chermal fatigue (cyclic variations in tem. perature of the tool in interrupted cutting). Gross inconsistencies in the workpiece ‘material composition or its structure also may cause chipping. Chipping may occur in 2 region in the tool where a small crack or defect already exists, Thermal eracks are usually perpendicular to the cutting edge of the tool (Fig, 20.20a). High positive rake angles can contribute to chipping, because of the small included angle of the tool tip (see Fig, 20,3), Iris possible for the crater-wear region to progress toward the tool tip, thus weakening it and causing chipping. Chipping or622 20 + Fundamentals of Cutting fracture can be reduced by selecting tool materials with high impact and thermal shock. resistance, described in Chapter 21 20.7.4 General observations on tool wear Because of the many factors involved, including the characteristics of the machine rool and the quality of the tool as manufactured by a particular supplier, the wear behavior of cutting tools varies significantly. In addision to the wear processes already described, other phenomena also occur in tool wear (Fig. 20.20). For example, as a result of the high temperatures generated during cutting, cools could soften and undergo plastic deformation because their yield strength decreases. This type of defor- mation generally occurs in machining high-strength metals and alloys. Thus tools ‘must maintain their strength and hardness at the clevated temperatures encountered in cutting. The various regimes of wear for a carbide tool in cutting austenitic stainless steel are shown in Fig. 20.23. A built-up edge forms at low cutting speeds. As speed he ——— Trends in wear, deformation of a carbide toal as a function mmirer 0030.05 0.080.150.2025 050 0.751015 ~ o 300 g 50 = i i z 30 6 = ae ot teup edge, and plastic 1.002 COUT 0005 0.00 OTTO TOROTUID O50 of cutting speed and feed in turning. Source: A. Dearnley and E.M. Trent. Feed (inJrew)20.7 Tool Life: Wear and Failure 623 inereases the BUE decreases, but the tool may experience crater wear and plastic deformation because of higher temperatures. The wear groove or notch on cutting tools (Fig, 20.20) has been attributed to the fact that this region is the boundary where the chip is no longer in contact with the tool. This boundary, or depth-of-cut (DOC) line, oscillates beeauise of inherent varia- ns in the cutting operation and accelerates the wear process. Furthermore, this region is in contact wich the machined surface from the previous cut. Since a machined surface may develop a thin work-hardened layer, this contact could contribute to the formation of the wear groove. Because they are hard and abrasive, scale and oxide layers on a workpiece surface increase wear. In such cases, the depth of cut should be greater than the thickness of the oxide film or the work-hardened layer. Thus the value of d should be greater than the thickness of the scale on the workpiece. In other words, light cuts should not be taken on rusted workpieces. 20.7.5 Tool condition monitoring Techniques typically fall into two general categories: direct and indirect. The direct method for observing the condition of a cutting tool involves optical measurement of wear, such as by periodically observing changes in the too! profile. This is the most common and reliable technique and is done using a microscope (toolmakers’ micro- scope). This procedure, however, requires that the cutting operation be stopped. With rapidly increasing use of computer-controlled machine tools and implementation of automated manufacturing (see Part VII, the reliable and repeatable performance of cutting tools has become an important consideration. As described in Chapters 22-24, once programmed properly most modern machine tools now operate with litele direct supervision by a machine operator. Consequently, the failure of a cutting tool can have serious effects on the qualicy of the machined part as well as the effi ciency and economics of the overall machining operation, It is thus essential to con- sinuously and indirectly monitor the condition of the cutting tool, ic., wear, chipping, or gross failure. Most state-of-the-art machine controls are now equipped with tool- condition monitoring systems. Indirect methods of measuring wear involve the correlation of the tool condition swith process variables such as forces, power, temperature rise, surface finish, and vibrations, One important development is the acoustic emission technique, which utilizes a piezoelectric transducer attached to a tool holder. The transducer picks up signals that are acoustic emissions (typically above 100 kHz) resulting from the stress waves generated during cutting, By analyzing the signals, tool wear and chipping can be monitored. The acoustic emission technique is particularly effective in precision machining operations where, because of the small amounts of material removed, eut- ting forces are low. A similar indirect tool-condition monitoring system consists of transducers that are installed in original machine tools, or are retrofitted on existing machines. They continually monitor torque and forces in various directions in a variety of machining processes. The signals are preamplified and a microprocessor analyzes the content of624 20 + Fundamentals of Cutting the signals and interprets it. The system is capable of differentiating the signals that come from tool breakage, cool wear, a missing tool, overloading of che machine, or colliding machine components such as spindles. [ccan also automatically compensate for tool wear. The design of the transducers must be such that they are aonintrusive to the machining operation, accurate and repeatable in signal detection, resistant to abuse aad shop-floor environment, and cost effective. Continued progress is being made in the development of such sensors, including the use of infrared and fiber optic tech- niques for temperature measurement in machining operations. 20.8 Surface Finish and Integrity Surface finish influences not only the dimensional accuracy of machined parts, but also their properties. Whereas surface finish describes the geometric features of sur faces, surface integrity pertains to properties such as fatigue life and corrosion resistance, which are influenced strongly by the type of surface produced. Factors influencing surface integrity are temperatures generated during processing, residual stresses, metallurgical (phase) transformations, and surface plastic deformation, tear- ing, and cracking, Surface finish and its measurement are described in Chapter 31. “The built-up edge, with its significant effect on tool profile, has the greatest influ- ence on surface finish. Figuce 20.24 shows surfaces obtained in two different cutting FIGURE 20.24 Surfaces produced on stee! by cutting, as observed with @ scanning electron microscope: (a) turned surface and {(b) surface produced by shaping. Source: J. T. Black and S. Ramalingam.20.8 Surface Finish and Integrity 625 FIGURE 20.25 eee Schematic illustration of a dull tool in ‘orthogonal cutting (exaggerated). Note that at small depths of cut, the rake angle can effectively become negative. The tool may simply ride over the workpiece sur- face, burnishing it Workpiece operations. Note the considerable damage to the surfaces from BUE, Ceramic and diamond tools generally produce berter surface finish than other tools, largely because of their much lower tendency to form BUE. A tool that is nor sharp has a large radius along ies edges (see Fig. 20.17c), just as a dull pencil or knife does. Figure 20.25 illustrates the relationship between the radive of the cutting edge and depth of cut in orchogonal cutting, Note that at small depths of cut the rake angle can effectively become negative, and the tool may simply ride over the workpiece surface and not remove chips. You can simulate this behavior by trying to scrape the surface along the length of a stick of butter with a dull knife; you will note that you will not be able to remove a layer of butter at very small depths, whereas if the knife is sharp, you will be able to do so. If this radius, not 10 be confused with radius R in Fig. 20.17b, is large in relation to the depth of cut, the tool will rub over the machined surface, Rubbing in cutting generates heat and induces surface residual stresses, which in turn, may cause surface damage such as tearing and crack ing. ‘Thus, the depth of cut should generally be greater than the radius on the cutting edge. In torning, as in other cutting operations, the tool leaves a spiral profile—feed marks—on the machined surface as it moves across the workpiece (Figs. 20.26 and 20.27), You can see that the higher the feed f and the smaller the tool-nose radius R. the more prominent these marks will be. Although not significant in rough machining operations, these marks are important in finish machining. We discuss feed marks and other surface finish considerations for individual machining processes in Chapters 22-23, Vibration and chatter are described in some detail in Section 24.4, For now, we should recognize that ifthe tool vibrates or chasters during cutting, it will adversely affect surface finish. The reason is that a vibrating tool periodically changes the dimen- sions of the cut. Excessive chatter can also cause chipping and premature failure of the more brictle cutting tools such as eerarnics and diamond,626 20 + Fundamentals of Cutting Workpiece Bad sutting Side cutting Elecsan edge angle FIGURE 20.26 —— ‘Schematic Illustration of feed marks in turning thighly exaggerated FIGURE 20.277 — Feed marks in turning tungsten with teal. The spacing between ‘the feed (mmirev of in./ rev). Source: A. J. Moser and S. Kalpakitan, We usually define machinability of a material in terms of three factors: (1) surface finish and integrity of the machined part, (2) tool life obtained, and (3) force and power requirements. Thus good machinability indicates good surface finish and integ- rity, long tool life, and low force and power requirements. An additional parameter is chip control. As stated earlier, long, thin curled chips, if not broken up, can severely interfere with the cutting operation by becoming entangled in the cutting zone. Thus the type of chip a material produces is also a factor in its machinability@ Example: 20.9 Machinability 627 Because of the complex nature of cutting operations, it is difficult to establish relationships that define quantitatively the machinability of a material. In manufectue- ing plants, cool life and surface roughness are generally considered to be the most importane factors in machinability. Although not used much any more, approximate machinability ratings are available. Machinability ratings: eee Machinability ratings are based on a tool life of T = 60 min. The standard is AISI 1112 steel, which is given a rating of 100. Thus for a tool life of 60 min, this steel should be machined at a cutting speed of 100 ft/min (30 m/min). Higher speeds will reduce tool. life, and lower speeds will increase it, For example, 3140 steel has a machinability rating of 55. This means that when it is machined ata cutting speed of 55 ft/min (17 m/min), tool life will be 60 min. Nickel has a rating of 200, indicating that it should be machined at 200 ft/min (60 m/mia) to obtain a tool life of 60 min. Machinability ratings for various materials are as follows: free-cutting brass, 300; 2011 wrought aluminum, 200; pearlitic gray iron, 70; Inconel, 30; and precipitation-hardening 17-7 steel, 20. As the hardness of the material increases, its machinability rating decreases pro- portionately. However, such ratings are only approximate and should be used with caution. a sSs—“‘“;‘ 20.9.1 Machinability of steels Because steels are among the most important engineering materials, their machin- ability has been studied extensively. The machinability of steels has been improved mainly by adding lead and sulfur to obtain so-called free-machining steel. Leaded steels. Lead is added to the molten steel and takes the form of dispersed fine lead particles. Lead is insoluble in iron, copper, and aluminum and their alloys. ‘Thus during cutting, che lead particles are sheared and smeared over the tool-chip interface. Because ofits low shear strength, the lead acts as a solid lubricant. This behavior has been verified by the presence of high concentrations of lead on the tool-side face of chips in machining leaded steels. In addition to this effect, lead probably lowers the shear stress in the primary shear zone, thus reducing cutting forces and power consumption, Lead may be used in either nonsulfurized or resulfur. ized steels. However, because of environmental concerns, there is now a trend toward eliminating the use of leaded steels. Lead in steels may be replaced by bisiauth. Leaded steels are identified by the letter L between the second and third numerals; thus, for example, 10L45. However, in stainless steels, similar use of the lewer L in their iden- tification means low carbon, which improves their corrosion resistance,628 20 + Fundamentals of Cutting Resulfurized steels. Sulfur in steels forms manganese sulfide inclusions (second-phase particles), which act as stress raisers in the primary shear zone, As a tesule, the chips produced are small and break up easily, thus improving machinability. The shape, orientation, distribution, and concentration of these inclusions signifi cantly influence machinability. Elements such as tellurium and selenium (both chemi- cally similar to sulfur) in resulfurized steels act as inclusion modifiers. Calcium-deoxidized steels. An important development is calcium-deoxidized steels (see Chapter 5) in which oxide flakes of calcium aluminosilicate (CaO, SiO., and Al,O;) are formed. These flakes, in turn, reduce the strength of the secondary shear zone, thus decreasing tool-chip interface friction and wear, hence temperature. Consequently, these steels produce less crater wear, especially at high cutting speeds. Stainless steels. Austenitic (300 series) steels are generally difficult to machine. Chatter could be a problem, thus requiring machine tools with high stifiness. How- ever, fetvtic stainless steels (also 300 series) have good machinabiflity. Martensitic (400 series) steels are abrasive and tend to form built-up edge, and require tool materials with high hot hardness and crater-wear resistance. Precipitation-hardening stainless steels are strong and abrasive, requiring hard and abrasion-resistant tool materials. Effects of other elements in steels on machinability. The presence of alumi- num and silicon in steels is always harmful because they combine with oxygen and form aluminum oxide and silicates. These compounds are hard and abrasive, chus increasing tool wear and reducing machinability. Carbon, manganese, and phosphorus have various effects on the machinability of steels, depending on their composition. Plain low-carbon steels (less than 0.15 percent C) can produce poor surface finish by forming a built-up edge. Cast steels ate more abrasive, although their machinability is similar to wrought steels. Tool and die steels are very difficult to machine and usvally require annealing prior to machin- ing. Machinebility of most steels is improved by cold working, which hardens the materlal and reduces the tendency for built-up edge formation. Other alloying elements, such as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium, which improve the properties of steels, generally reduce machinability. The effect of boron is negligible. The role of gaseous elements suchas oxygen, hydrogen, and nitro- gen has not been clearly established. Any effect that they may have would depend on the presence and quantity of alloying elements. In selecting various elements to improve machinability, we should consider the possible detrimental effects of these elements on the properties and strength of the machined part in service. At elevated temperatures, for example, lead causes embrittle- ment of steels (hot shortness), although at room temperature it has no effect on mechanical properties, Sulfur can severely reduce hot workability of steels, because of the presence of iron sulfide, unless sufficient manganese is present to prevent the for- mation of iron sulfide. At room temperature, the mechanical properties of resulfurized209 Machinabitity 623 steels depend on the orientation of the deformed manganese sulfide inclusions (anisotropy), 20.9.2 Machinability of various other metals Abuminwn is genesally very easy to machine, although the softer grades tend to form built-up edge and hence produce poor surface finish. High cutting speeds, high rake angles, and high relief angles are recommended. Wrought alloys with high silicon con- tent and cast aluminum alloys may be abrasive and hence require harder tool materials. Dimensional control may be a problem in machining aluminum since it has a low elastic modulus and a relatively high thermal coefficient of expansion. Beryllinrn is similar to cast irons but is more abrasive and roxic. Hence it requires machining in 2 controlled environment. Gray cast irons are generally machinable but are abrasive, Free carbides in castings reduce their machinability and cause tool chipping or fracture, thus requiring tools with high toughness, Nodular and malleable irons are machinable with hard tool materials Cobalt-base alloys are abrasive and highly work hardening, They require sharp and abrasion-resistant tool materials and low feeds and speeds. Wroughe copper can be difficult to machine because of built-up edge formation, although cast copper alloys are easy to machine. Brasses are easy to machine, espe. cially with the addition of lead (leaded free-machining brass). Bronzes are more diff- cult to machine than brass. Magnesium is very easy to machine, has good surface finish, and prolongs tool life, However, care should be exercised because of ies high rate of oxidation and the danger of fre. Molybdenum is ductile and work hardening. Hence it can produce poor surface finish, thus requiring sharp tools Nickel-base alloys are work hardening, abrasive, and strong at high temperatures. ‘Their machinability is similar to that of stainless steels. Tantalum is very work hardening, ductile, and soft. Hence it produces 2 poor surface finish; tool wear is high, Titanium and its alloys have poor thermal conductivity (lowest of all metals), thus causing, significant temperature rise and built-up edge. Thus it can be difficult to machine. Tungsten is britile, strong, and very abrasive, hence its machinability is low. Ma- chinability improves greatly at elevated temperatures. Zirconinm has good machinability. However, it requires a coolant-type cutting fluid because of the danger of explosion and fire. 20.9.3 Machinability of various ma’ Graphite is abrasive. It requires hard, abrasion-resistant, sharp tools. Thermoplastics generally have low thermal conduetivity, low elastic modulus, and low softening tem630 20 + Fundamentals of Cutting perature, Consequently, machining them requires tools with positive rake to reduce cutting forces, large relief angles, small depths of cut and feed, celatively high speeds, and proper support of the workpiece. Tools should be sharp. External cooling of the cutting zone may be necessary to keep che chips from becoming “gummy” and stick- ing to the tools. Cooling can usually be done with a jet of air, vapor mist, or wate soluble oils. Residual stresses may develop during machining, To relieve these stresses, machined parts can be annealed at temperatures ranging from 80 to 160°C (175 to 315 °F) for a period of time and then cooled slowly and uniformly to room temperature. Thermosetting plastics are brittle and sensitive to thermal gradients during cutting. Their machinability is generally similar to that of thermoplastics. Because of the fibers present, reinforced plastics are very abrasive and are difficult to machine, Fiber tearing and pulling isa significant problem. Furthermore, machin- ing of these materials requires careful removal of machining debris to avoid contact with and inhaling of fibers. Other composites, such as metal-matrix and ceramic- matrix composites, can be difficult to machine depending on the properties of the individual components, ic. reinforcing fibers or whiskers and the matrix material 20.9.4 Thermatly assisted machining Metals and alloys that are difficult to machine at room temperature can be machined more easily at elevated temperatures, thus lowering cutting forces and increasing tool life. In thermally assisted machining (bot machining), the source of heat is a torch, high-energy beam (such as laser or clectron beam), or plasma arc, focused to an area just ahead of the cutting tool. Most applications in hot machining are in turning. Heat- ing and maintaining a uaiform temperature distribution within the workpiece may be difficult to control. Also, the original microstructure of the workpiece may be adversely affected. Except in isolated cases, thermally assisted machining offers no significant advantage over machining at room temperature with the use of appropriate cutting tools and uids. a ESSER SUMMARY Cutting processes are among the most important of manufacturing operations. They are often necessary in order to impart the desired surface nish and dimensional accuracy to components, particularly those with complex shapes that cannot be produced ‘economically or properly by other techniques. ‘A large umber of variables have significant influence on the mechanics of chip formation in cut- ting operations. Commonly observed chip types are continuous, built-up edge, discontinuous, and seg- mented. Among important process variables are tool shape and material, cutting conditions such as speed, feed, and depth of cut, use of cutting fluids, and the characteristics of the machine tool, workholding devices, fixcuring, as well as the characteristics of the workpiece material. Parameters influenced by these variables are forces and power consumption, tool wear, surface finish and integrity, temperature, and dimensional accuracy of the workpicee. Machinability of materials depends not only on their intrinsic prop- erties, but also on proper selection and contral of pro- cass variables.SUMMARY TABLE Key Terms FACTORS INFLUENCING CUTTING PROCESSES. Parameter Cutting speed, depth of Cut, feed, cutting fiuids Tool angles Continuous chip Built-up edge chip Discontinuous chip Temperature rise Influence and Interrelationship Forces, power, temperature rise, tool life, type of chip, surface finish, ‘As above; influence on chip flow direction; resistance to tool chipping, Good surface finish; steady cutting forces; undesirable in auto- mated machinery, Poor surface finish; thin stable edge can protect tool surfaces. Desirable for ease of chip disposal; fluctuating cutting forces; ‘can affect surface finish and cause vibration and chatter. {influences too! life, particularly crater wear, and dimensional accuracy of workpiece; may cause thermal damage to work- 631 piece surface. Tool wear lafluonces surface fi 1, dimensional accuracy, temperature rise, forces and power, Machinability Related to tool life, surface finish, forces and power. Saree TRENDS + Studies of cutting processes are continuing, par- ticularly for new metallic and nonmetallic materi- als, a5 well as engineered materials, to find better ways of machining. + Because of their importance in automated manu- facturing and in planning tool changes, reliable toolrlife-testing techniques and accurate pre~ diction of tool iife continue to be investigated. KEY TERMS Built-up edge Feed marks Chip Flank wear Chip breaker Friction angle Chip curt Inclination angle Clearance angle Machinability Continuous chip Power Crater wear Primary shear zone Cutting force Rake angle Cutting ratio Relief angle Depth-of-cut line Secondary shear zone Discontinuous chip Serrated chip On-line tool-wear sensing techniques and devices for computer-controlled machine tools are devel- oped and are currently in use Control of chip flow and disposal has become a significant problem, particularly in high- production machining. Shear angle Sheas strain Specific energy Surface finish Surface incegrity ‘Thermally assisted machining Thrust force TTool-life curves Turning Wear land632 20 + Fundamentals of Cutting i BIBLIOGRAPHY Armarego, E. JA. and 8. H. Brown, The Machining of Metals. Englewood Cliffs, N,j: Prentice-Hall, 1968, Boothroyd, G, and W. A. Kaight, Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools, 2d ed. New York Marcel Dekker, 1989. Kalpakjian, 5. (ed.}, Too! and Die Failures: Source Book. Metals Park, Ohio: American Society for Mexals, 1982. Metals Handbook, Sth ed., Vol. 16: Machining. Mate- vials Park, Ohio: ASM International, 1989. Mills, B, and AH. Redford, Machinability of Engi- neering Materials. Londo: Applied Science Publishers, 1983. Oxley, PL. B, Mechanics of Machining—An Ana- tical Approach to Assessing Machinability. New Yorks Wiley, 1989, Shaw, M. C., Metal Cutting Principles, New York Oxford, 1988. Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, 4ch ed. Vol. 1: Machining. Dearborn, Mich Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 1983. ‘Teent, E.M., Metal Cucting, 4th ed. London: Buter- worth Heinemann, 1991 Venkatesh, V. C,, and H. Chandrasekaran, Experi- mental Techniques in Metal Cutting, rev. ed New Delhi: Prentice-Hall, 1987, en REVIEW QUESTIONS 20.4 List the (a) independent variables and (b} depen- dent variables in cutting. Why are they so named? 20.2 Differenciase between positive and negative rake angles. 20.3 Explain the difference between discontinuous chips and segmented chips. 20.4 Why are continuous chips not always desirable? 20.5 Is there any advantage in having z built-up edge? Explain 20.6 Name the factors that contribute to the forma tion of discontinuous chips 20.7 What is the function of chip breakers? 20.8 Identify all che forces in a cutting operation. Which force contributes to the power required? 20.9. Explain the features of different kinds of tool 20.10 Name che techniques used for measuring tool wear. Describe their advantages and limitations. 20.11 Are the locations of maximum temperature and crater wear related? If so, why? 20.12 List the factors that conteibute to poor surface finish in cutting. 20.13 Explain the cerm machinability and what it involves. Why does titanium have poor machinability? QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS 20.14 Explain why studying the types of chips pro- duced is important in understanding cutting operations. 20.15 Why do you think the maximum temperature in orthogonal cutting is located at about the middle of the tool~chip interface? Remember that che two sources of heat ere shearing in the primary shear plane and friction at the tool— chip interface, 20.16 What are the effects of lowering the friction at the tool-chip interface, say with a lubricant, on the mechanics of cutting operations? 20.17 Tool life can be almost infinite at low cutting speeds. Would you cecommend thatall machin- ing be done at low speeds? Explain any firnita- tions on doing so, 20.18 What are the consequences of allowing tem- peratures to rise to igh levels in curting?20.19 The cuxting force increases with depth of cut and decreasing rake angle. Why? 20.20 Why is it not always advisable ro incsease the cetting speed in order to increase production 20.21 What are the consequences of tools chipping? 20.22 Wood is highly anisotropic material, Explain the effects of cutting wood at different angles eo the grain dicection on chip formation 20.23 What are the effects of performing a curting ‘operation with 2 dull tool? 20.24 To what factors do you attribute the difference in the specific energies involved in machining the materials shown in Table 20.1? Why is there 4a range of energies for each group of material? 20.25 Explain why it is possible to cemove more material between tool reshacpenings by lower- ing the cutting speed. 20.26 Noting that the dimension d in Fig. 20.4a is very small, being on the order of less than 0.01 mm, explain why the shear serain rate 7 in etal cutting isso high. (See also Table 2.3), 20.27 Explain the significance of Eq. (20.7). 20.28 We note in Eq, (20.19) that cutting speed V has a greater influence on mean temperature than the feed f- Why? 20.29 Comment on the location of various phe- nomena indicated in the plots in Fig. 20.23. 20.30 In Fig. 20.23, we note that all curves have a downward trend as the feed increases. Why? QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS 2041 Using the Taylor equation for tool wear, let = 04 and C= 400, What is the percent increase in tool lif ifthe curting speed is reduced by (2) 20% and (b) 40%? 20.42 Assume that in orthogonal cutting the rake angle is 10° and the coefficient of friction is 0.5. Using Eq. (20,3), determine the percentage increase in chip thickness when the friction is doubled. 20.43 Derive Eq, (20.12), 20.44 Taking carbide as an example and using Eq (20.19), determine how much the feed should Quantitative Problems 633 20.31 Would you have anticipated the general tem- perature distribution in metal cutting, as shown in Fig. 20.14? Explain, 20.32 Describe the consequences of exceeding the allowable wear land (Table 20.3) for cutting cool materials, 20.33 Why does the temperature in cutting depend on the cutting speed, feed, and depth of cus? Explain in terms of relevant process variables. 20.34 You will note that the values of a and b in Eq. (20.19) ace higher for high-speed steels than for carbides. Why is this so? 2035 The percentage of the total cutting energy car= ried away by the chip increases with cutting speed. Why? 20.36 In Table 203, we note that the allowable wear land for earbides is generally lower than that for high-speed steels. Why? 20.37 What effects does a dull tool have on cutting operations? Describe in detail using appropri: ate skerches, 20.38 Explain whether having @ high or low » value in the Taylor tool-life equation is desirable. How about che value of C? 20.39 The toollife curve for ceramic tools in Fig 20.19 is to the right of those for other tool materials. Why? 20.40 What type of chips would be produced in machining gray cast iron? Explain. be reduced in order to keep the mean tem- perature constant when the cutting speed is doubled 20.45 Using trigonometric relationships, obtain an expression for the ratio of the shear energy to frictional energy in orthogonal cutting, in cerms of the angles a, 8, and ¢ only. 20.46 An orthogonal cutting operation is being car- ried out under the following conditions: t, = O.1 mm, f, = 0.2 mm, width of cut = 5 mm, V=2imls, rake angle = 10°, F, = $00 N, and F, = 200 N. Calculate the percentage of the634 20 » Fundamentals of Cutting toral energy that is dissipated in the shear plane. 2047 Detcimine the C and 1 values for the four woo! materials shows in Fig. 20.19. 2048 The data in the table below are obtained in orthogonal cutting of AISE 4130 steel using a high-speed-steel tool, ata cutting speed V= 90 fefmin, depth of cut & ~ 0.0025 in, and wideh of cut = 0.475 in. Calculate the missing quan- tities in the table. Describe your observations conceraing variations of forces and energies with increasing rake angle. ty 4, e ° y # BFttby atu ( yw S09 wns 16 3S 338 189 wt 102 387 154 22 ON 6 49 183 232 8 20.49 Derive Eq. (20.1). 2050 Assume that in orthogonal cutting, the rake angle a is 15° and the friction angle # at the chip-tool interface is 30°. Determine the per~ centage change in chip thickness when the fri tion angle is 50°. Do not use Eq. 20.3). 2051 Determine the shear angle for the Example given in Section 20.5.3. Is this an exact calcula- tion or an estimate? Explain, 20.52 In the problem above, if the cutting speed V is doubled to 800 fe/min., will the answer be dif- ferent? Explain. 20.53 Using Eq. (20.19) and referving to Fig. 20.153, estimate the magnitude of the constant a 20.54 Show that for the same shear angle, there are two rake angles thas give the same cutting ratio, 2055 Do you agree with the following statement? If the cutting speed, the shear angic, and che rake angle are known, the chip velocity up the face of the wool can be calculated. Explain, 20.56 With the appropriate diagrams, show how the use of a cutting fluid can change the magnitude of the ehrast force, F, es i it A AEE AEE SYNTHESIS AND DESIGN 20.57 Design an experimental setup whereby orthog- onal cutting can be simulated in a curning operation on a lathe. 20.58 Assume that you are an instructor covering the topics described in this chapter, and you are giving 2 quiz on the numerical aspects to test the understanding of the students, Prepare sev~ eral quantitative problems and supply the answers. 20.59 Cutting tools are sometimes designed so thac the chip-tool contact length is controlled by recessing it atthe rake face. Explain the possible advantages of such s toot. 20.60 As we have seen, chips earry away the majority of the heat generated in cutting, If chips did noc have this capacity, what suggestions would you make in order to be able to carry out machining processes? Explain.Cutting-Tool Materials and Cutting Fluids 21.1 Introduction 21.8 Cubic Boron Nitride 21.2 Carbon and Medium-Alloy Steels 21.9 Silicon-Nitride Base Ceramics 21.3 High-Speed Steels 21.10 Diamond 21.4 Cast-Cobalt Alloys 21.11 Whisker-Reinforced Tool (21.5 Carbides Materials 21.6 Coated Tools: 21,12 Cutting-Tool Reconditioning 21.7 Alumina-Base Ceramics 21.13 Cutting Fluids 21.1 Introduction Cutting-tool materials and their proper selection for a particular application are among the most important factors in machining operations, as are mold and die mate- rials for forming and shaping processes. Chapter 20 explained that the tool is subjected to high temperatures, contact stresses, and rubbing both on the workpiece surface and by the chip moving up the rake face of the tool. Consequently, a cutting tool must have certain characteristics in order to produce good-quality and economical parts. ‘These characteristics are: + Hardness, particularly at elevated temperatures (hot hardness), so that the hard- ness and strength of the tool are maintained at the temperatures encountered in cutting operations (Fig. 21.1). * Toughness, so that impact forces on the tool in interrupted cutting operations, such as turning 2 splined shaft or milling, do not chip or fracture the tool. + Wear resistance, so that an acceptable tool life is obtained before the tool is resharpened or replaced. + Chemical stability or inertness with respectto the workpiece material, so that any adverse reactions contributing to tool wear are avoided. 635636 21 + Cutting-Too! Materials and Cutting Fluids Hardness (HRA) FIGURE 2).1 —_ Hardness of various cutting-too! materials as a function of tem- erature (hot hardness). The wide range in each group of ‘materials results from the vari- ety of tool compositions and treatments available for that Lt Lt group. See also Table 21.1 for r fi melting or decomposition tem- 260° 409600800 Tod 1200 1400 perature for these materials ‘Temperature CF) Various cutting-tool materials having a wide range of properties are available (Tables 21.1 through 21.3). Tool materials ace usually divided into the following gen- eral categories, which are listed in the approximate chronological order in which they were developed and implemented. 1, Carbon and medium-alloy steels 2. High-speed steels 3. Cast-cobalt alloys 4. Carbides 5. Coated tools 6. Alumina-base ceramics 7. Cubic boron nitride 8. Silicon-nitride-base ceramics 9. Diamond 10, Whisker-reinforced materials Note that—as described in Parts II and IH—many of these materials are also used for dies and molds. This chapter presents the characteristics, applications, and limita- tions of these tool materials in machining operations. This chapter will also discuss characteristics such as hot hardness, toughness, impact strength, wear resistance, ther mal shock resistance, and costs, as well as the range of cutting speeds and depth of cut{24B1y STUN YRBUEAE edu daDK8 Mo] Ae}U0 2 pucwinp UIHALAIOd 1 SON ONL ale OL x “vorsUEdxD eet ey se-9 o-96 so-r ~ a eubiova owaryecg wim ‘9002-005 cn ez a Sel-ay - 08-08 “Ayanonpuoo ewraut oct ore cose ose. oss. - ouez 00% oct 002 ort ont = ooet 6 36 oor ~ 05-08 02-01 sie eo Bo ero-1 0 zr0-z0 190-900 teo-sz0 to ose. ose ‘o0sr-000r 088-005 on0'st-oon'at ©» oaz8 0008 0088 ost-o2t set o9-s9 s9-ce ool-se - 0 01 x isd osol-oz@ 088 obr-ote osr-ote 069-028 = 02 ory ‘Ayonseye jo sninpowy a = b> tee ze be on-zt aru vo 30> o> wi-sc0 sei-ve0 szise0 srt £ iuans red 02 so sei-08 522-00 suc-ost ‘o0e-002 01-088 <0 x isd osc 000 086-s¥e oo6t-oge: 0 92-as01 os02-a9e1 008+ 0082, ean ‘nuanis aanydns assonsuesy, oot not 089-008 05-05 938-009 ser-o7e 0%9-009 ol x 180 voce) 069 oosr-0s:z —OS#E-O0IE © og8-ODI 00e2-0051 o0s?-00K4 ea snOuansonjeso,duiog, H O0E-G00c AH ODzE~908 AH oRZ-~O0BL DH ZO-9F XH 008-000L AM 0O0S-OoDr HH 6-15. 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We: Tool Materials Characteristics oF Failure Limitations High-speed steels High toughness, resistance Flank wear, crater wear Lew hot hardness, limited to fracture, wide range of hardenabilty, and limited roughing and finishing waar resistance cuts, good for interrupted cuts Uncoated carbides High hardness over a Flank wear, crater wear Cannot use at low speed range of temperatures, because of cold welding of toughness, wear resis- chips and microchigping tance, versatile and wide range of applications Coated carbides Improved wear resistance Flank wear, crater wear Cannot use at low speed ‘over uncoated carbides, because of cold welding of bettor frictional and ther. chips and micrachipping mal properties Ceramics High hardness.at elevated — Depth-of-cutline notching, Lew strength, low thermo: temperatures, high abra- —_microchipping, gross. mechanical fatigue sive wear resistance fracture strength Polyerystailine cubic High hot hardness, tough-Depth-ofcutlinenotching, _ Low-strength, low chemi: boron nitride (CBN) ness, cutting-edge chipping, oxidation, cal stability at higher strength graphitization temperature Polycrystalline diamond Hardness and toughness, Chipping. oxidation, Low strength, low chemi abrasive wear resistance graphitization. cal stability at higher temperature Source: Altar. Komandul and athe sours, for optimum performance, You will learn that proper selection of tools is a critical factor in the quality of surfaces produced and the economics of machining (sce Section 24.5). 21.2 Carbon and Medium-Alloy Steels Carbon steels are the oldest of tool materials and have been used widely for drills, taps, broaches, and reamers since the 1880s, Low-alloy and medium-alloy steels were developed later for similar applications but with longer tool life, Although inexpensive and easily shaped and sharpened, these steels do not have sufficient hor hardness and wear resistance for cutting at high speeds where, as you have seen, the temperature rises significantly. Note in Fig. 21.1, for example, how rapidly the hardness of carbon steels decreases as the temperature increases. Consequently, the use of these steels is limited to very Jow-speed cutting operations.21.3 High-Speed Steels High-speed steel (HSS) cools are so named because they were developed to cut at higher speeds. First produced in the early 1900s, high-speed steels are the most highiy alloyed of the tool steels. They can be hardened co various depths, have good wear resistance, and are relatively inexpensive. Because of their high toughness and resis- tance to fracture, high-speed steels are especially suitable for high positive-rake-angle tools (small included angle), interrupted cuts, and for machine tools with low stiffness that are subject to vibration and charter. There are two basic types of high-speed steels: molybdenum (M series) and tung- sten (T series). The M series contains up to about 10 percent molybdenum, with chro- mium, vanadium, tungsten, and cobalt as alloying elements. The T series contains 12 to 18 percent tungsten, with chromium, vanadium, and cobalt as alloying elements. The M series generally has higher abrasion resistance than the T series, undergoes less distortion during heat treating, and is less expensive. Consequently, 95 percent of all high-speed steel tools produced in the United States are made of M-series steels. High-speed-steel tools are available in wrought, cast, and sintered (powder- metallurgy) forms. They can be coated for improved performance (see Section 21.6). High-speed-steel tools may also be subjected to surface treatments, such a5 case hardening for improved hardness and wear resistance (see Section 4.10) and steam treatment at elevated temperatures to develop a black oxide layer for improved perfor- mance in machining such as reducing built-up edge formation. High-speed steels account for the largest tonnage of tool materials used today, followed by various die steels and carbides. ‘They are used in a wide variety of cutting operations requiring complex tool shapes such as drills, rearers, taps, and gear cutters (Chapters 22 and 23), Their basic limitation is the relatively low cutting speeds when compared to car- bide tools. 21.4 Cast-Cobalt Alloys Introduced in 1915, cast-cobalt alloys have the following ranges of composition: 38 to 33 percent cobalt, 30 to 33 percent chromium, and 10 to 20 percent tungsten, Because of their high hardness, typically 58 to 64 HRC, they have good wear resis- tance and maintain their hardness at clevated temperatures. Commonly known as Stellite tools, these alloys are cast and ground into relatively simple tool shapes. They are not as tough as high-speed steels and are sensitive to impact forces. Consequently, they are less suitable than high-speed steels for inter- rupted cutting operations. These tools are now used only for special applications that involve deep, continuous roughing operations at relatively high feeds and speeds—as much as twice the rates possible with high-speed steels.215. Carbides 641 21.5 Carbides “The three groups of tool materials just described (alloy steels, high-speed steels, and cast alloys) have the necessary toughness, impact strength, and thermal shock resis tance but have important limitations, such as strength and hardness, particularly hot hardness. Consequently, they cannot be used as effectively where high cutting speeds, hence high temperatures, are involved; thus tool life can be short. ‘To meet the challenge of higher speeds for higher production rates, carbides (also known as cemented or sintered carbides) were introduced in the 1930s. Because of their high hardness over a wide range of temperatures (see Fig, 21.1), high elastic modulus and thermal conductivity, and low chermal expansion, carbides are among the most important, versatile, and cost-effective tool and die materials for a wide range of applications. The two basic groups of carbides used for machining operations are tungsten carbide and titanium carbide. In order to differentiate them from coated tools (see Section 21.6), plain carbide tools are usually referred to as uncoated carbides. 21.5.1. Tungsten carbide Tungsten carbide (WC) is a composite material consisting of tungsten-carbide par- ticles bonded together in a cobalt matrix, hence they are also called cemented carbides These tools are manufactured by powder-metallurgy techniques, in which WC par- ticles are combined together with cobalt in a mixer, resulting in a cobalt mattix sur- rounding the WC particles. These particles, which are 1-5 jum (40-200 win.) in size, are then pressed and sintered (hence also called sintered carbides) into the desired insert shapes (see example in Section 17.5). WC is frequently compounded with car- bides of titanium and niobium to impart special properties to the carbide. The amount of cobalt significantly affects the properties of carbide tools. As the cobalt content increases, the strength, hardness, and wear resistance of WC decrease, while its toughness increases because of the higher toughness of cobalt. Tungsten car~ bide tools are generally used for cutting steels, cast irons, and abrasive nonferrous materials, and are rapidly replacing HSS tools due to their better performance. 215.2 Titanium carbide Titanium carbide (TiC) has higher wear resistance than tungsten carbide but is not as tough. With a nickel-molybdenum alloy as the matrix, TiC is suitable for machining hard materials, mainly steels and cast irons, and for cutting at speeds higher than those for tungsten carbide, 215.3 Inserts We have seen that carbon-steel and high-speed-steel tools are formed in one piece and ground to various shapes (see Fig, 20.124); other such tools include drills and milling cutters. After the cutting edge wears, the tool has to be removed from its holder and642 21 + Cutting-Too! Materials and Cutting Fluids FIGURE?) Typical carbide inserts with various shapes and chip-breaker features. Round inserts are also avail- able, The holes in the inserts are standardized for interchangeability. Source: Courtesy of Kyocera Engineered Ceramics, Inc., and Manufacturing Engi- neering Magazine, Society of Manufacturing Engineers, reground. Although a supply of sharp or resharpened tools is usually available from tool rooms, tool-changing operations are time-consuming and not efficient. The need for a more effective method has led to the development of inserts, which are individual cutting tools wrth a number of cutting points (Fig. 21.2). A square insert, for example, has cight cutting points and a triangular insert has six. Inserts are usually clamped on the tool shank with various locking mechanisms (Figs. 21.3a-c). Although not as commonly used, inserts may be brazed to the tool shank (Fig, 21.3d), However, because of che difference in thermal expansion berween the insert and the tool-shank materials, brazing must be done carefully to avoid crack- ing or warping. Clamping is the preferred method because each insert has a number of cutting edges, and after one edge is worn, it is indexed (rotated in its holder) to present another cutting edge. In addition to these examples, a wide variety of other toolholders are available for specific applications, including those with quick insertion and removal feacures. Carbide inserts are available in a variety of shapes, such as square, triangle, dia~ mond, and round. The strength of the cutting edge of an insert depends on its shape. ‘The smaller the angle (Fig. 21.4), the lower the strength of the edge. In order to further improve edge strength and prevent chipping, all insert edges are usually honed, charm- fered, or produced with a negative land (Eig. 21.5). Most inserts are honed to 2 radius of about 0,025 mm (9.001 in.). ‘We described chip breaker features on cutting tools in Section 20.3.7 for the pur- pose of controlling chip flow during machining and eliminating long chips. Most car- bide inserts are now available with a wide range of chip-breaker features, typical215 Carbide 643 i ob prlnsent, / clams Shank © fa: Shank. FIGURE 21.3 Methods of attaching inserts to toolholders: (a) clamping; and (b) wing fockpins. (c) Examples of inserts attached to toolholders with threadless lockpins, which are secured with side screws, Source: Courtesy of Valenite. (d} Brazed insert on a tool shank. Increasing strength eet we Relative edge strength of different shapes of inserts. Strength refers to the cutting edge shown by the angles. Honed radius Chamfered Negative land FIGURES ——— serts to improve ledge strength and rasistance to chipping and fracture. See also Section 23.2.644 TABLE 21.4 21 © Cutting-Tool Materials and Cutting Fluids examples of which can be seen in Fig. 21.2. The selection of a particular chip-breaker feature on a tool depends on the feed and depth of cut of the operation as well as the wotkpiece material and whether itis a roughing of finishing cut. Stiffness of the machine tool is of major importance in using carbide tools (see Section 24.4). Light feeds, low speeds, and chatter are detrimental because they tend co damage the tool’s cutting edge. Light feeds, for example, concentrate the forces and temperature closer to the edges of the tools—hence the tendency for the edges to chip off, Low cutting speeds tend to encourage cold welding of the chip to the tool. Cutting fluids, if used £0 minimize the hesting and cooling of the tool in interrupted cutting operations, should be applied continuously and in large quantities. 215.4 Classification of carbide tools ‘The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has for a number of years classi- fied carbide tools as shown in Table 21.4, ranging from grades C-1 to C-8. With rap- idly increasing trends in global manufacturing and with increasingly wider use of the ISO (International Organization for Standardization) standards, there has been, for some time, a major effort co standardize carbide classification. CLASSIFICATION OF TUNGSTEN CARBIDES ACCORDING TO MACHINING APPLICATIONS. SEE ALSO CHAPTERS 22 AND 23 FOR CUTTING TOOL RECOMMENDATIONS. ANSI Classification | Materials Characteriatics of 'so Number toBe | Machining | Type ot | ————-———— Standard (Grade) Machined | Operation | Carbide cur CARBIDE Ka0ka0 | Ct Cast iron, | Roughing increasing | _ Increasing nonferrous, resistant | cutting speed | hardness and metals, ard graces: wear resistance kzo cz nonmetallic | General generally — materials. | Purpose | Straight Ko 3 requiring [Gone WES abrasion | fO8hing | ath varying mr és resistance grain sizes increasing Precision Trereasing | strength and finishing foedrate | binder content Pa0-P60 | GS Steels and | Roughing | Crater Increasing) _ Increasing steel alloys resistant | cutting spec | hardness anc requiring grades: tance P20 ce crater and General various deformation | Purpose | Wo-co 5 resistance composi- P10 oF Via come Finishing Por oy with TIC Tnereasing Precision | and/or Tac | “Inereasing | strength and finishing | alloys feed rate | binder content (Nota The 159 and ANS|eomsarizons are approximate21.6 Coated Tools 645 TABLE 21.5 ISO CLASSIFICATION OF CARBIDE CUTTING TOOLS ACCORDING TO USE Color of Toughness in Each Symbol Code Category, in Increments of S P Ferrous matals with iong chips Blue Po1, POS through PSO M Ferrous metals with long or short Yellow M10 through Mao chips; nonferrous metals kK Ferrous metals with short chips; Red KOI, K10 through Ké0 nonferrous metals; nonmetallic materials. Carbide grades are now being classified using the symbols P, M, and K, as shown. in Table 21.5, for a range of applications. Table 21.4 includes the approximate equiva lent ISO standards for the carbides listed. However, because of the wide variety of carbide compositions available and the broad range of machining applications and workpiece materials involved, efforts for ISO classification continue to be a difficult task. This is especially true when comparing ISO grades with the traditional C grades. Chapters 22 and 23 will refer to both standards in making recommendations for cut ting parameters for specific applications. rete 21.6 Coated Tools As described in Part I, new alloys and engineered materials have been developed con- tinuously, particularly since the 1960s. These materials have high strength and tough- ness but are generally abrasive and are highly reactive chemically with tool materials. The difficulty of machining these materials efficiently—and the need for improving the performance in machining the more common engincering materials—has led to important developments in coated tools. Because of their unique properties, coated tools can be used at high cutting speeds, thus reducing the time required for machining operations and costs. Figure 21.6 shows that cutting time has been reduced by a factor ‘of more than 100 since 1900, Coated tools are now being used for cutting operations, with tool life as much as 10 times that of uncoated tools. 21.6.1 Coating materials Coating materials commonly used are titanium nicride (TiN), titanium carbide (TiC), titanium carbonitride (TiCN), and aluminum oxide (AlsO;). Generally in the thick ness range of 2-10 1m (80-400 juin.) these coatings are applied on cutting tools and646 21 = Cutting-Too! Materials and Cutting Fluids roa Carbenstea ss} Ne Hiohspeesce Eas Cast cobali-base alloys : \ Bebe. erect 4 al.. Ianproved carbide grades 215 Ne Fiat coated grades : Neri decane oF ‘eae ie ipeccted cue. ————— foe Relative time required to machine with various cut- a Feeye treetals indisag the your the tol mate TT Boar wo ww Me ames. Sours Sandvik Cooma er inserts by chemical-vapor deposition (CVD) and physical-vapor deposition (PVD} techniques, described in Chapter 33. The CVD process is the most commonly used method for carbide tools with multiphase and ceramic coatings. The PVD-coated car- bides with TIN coatings, on the other hand, have higher cutting-edge strengch, lower friction, lower tendency to form a built-up edge, and are smoother and more uniform in thickness, which is generally in the range of 2~4 jem (80-160 lin.). Coatings for cutting tools, as well as for dies, should have the following general characteristics: + High hardness at elevated temperatures. + Chemical stability and inertness to the workpiece material. © Low thermal conductivity. + Good bonding to the substrate to prevent flaking or spalling. + Little or no porosity. ‘The effectiveness of coatings, in turn, is enhanced by hardness, coughness, and high thermal conductivity of the substrate, which may be carbide or high-speed steel. Honing (see Section 25.10) of the cutting edges is an important procedure to maintain the strength of the coating. Otherwise the coating may chip off at sharp edges and corners. Titanium nitride, Titanium-nitride coatings have low coefficient of friction, high hardness, resistance to high temperature, and good adhesion to the substrate21.6 Coated Tools 647 FIGURE 217 Flank weer Wear patterns on high-speed-stee! uncoated and titanium- Coated nitride coated tools. Note that flank wear is lower for the coated tool. Uncoated Consequently, they greatly improve the life of high-speed-steel tools, as well as the lives of carbide tools, drills, and cutters. Titanium-nitride coated tools, which are gold in color, perform well at higher cutting speeds and feeds. Flank wear is significantly lower than for uncoated tools (Fig. 21.7), and flank surfaces can be reground after use, since regrinding does not remove the coating on the rake face of the tool. However, coated tools do not perform as well at low cutting speeds because the coating can be worn off by chip adhesion. Hence the use of appro priate cutting fluids to discourage adhesion is important. Titanium carbide, Titanjum-carbide coatings on tungsten-carbide inserts have high flank-wear resistance in machining abrasive materials. Ceramics. Their resistance to high temperature, chemical inertness, low thermal conductivity, and resistance to flank and crater wear make ceramics suitable coatings for tools (see Sections 8.2 and 8.3). The most commonly used ceramic coating is alu- minum oxide (ALO,). However, because they are very stable (not chemically reac- tive), oxide coatings generally bond weakly with the substrate. Multiphase coatings. The desirable properties ofthe coatings just described can be combined and optimized with the use of multiphase coatings. Carbide tools are now available with two or three layers of such coatings and are particularly effective in machining cast irons and steels. The first layer over the substrate is TiC, followed by Al,O,, and thea TiN. The first layer should bond well with the substrate; the outer layer should resist wear and have low thermal conductivity; the intermediate layer should bond well and be com- patible with both layers. Typical applications of multiple-coated tools are: a) High-speed, continuous cutting: TiC/ALO; b) Heavy-duty, continuous cutting: TiC/Al,O,/TIN. ©) Light, interrupted cutting: TiC/TiC + TN/TIN.648 21 + Cutting-Tool Materials and Cutting Fluids FIGURE 21.8 Multiphase coatings on a tungsten-carbide substrate. Three alternating layers of aluminum oxide ‘are separated by very thin layers of titanium nitride. inserts with as many as thirteen layers of coatings have been made. Coating thicknesses are typically in the range of 2~10 um. Source: Courtesy of Kennametal, inc., and Manufacturing Engineering Magazine, Society of Manufactur- ing Engineers. ‘A new development in coatings is alternating multiphase layers, with layers that are thinner than in regular multiphase coatings (Fig. 21.8). The thickness of these lay- ers is in the range of 2-10 jum, The reason for using thinner coatings is that coating hardness increases with decreasing grain size, a phenomenon that is similar to the increase in strength of metals with decreasing grain size. Thus thinner layers are harder than thicker layers. 21.6.2 The properties and applications of diamond and diamond coatings are described in Sections 8.7 and 33.13, respectively, and theic use as cutting tools is mentioned in Section 21.10. A recent development concerns the use of diamond polycrystalline as. coatings for cutting tools, particularly tungsten-carbide and silicon-nitride insects. Problems exist regarding adherence of the diamond film to the substrate and the difference in thermal expansion between diamond and substrate materials (see Table 21.1). Thin-film diamond coated inserts are now available, as are thick-film diamond bbrazed-tip cutting tools. Thin films are deposited on substrates by PVD and CVD. techniques. Thic's films are obtained by growing a large sheet of pure diamond, which is then laser cut to shape and brazed to a carbide shank. Diamond-coated tools are mond coatings21.7 Alumina-Base Ceramics 649 particularly effective in machining abrasive materials, such as aluminum alloys con- taining silicon, fiber-reinforced and metal-matrix composite materials, and graphite. Improvements in tool life of as much as tenfold have been obtained aver other coated tools. 21.6.3 New coating materials While titanium nittide coatings made by chemical-vapor deposition are still com- ‘mon, advances are being made in developing and testing new coating materials. Tita nium carbonitride (TiCN) and titanium aluminum nitride (TiAIN) have been found to be effective in cutting stainless steels. TiCN, which is deposited by physical-vapor deposition techniques, is harder and tougher than TiN and can be used on carbides and high-speed steel tools. TiAIN is effective in machining aerospace alloys. Chrominm-based coatings such as chromium carbide (CrC) have been found to be effective in machining softer metals that tend to adhere to the cutting tool, such as aluminum, copper, and titanium. Other new materials include zirconium nitride (ZeN) and afniurn nitride (HEN). Considerable experimental data is required before these coatings and their behavior can be fully assessed for proper applications in machining. 21.6.4 lon implant. ion In this process ions are introduced into the surface of the cutting tool, improving its surface properties (see Section 33.6). The process does not change the dimensions of tools. Nitrogen-ion implanted carbide tools have been used successfully on alloy steels and stainless steels. Xenon-ion implantation of tools is also under development. ree NEE 21.7 Alumina-Base Ceramics Ceramic tool materials, introduced in the early 1950s, consist primarily of fine- grained, high-purity aluminum oxide, They are cold pressed into insert shapes under high pressure, sintered at high temperature, and called white, or cold-pressed, ceram- ics. Additions of titanium carbide and zirconium oxide help improve properties such as toughness and thermal-shock resistance. Alumina-base ceramic tools have very high abrasion resistance and hot hardness (Fig. 21.9), Chemically, they are more stable than high-speed steels and carbides. Thus. they have less tendency to adhere to metals during cutting and hence less tendency to form a built-up edge. Consequently, good surface finish is obtained with ceramic tools in cutting cast irons and steels. However, ceramics lack toughness, resulting in pre- mature tool failure by chipping or catastrophic failure (see Fig. 20.20). Ceramic inserts are available in shapes similar to carbide inserts. They are effective in very high speed, uninterrupted cutting operations, such as finishing or semifinish-650 21 © Cutting-Tool Materials and Cutting Fluids |_-= Dlamond, obi boron ntice _Atumnam oxide HIP) ve Alaminam oxides 30% anv carbide : Silom nitride : Coraats i |_— Coated carbides 5 aries i : HSS | : 2 FIGURE21.9 —em 3 Ranges of properties for various groups of tool materials (see also Various tables in this chapter. Swenath and toughness —= ing by turning. To reduce thermal shock, cutting should be performed either dry or with a copious amount of cutting fluid applied in a steady stream. Improper or inter- mitcent applications of fluid can cause thermal shock and fracture of the ceramic tool Ceramic tool shape and setup are important. Negative rake angles, hence large included angles, are generally preferred in order to avoid chipping due to poor tensile strength. Tool failure can be reduced by increasing the stiffness and damping capacity of machine tools, mountings, and workholding devices thus reducing vibration and chatter (see Section 24.4), Cermets. Black, or hot-pressed, ceramics (carboxides) were introduced in the 1960s. They typically contain 70 percent aluminum oxide and 30 percent titanium carbide, and are also called cermets (from ceramic and metal). Other cermets contain molybdenum carbide, niobium carbide, and tantalum carbide (see Section 8.2.3). Their brittleness and high cost have been a problem when cermets are used as cutting tools. However, further refinements have resulted in improved strength, toughness, and reli- ability. Although cermets can be coated, the benefits of coatings are somewhat contro- versial as the wear-resistance improvement appears to be marginal 21.8 Cubic Boron ‘ide Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride (CBN) is the hardest material presently avail- able. The CBN cutting tool was introduced in 1962. It is made by bonding a 0.5—1-mm (0.02-0,04-in) layer of polycrystalline cubic boron nitride to a carbide sub-218 Cubic Boron Nitride 657 FIGURE2110 > Construction of polycrystalline cubic Polycrystalline eubic bored boron nitride or diamond layer on atung- _nitride or diamond layer, Brae sten-carbide insert with carbide substrate strate by sincering under pressure (Fig. 21.10). While the carbide provides shock resis~ tance, the CBN layer provides very high wear resistance and cutting-edge strength (Fig. 21.11). Cubic boron nitride tools are also made in small sizes without a substrate. Because CBN tools are brittle, stifness of the machine tool and fixturing is important to avoid vibration and chatter. Atelevated temperatures, CBN is chemically inert to iron and nickel and its resis- tance to oxidation is high. Ic is therefore particularly suitable for cutting hardened ferrous and high-temperature alloys (see Hard Turning, Section 22.4.3). Cubie boron nitride is also used as an abrasive (see ‘Chapter 25). FIGURE 21.11 uN? 5 —__ ad nitride tips (top row) and solid poly- crystalline CBN inserts (bottom row), Source: Courtesy of Valenite,652 21 « Cutting-Too! Materials and Cutting Fluids re 21.9 Silicon-Nitride Base Ceramics Developed in the 1970s, silicon-nitride (SiN) base ceramic tool materials consist of silicon nitride with various additions of aluminum oxide, yttrium oxide, and titanium carbide, These tools have high toughness, hor hardness, and good thermal-shock resistance. ‘An example of an SiN-base material is sialon, so called after the elements silicon, aluminum, oxygen, and nitrogen in its composition, It has higher thermal-shock resi tance than silicon nitride and is recommended for machining cast irons and nickel- base superalloys at intermediate cutting speeds. Because of chemical affinity, SiN-base tools are not suitable for machining steels. rr ST 21.10 Diamond The hardest substance of all known materials is diamond (see also Section 8.7). It has low friction, high wear resistance, and the ability to maintain a sharp cutting edge. It is used when good surface finish and dimensional accuracy are required, particularly with soft nonferrous alloys and abrasive nonmetallic materials. Single-crystal dia- monds of various carats are used for special applications, such as machining copper- front precision optical mirrors for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SD!) program. ‘Because diamond is britde, tool shape and its sharpness are important. Low rake angles (large included angles) are normally used to provide a strong cutting edge. Spe- cial attention should be given to proper mounting and crystal orientation in order to obtain optimum tool use. Diamond wear may occur by microchipping, caused by thermal stresses and oxidation, and transformation to carbon, caused by the heat gen erated during cutting Single-crystal (single-point) diamond tools have been largely replaced by poly crystalline-diamond tools (compacts), which are also used as wire-drawing dies for fine wire. These materials consist of very small synthetic crystals, fused by a high- pressure, high-temperature process to a thickness of about 0.5~1 mm (0,020.04 in.) and bonded to a carbide substrate, similar to CBN tools (see Fig. 21.10). The random orientation of the diamond crystals prevents the propagation of cracks through the structure, thus significantly improving its toughness. Diamond tools can be used satisfactorily at almost any speed, but are suitable mostly for light, uninterrupted finishing cuts. In order to minimize tool fracture, the single-crystal diamond must be resharpened as soon as it becomes dull. Because of its strong chemical affinity, diamond is not recommended for machining plain-carbon steels and titanium, nickel, and cobalt-base alloys. Diamond is also used as an abrasive in grinding and polishing operations (see Chapter 25) and as coatings (see Sections 21.6 and 33.13).21.13 Cutting Fluids 653 (se 21.14 Whisker-Reinforced Tool Materials In order to further improve the performance and wear cesistance of cutting tools, particularly in machining new workpiece materials and composites that are under continued development, progress is being made in new tool materials wich enhanced properties suck as (a) high fracture toughness, (b) resistance to thermal shock, (c) cutting-edge strength, and (d) hot hardness. Recent developments consist of using whiskers as reinforcing fibers in composite cutting-tool materials (see Section 9.2.1). Examples of whisker-reinforced materials include silicon-nitvide base tools reinforced with silicon-carbide (SiC) whiskers and aluminum-oxide base tools reinforced with silicon-carbide whiskers, sometimes with the addition of zirconinm oxide (ZrO;). However, the low inertness of silicon carbide to ferrous metals makes SiC-reinforced tools unsuitable for machining irons and steels, a 21.12 Cutting-Tool Reconditioning When tools, particularly high-speed steels, become worn, they are reconditioned (resharpened) for further use. They are usually ground on tool and cutter grinders in toolrooms having special fixtures (see Section 25.6.5). The reconditioning may be car- ried out either by hand, which requires considerable operator skill, or on computer controlled tool and cutter grinders. Other methods (see Chapter 26) may also be used to recondition tools and cutters. Reconditioning may also involve recoating used tools with titanium nitride. Consistency and precision in reconditioning arc important. Resharpened tools should be inspected for their shape and surface finish. As described earlier, inserts are now recycled after use, Whether tools should be reconditioned or recycled depends on the relative costs involved. Skilled labor is costly, as are computer-controlled grind- ers, Thus an additional consideration is the possible recycling of tool materials and the costs involved (see Table 21.6), since many contain expensive materials of strategic importance, such as tungsten and cobalt. ES 21.13 Cutting Fluids Also called lubricants and coolants, cutting fluids are used extensively in machining operations to: + Reduce friction and wear, thus improving tool life and surface finish. + Reduce forces and energy consumption.21 + Cutting-Too! Materials and Cutting Fiuids TLE APPROXIMATE COST OF SELECTED CUTTING TOOLS Too! Size tin.) Cost is} High-speed steel too! bits 59. x long 3-2 489. x4 37 Carbide-tipped (brazed) tools for turning sq 2 sq 5 Carbide inserts, equare "thick Plain inscribed circle 2-5 Coated 3-6 Ceramic inserts, square dinscribedcircle 5-8 Cubic boron nitride inserts, square Hinscribed circle 60-80 mond-tippedinserts (polycrystalline) —tinscribedcircle 75-100 * Cool the cutting zone, thus reducing workpiece temperature and distortion. + Wash away the chips. + Protect the newly machined surfaces from environmental corrosion. A cutting fluid can interchangeably be a coolant and a lubricant, ts effectiveness in cutting operations depends on a number of factors, such as the method of applica- tion, temperature, cutting speed, and type of machining operation, As we have shown, temperature increases as cutting speed increases. Thus cooling of the cutting zone is of major imporrance at high cutting speeds. Water is an excellent coolant; however, it causes rusting of workpieces and machine components and is 2 poor lubricant. On the other hand, if the speed is low, such as in broaching or tapping, lubrication —not cool- ing—is the important factor. Lubrication reduces the tendency for built-up edge for- mation and thus improves surface finish. ‘The relative severity of various machining operations is shown qualitatively in Fig. 21.12, which also includes the relative cutting speeds employed, Severity is defined as the magnitude of temperatures and forces encountered, the tendency for built-up edge formation, and the ease with which chips are disposed of from the cutting zone. Note how important cutting-fluid effectiveness is as severity increases. There are situations, however, in which the use of cutting fluids can be detrimen- tal. In interrupted cutting operations, such as milling, the cooling action of the cutting fluid increases the extent of alternate heating and cooling (thermal cycling) to which the cutter teeth are subjected. This condition can lead to thermal cracks (thermal fatigue or thermal shock). Cutting fluids may also cause the chip to become curler, thus concentrating the stresses near the tool tip. These stresses, in turn, concentrate the heat closer to the tip and reduce tool life. 21.131. Cutting-fluid action Although the basic lubrication mechanisms in metalworking operations are described in greater detail in Section 32.9, we briefly discuss here the mechanisms by which cutting fluids influence machining operations. In view of the high contact pressures21.13 Cutting Fluids 655 Cutting Operation Cutting operation severity utd activity High High Broaching (internal) Tapping Broaching (surface! Form and thread grinding Threading general) Gear shaping (rotary) ‘Thread rolling(rotary) Gear shaping Rearing Deep drilling Drilling, boring ‘Thread rolling (rack) FIGURE 21.12 es Fa Hens nti) Relative severity of machining operations. Mrting Thebigherthe severty.the greateristheneed unre foraneffectivecutting fic, Source: Mab Oi Ch anetiecive cutting SHON Band and hack sawing and relative sliding at the tool-chip interface, how does a cutting fluid penetrate this interface to influence the eutting process? Tt appeats that the fluid is drawn into the tool-chip interface by the capillary action of the interlocking newwork of surface asperities. (Fig. 21.13; see also Section 32.2), Studies have shown that the cutting fluid gains access to the interface by FIGURE 211 Schematic illustration of tool~chip interface, showing capi- lary passages allowing the cutting fluid to penetrate the inter- face and improve lubrication end cooling. Source: M. €. Merchant.656 Example: 21 + Cutting-Too! Materials and Cutting Fluids seeping from the sides of the chip, Because of che small size of this capillary network, the cutting fluid should have a small molecular size and proper wetting (surface ten- sion) characteristics. Effect of cutting fluids on machining A machining operation is being carried out with a cutting fluid that is effective as a lubricant, Explain the changes in che mechanics of the cutting operation and total energy consumption if the fluid is shut off SOLUTION. Since the cutting fluid is a good lubricant, when the fluid is shut off, the friction at the tool~chip interface will increase. The following chain of events then takes place: a) Fluid is shut off. b) Friction at the tool~chip interface increases. c) The shear angle decreases. dd) The shear strain increases. @) The chip is thicker £) A built-up edge is likely to form. ‘As a consequence: a) The shear energy in the primary zone increases. b). The friction energy in the secondary zone increases. ©) Hence the total energy increases. d) Surface finish is likely to deteriorate. @) The temperature in the cutting zone increases; hence tool wear increases f) Tolerances may be difficult to maintain because of the increased temperature and expansion of the workpiece during machining. . 21.13.2 Types of cutting fluids There are generally four types of cutting fluids commonly used in machining opera- tions: oils, emulsions, semisynthesis, and synthetics. The general characteristics of these fluids are described in Chapter 32. Cutting fluid recommendations for specific machining operations are given in Chapters 22, 23, and 25. 21.133. Methods of application The most common method of applying cutting fluid is flood cooling (Fig. 21.14). Flow rates range from 10 L/min (3 gal/min) for single-point tools, to 225 L/min (60 gal/min) per cutter for multiple-tooth cutters, such as in milling. In operations such as gun drilling and end milling, fluid pressures of 700~14,000 kPa (100-2000 psi) are used to wash away the chips.24.13 Cutting Fluids 657 ta Goot ( ye ™ oA Ae ces , a Po ess FIGURE 21.14 Dritt ‘Schematic illustration of proper methods of applying cutting fluids in various machining operations (2) turning, (b) milling, (c) thread grinding, end (4) drilling. Mist cooling is another method of applying cutting fluids and is used particularly with water-base fluids. Although it requires venting (co prevent inhaling of fluid par- ticles by the machine operator and others nearby) and has limited cooling capacity, mist cooling supplies fluid to otherwise inaccessible areas and provides better visibility of the workpiece being machined. Itis particularly effective in grinding operations and at air pressures of 70-600 kPa (10-80 psi With increasing speed and power of machine tools, heat generation in machining operations has become a significant factor. New developments include the use of bigh- pressure refrigerated coolant systems to improve the rate of heat removal from the cutting zone. High pressures are also used in delivering the cutting fluid co the cutting zone by specially designed nozzles that aim a powerful jet of fluid to the zone. This action breaks up the chips (thus acting as a chip bresker) in situations where the chips produced would otherwise be long and continuous, and thus interfere with the cutting operation. 21.13.4 Effects of cutting fluids The selection of a cutting fluid should also include other considerations, such as effects con workpiece material and machine tools and biological and environmental factors.658 21» Cutting-Tool Materials and Cutting Fluids Effects on workpiece material. Whea selecting cutting fluid, you should con- sider whether the machined component wil! be subjected to environmental attack and high service stresses, thus possibly leading to stress-corcosion cracking, This consid eration is particularly important for cutting fluids having sulfur and chlorine additives, For example, fluids containing chlorine should not be used when machining titanium, "Additional considerations are staining of the workpiece by cutting fluids, especially on copper and aluminum. Machined parts should be cleaned and washed in order to remove any cutting-fluid residue (see Section 33.16). Effects on machine tools. Just as « cutting fluid may adversely affect the work- piece material, it can similarly affect the machine tool and its various components, such as slideways and bearings. The choice of fluid must therefore include consider- ation of its compatibility with che machine-member materials. Biological and environmental effects. Because the machine-tool operator is usually in close proximity to cutting fluids, the effects of operator contact with fluids should be of primary concern, Fumes, smoke, and odors from cutting fluids can cause severe skin reactions, as well as respiratory problems. Considerable progress has been, made in ensuring the safe use of cutting fluids in manufacturing plants. Additionally, the effect on the external environment, particularly wich regard to degradation of the fluid, is important. Cutting fluids, as well as other metalworking fluids used in manufacturing opera- tions, may undergo chemical changes as they are used over time due to environmental effects as well as contamination from various sources, including chips and metal fines produced during machining and tramp oil. These changes involve che growth of microbes (bacteria, molds, and yeast), particularly in the presence of water, and adversely affect the properties and characteristics of the fluids, thus influencing che machining opera’ Clarification, recycling, and disposal, Several techniques are available for clari- fying used cutting fluids such as setiling, skimming, centrifuging, and filtering. Recy- ling involves treatment of the fluids with various additives, agents, biocides, and deodorizers, as well as water treatment (for water-based fluids). Disposal practices must comply with federal, state, and local laws and regulations (see Section 37.4). een EEE ONT RRS EE SUMMARY A variety of cutting-tool materials have been devel- ped aver the past century for specific applications in machining operations. These materials have 2 wide range of mechanical and physical properties, such as hot hardness, toughness, chemical stability, and resis- tance to chipping and wear. Various coatings have been developed, resulting in major improvements in tool life, The selection of appropriate cool materials depends not only on the material wo be machined, but also on process parameters and the characteristics of the machine tool ‘Cutting fluids are an imporcant factor in machin- ing operations. Generally, slower operations with high 100] pressures require 2 fluid with good lubricat-ing charactevistics. In high-speed operations with sig- nificant temperature vse, fluids with cooling capacity are preferred. Selection should inelude cousideration TRENDS + Continual progress is being made in developing new cutting-cool materials with improved proper ties, particularly for machining high-swength, temperature materials and composites con- taining abrasive fibers and particles. Cutting-edge strength is also an important ares of study + Laser treatment of rools is being studied as a way to improve their hardness and wear resistance. New tool materials include whisker-reinforced composite ceramics, + The purity and porosity of tool materials, particu- larly in ceramics, is an important area of study, which is aimed at improving toughness, reliabilicy, and consistency of performance. jography: 659 of the various adverse effects of cutting fluids on products, machinery, personnel, and the environment. + Efforts are continuing to standardize cutting- tool materials, testing for properties, and their applications, + Various coatings, applied either in single or mul- tiple layers, are becoming widely available to improve tool performance uncler various condi- tions, particularly at high cutting speeds. Adher- ence of coatings to the substrate and cutting-edge strength are being improved. + Cutting fluids are continually being developed, aot only for beter performance, but also with improved biological and ecological characteristics Seer SEI ATS ETON KEY TERMS Alumina-base ceramics Cutting fluids Carbides Flood cooling, Cast-cobalt alloys High-speed steels Ceramics Inserts Coated tools Mist cooling Cubic boron nitride BIBLIOGRAPHY Boothroyd, G., and W. A. Knight, Fundamentals of Machining and Machine Tools, 2d ed. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1989. Kalpakjian, S. (ed), Tool and Die Failures: Source Bock. Metals Park, Ohio: American Society for Merals, 1982. Komandui, R(¢d.), Advances in Hard Material Tool Technology. Pittsburgh: Carnegie Press, 1976, Komanduri, Ry “Tool Materials,” in Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 34 ed., v.23, New York: Wiley, 1978. Multiphase coatings Polycrystalline-diamord Sialon Silicon-nicride base ceramics Tool reconditioning Uncoated carbides Whisker-reinforced Machinery’s Handbook. New York: Industial Press, revised periodically: Machining Data Handbook, 34 ed., 2 vols. Ciecin- nati: Machinability Data Center, 1980. Metals Handbook, 9th ed., Vol. 16: Machining. Mate- als Park, Ohio: ASM International, 1989. Metals Handbook, Sth ed., Vol. 3: Machining. Metals Park, Ohio: American Society for Metals, 1967. Metals Handbook, 9th ed., Vol. 3: Properties and Selection’ Stainless Steels, Tool Materials and Special Purpose Metals. Metals Park, Ohio: ‘American Society for Metal, 1980.660 21 © Cutting-Tool Materials and Cutting Fluids Nachtman, E. $., and $, Kalpakjian, Lubricants and Lubrication in Metalworking Operations. New ‘York: Marcel Dekker, 1985. Roberts, G. A. and R. A. Cary, Tool Steels, th ed. Metals Park, Ohio: American Society for Metals, 1980. Schey, J A., Tribology in Metalworking—Friction, Wear and Lubyication. Metals Park, Ohio: American Society for Metals, 1983. Sluhan, C. (ed.), Cuzting and Grinding Fluids: Selec tion and Application, Dearborn, Mich.: Society of Manufacturing Engineers, 1992. Trent, E. M., Metal Cutting, 4th ed. London: Butter worth Heinemann, 1991. Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, 4th ed. Vol. I: Machining. Dearborn, Mich. Sociecy of Manufacturing Engineers, 1983 _—_— REVIEW QUESTIONS 211 What are the major properties required of eut- ting-tool materials? 21.2 What differences in properties are there between carbon-steel and high-speed steel coals? 21.3 List the major elements in east-cobslt cools. 214 State the composition of carbide tools. What are the major properties of these tools? 215. Why were cutting-tool inserts developed? 26 Why are tools coated? What are the common coating materials? 217 Explaia the applications and lis ceramic tools. 21,8 What is the composition of sialon? 21.9 How are cutting cools reconditioned? considerations involved in whether a tool should be reconditioned or recycled. 21.10 List the functions of cutting fluids. 21.11 Explain how cutting fluids penetrate the cutting 21.42 List the methods by which cutting fluids are applied in actual machining operations. —-——}]?—$ mm QUALITATIVE PROBLEMS 21.13 Explain why there are so many different types of cutting-tool materials. 2114 Which cool materials would be suitable for interrupted cutting operations? Why? 2145 Describe the reasons for coating tools with multiple layers of different materials 21.16 Make a list of alloying elemencs used in high- speed steels. Explain why they are so effective in cutting tools. (See Chapter 5.) 21.17 What are the purposes of chamfers on inserts? 2418 What is the economic impact of the trend shown in Fig, 21.6? 21.19 Why does temperature have such an important effect on the life of cutting tools? 21.20 Ceramic and cermet cutting tools have certain advantages over carbide tools. Why then are they not completely replacing carbide tools? 21.21 Can cutting fluids have any adverse effects? If 0, what are they? 21.22 Describe the trends you see in Table 21.2, 2123 Why are chemical stability and inertness important in cutting tools? 21.24 How would you go about measuring the effec- tiveness of cutting Buids? 21,25 Ticanium-nitride coatings on tools reduce the coefficient of friction at the tool~chip interface. ‘What is the significance of this? 21.26 Describe the conditions thac are critical in utit- izing the capabilities of diamond and cubic boron nitride cutting tools. 21.27 What would be the advantages of coating high- speed steel tools? 21.28 Explain the limits of application when compar- ing tungsten-carbide and titanium-carbide cut- ting tools. 21.29 Negative rake angles are generally preferred for ceramic, diamond, and cubic boron nitride tools. Why?2130 Do you think thar there is a cclationship between the cost of a curting tool and its hot hardness? Explain 21,31 In Section 21.2, it is stated thar carbon and medium-alloy steel tools are used for low- speed cutting operations. Make 2 survey of technical literature and give some typical values for maximum cutting speeds for these cutting- tool materials. 21.32 Make a survey of technical literature and give some typical values for cutting speeds for high- speed steel tools for a variety of workpiece materials. 24.33 In Table 21.1, the last two properties listed can be important to the life of the tool. Why? 21.34 We have stated that titanium nitride coatings allow cutting speeds and feeds to be higher than those for uacosted tools. Make a survey of lite csature and prepare a table, showing the per- QUANTITATIVE PROBLEMS 21.40 Make a recommendation for the ANSI grade of a carbide tool for a finishing pass in evening a steel shaft at 8 0.050-in. depth of cut. SYNTHESIS AND DESIGN 21.42 As you can see, there are several types of cut- ting-too] materials available today for machin- ing operations. Yet, there is much research and development that is being carried out on these materials. Make a list of the reasons why you think such studies are being conducted; com- ment on each with a specific application or example. ‘Synthesis and Design 661 centage increase of speeds and feeds that is pos- sible by coating the tools. 21.35 In Fig 21.1, you will note that all ool materials have @ wide range of hardness for a particular temperature, especially carbides. Why is this 21.36 List and explain the considerations iavolyed in whether a cutting tool should be reconditioned, recycled, or discarded, 21.37 Referting to Table 21.1, state which tool mate- tials would be suitable for interrupted cutting operations. Explain, 21.38 Ithas been stated that diamond films are depos- ited on substrates. What kind of substrates are suitable for this type of coating? 21.39 Which of the properties listed in Table 21.1 is in your opinion, the least important in machin- ing? Expiain. 21.41 Sameas Problem 21.40 but for a turning opera~ tion on high-strength aluminum in which the samme tool is to be used for both roughing and finishing passes. 21.43 Describe in derail your thoughts regarding the technical and economic factors involved in tool material selection, 2144 Assume that you are in charge of a laboratory for developing new or improved cutting Muids On the basis of the discussions presented in this and the previous chapter, suggest alist of topics for your staff to work on, and explain why.Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes 22.1 Introduction 22.7 Drilling and Drills, 22.2 Turning Parameters 22.8 Drilling Machines 22.3 Lathes and Lathe Operations 22.9 Reaming and Reamers 22.4 High-Speed Machining. 22.10 Tapping and Taps Ultraprecision Machining, and 22.11. Design Considerations for Hard Turning Drilling, Rearing, and Tapping 22.5 Cutting Screw Threads 22.6 Boring and Boring Machines 22.1 662 Introduction This chapter describes processes that produce parts that are basically round in shape. ‘Typical products made include parts as small as miniature screws for eyeglass-frame hinges and as large as rolls for rolling mills, cylinders, gun barrels, and turbine shafes for hydroelectric power plants. These processes are usvally performed by curning the workpiece on a lathe. Turning means that the part is rotating while it is being machined. The starting material is usually a workpiece that has been made by other processes, such as casting, forging, extrusion, and drawing. Turning processes are ver- satile and capable of producing a wide variety of shapes, as outlined in Fig.'22.1 + Turning, to produce straight, conical, curved, or grooved workpieces (Figs. 22.1a— 4d), such as shafts, spindles, pins, handles, and various machine components. + Facing, to produce a flat surface at the end of the part (Fig, 22.1e), such as parts that are attached to other components, or face grooving to produce grooves for (O-ring seats (Fig. 22.1f). + Producing various shapes by form tools (Fig. 22.1g), such as for functional pur- poses or for appearance.22.1. Introduction 663 Gr Straight turning 4 Dept cose wer] (4) Turning and external grooving (8) Cutting with a form tool () Cutting off FIGURE 22.1 bi Taper turning x (e) Pacing (h) Boring and internal grooving! ( (i) Threading Various cutting operations that can be performed on 3 lathe. (el Profiling (0 Face grooving ( Driling: Loos — in| + Boring, to enlarge a hole made by a previous process o in a tubular workpiece or to produce internal grooves (Fig. 22.1h). + Drilling, co produce a hole (Fig. 22.1i), which may be followed by boring to improve its accuracy and surface finish. + Parting, also called cutting off, to cut a piece from the end of a part, as in making slugs or blanks for additional processing into discrete products (Fig, 22.1))-664 22 + Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes * Threading, to produce external or internal threads in workpieces (Fig. 22.1k). + Knurling, to produce a regularly shaped roughness on cylindrical suefaces, as in making knobs (Fig. 22.1(1)). These operations may be performed at various rotational speeds of the workpiece, depths of cut, d, and feed, f (see Fig. 20.2), depending on the workpiece and tool ‘materials, the surface finish and dimensional accuracy required, and the capacity of the machine tool This chapter describes turning process parameters, cutting tools, process capabili- ties, and the machine tools for producing 2 variety of parts with round shapes. Because of their economic impact, we also highlight the production rates of various machining processes asa guide for selection of processes and the machine tools, a well as describe high-speed machining and uleraprecision machining processes. We also discuss design considerations for each group of processes to improve productivity in 22.2 Turning Parameters The majority of turning operations involve simple single-point cutting cools. The geometry of a typical right-hand cutting tool for turning is shown in Figs, 20.12 and 22.2. Such tools are described by a standardized nomenclature. Each group of tool and workpiece materials has an optimum set of tool angles, which was developed largely through experience (Table 22.1). Chapter 20 described important process parameters that have a direct influence on machining processes and the importance of controlling these vatiables for optimiz- ing productivity. This section outlines turning process parameters such as tool geome- try and material removal rate, and gives data for recommended cutting practices, including cutting-tool materials, depth of ext, feed, cutting speed, and cutting fluids. Tool geometry. The various tool angles used have important functions in cut- ting operations. Rake angles are important in controlling the direction of chip flow and the strength of the tool tip. As described in Chapter 20, positive angles improve the cutting operation by reducing forces and temperatures, However, positive angles produce a small included angle of the tool tip (see Fig. 20.3). Depending on the tough- ness of the tool material, this may cause premature tool chipping and failure. Side rake angle is more important than back rake angle, although the latter usually controls the direction of chip flow. Relief angles control interference and rubbing at the tool-workpiece interface. If the relief angle is too large, the tool may chip off; if too small, flank wear may beEnd view Side rake angle ir Side Feber End section Ana, (6° Nowa Side rhe Nowmal sie oan clearance angle af 2+ 6" Side cuting-edge angle Gk ale ie 6° End elie angle ed clearance ongle “Foo! Signature v 14 6 2 6 R 20 Is rs Dimensions ‘Abbreviation Back rake angle BR - Side rake angle SR End relief angle ER © End clearance angle + Side celiof angle SRF Side clearance angle End cutting-edge angle ECEA Side cuting-edge angle SCEA Nose radius NR » FGUE22 {a} Designations and symbols for a right: hand cutting tool; solid high-speed-steet tools have a simitar designation. Right-hand means that the tool travels from right to left 38 shown in Fig. 22.ta. (b) Square insert in a . right-hand tooiholder for a turning operation, Insert Top view A.wide variety of tootholders are available for "Sea holding inserts at various angles. Thus, the angles shown in (a) can be achieved easily by selecting an appropriate insert and tool: holder. Source: Kennametal inc. ‘Teolhoider Side view 665666 TABLE 22.1 22 » Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR TURNING TOOL ANGLES High-Speed Steel Carbide linserts) Side and End Back Side End Side Cutting Back Side End. Material Rake Rake Relief _—Reliof, “Edge = Rake = Rake Relief. ‘Aluminum and magnesium alloys 2 18 2 10 5 ° 5 5 5 68 Copper alloys 5 10 8 8 5 5 5 5 6 Steels 102 5 5 8 -8 5 5 8 Stainless steets 5 8-10 5 5 8 “5-5 5 5 6 High-temperature 910 5 5 6 0 5 5 6 alloys Refractory alloys 0 20 5 5 5 0 ° 5 6 6 Titanium atioys ° 5 5 5 6-8 -5 5 5 5 Cast irons 5 10 5 5 1B -5 “8 5 5 6 ‘Thermoplasties ° 0 20-30 15-2010 ° 0 20-30 15-2010 Thermosets 0 oO 2-30 15-200 ° 16 5 5 6 excessive, Cutting edge angles affect chip formation, tool strength, and cutting forces to various degrees. Nose radius affects surface finish and tool-tip strength. Also, the sharper the radius, the rougher will be the surface finish of the workpiece and the lower will be the strength of the tool. However, large nose radii can lead to tool chatter (see Section 24.4). Material removal rate. The material removal rate (MRR) is the volume of material removed per unit time, such as mi’/min or in./min. Referring to Fig. 22.3a, note that for each revolution of the workpiece we remove a ring-shaped layer of mate rial whose cross-sectional area is the product of the distance the tool travels in one revolution (the feed, f) and the depth of cut d. The volume of this ring is the product of the cross-sectional area, that is, (f)(d), and the average circumference of the ring, that is, 7D, Where Dy, (D, + D;)/2. For light cuts on large-diameter workpieces, wwe can replace the average diameter by D,, The rotational speed of the workpiece is N. ‘Thus, the material removal rate per revolution will be (7)(Duy)(d)(f). Since we have N revolutions per minute, the removal rate is MRR = (7)DagX@)(f(N). (22.1) We can check the dimensional accuracy of this equation by substituting dimensions into the right-hand side; thus, (mm){mm)(mm/rev)(cev/min) = mm/min, which indicates volume rate of removal. Similarly, the cutting time ¢ for a workpiece of length22.2 Tuming Parameters 667 a wy FIGURE 22.3 (2) Schematic illustretion of a turning operation showing depth of cut, , and feed, f. Cutting speed is the surface speed of the workpiece at the tool tip. (b} Forces acting on a cutting tool in turning, F, is the cutting force. F,is the thrust or feed force (in the direction of fead), and F, is the radial foree that tends to push the tool away from the workpiece being machined. Compare this figure with Fig. 20.13 for two-dimensional cutting operation. Ican be calculated by noting that the tool travels at a feed rate of fN = (mm/rev)(rev/ min) = mm/min. Since the distance traveled is / mm, the cutting time is rot (222) IN This time does not include the time required for cool approach and retraction. Because the time spent in noncutting cycles of a machining operation is nonproductive and affects the overall economics, the time involved in approaching and retracting tools to and from the workpiece is an important consideration. Machine tools are now being designed and built to minimize this time—one method is first by rapid traverse of the tools, then a slower movement as the tool engages the workpiece. Forces in turning, The three forces acting on a cutting tool are shown in Fig. 22.3b. The cutting force F. acts downward on the tool tip and tends to deflect the tool downward. This is the force that supplies the energy required for the cutting operation. As we can see from the upcoming example on material removal rate, this force can be calculated from the energy per unit volume described in Section 20.5 and by using Table 20.1. The thrust force F, acts in the longitudinal direction; this force is also called the feed force because itis in the feed direction. The radial force F, isin the radial direction and tends to push the tool away from the workpiece. Forces F. and F, are difficult to calculate because of the many factors involved in the cutting process,22 + Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes vie oi 020" aw 007 soo ot ie 2000/- 600 Eo 00 i cos | i fates | 2 soot iso = saa Joo 300 FIGURE 22.4 —_ The range of applicable cutting speeds ard foeds 1 fon ora very of tol mate, Wis 3008 DORA a tals. Source Vatonte Feed inte so they are determined experimentally. These forces are important in the design of machine tools as well as in the deflection of tools for precision machining operations. Tool x:aterials,feeds, and cutting speeds. The general characteristics of cutting- tool materials were described in Chapter 21. As a general guideline in turning opera~ tions, a broad range of applicable cutting speeds and feeds for these tool materials is given in Fig. 22.4. Specific recommendations for turning process parameters for vari- ous workpiece materials and cutting tools are given in Table 22.2. In this table, rough- ing means cutting material without much consideration to tolerances and surface finish. Finishing means cutting to obtain final dimensions with acceptable tolerances and surface finish Cutting fluids. Although many metals and nonmetallic materials can be machined without a cutting fluid, in many cases the application of a cutting fluid can improve the operation significantly (see also section 21.13). General recommendations for cutting fluids for various workpiece materials are given in Table 22.3.(panunuos) (o00t-ose) (008-085) (10 s0e-soL ” ‘S¥2-O4L szo yeunieg (0051-008 (oi) fo100} 9Sh-sbe. . 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(0002-089) 019-002 (o0st-ost) ‘sy-Sp (0001-008) ‘S0E-06 toozz-o02) o9-SLz. toszt-ose) Ses-SoL (oooe-0021) SL6-S9E (o00'0L~0001) 0s08-G0E (0092-002) S6L-SLz. ‘o008-002) S16-09 to002~099) 019-002 (99'0-500'0) St-200 (St0'0-e00°0) ‘Se0-80°0 (810'0-s00 0! sv0-zt 0 (£0'0-900'0) sLo-sr0 (820°0-£00°0! 290-800 (s¢'0-$00°0) €9-z00 (oz'0-s000) os-20 (e0-si0'0! su-90 (se'0-L00) 88-S70 toot -o08 ‘Szh-S9z, (006-008 GI2-06 (002) SU toozt) ‘S98 (038) 092 too oes conse) 09 (8000) a) (200°0) zo (o.o-0) 8770 (ae00) et {s0°0) tl (ovo) 5% oz'0-900) os-st (oz'0-900) os-stL puowerp puoweip aU, eISAIOAIOg apres pereoo Ni. apres pawwoo-N piqued paieooun ‘aprques peyeoo ~o4ures03) apiqueo poieooun puowerp uersAr9A\og puowerp ‘oumersks9Ajog 09, epiquea paweoo-Ni. apiqiea pareosun poosoyutos auydes6 ‘saysadwog siosowroyi pue sonsedouous sho}2 uays6uny shoje seddo3 ony ts Yih wyoew 0044 wnujwniy 671672 22 + Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes TABLE 22) GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CUTTING FLUIDS FOR MACHINING Materi ‘Type of Fluid Aluminum D, MO, E, MO + FO, CSN Beryllium MO, €, CSN Copper D,E, CSN, MO + FO Magnesium D,MO,MO +FO Nickel MO, €, CSN Refractory Mo, €, EP Steels {carbon and low alloy) D,MO, E, CSN, EP Steels (stainiess) D.MO, E, CSN Titanium CSN, EP, MO Zing D,MO, E, CSN Zirconium D.E,CSN ‘ote: CSN, enemveala and ayrtnebesD, dy: emulsion EP, exrame pros 1; 6,foty ot ara MO, mineral © Example: Material removal rate and cutting force in turning A 6-in. long, fin, diameter 304 stainless steel rod is being reduced in diameter to 0.480 in. by turning on a lathe. The spindle rotates at N = 400 rpm, and the tool is traveling at an axial speed of 8 in./min. Calculate the cutting speed, material removal rate, time to cut, power dissipated, and cutting force, SOLUTION. The cutting speed is the tangential speed of the workpiece. The maxi- muta cutting speed is at the outer diameter D, and is obtained from the expression. V = aD.N, Thus, u V = (m)(0.500)(400) = 628 in/min = 52 ft/min. The cutting speed at the machined diameter is V = (77)(0.480)(400) = 603 in./min = 50 ft/min. From the information given, we note that the depth of cutis d = (0,500 - 0.480)/2 = 0.010 in., and the feed is f = 8/400 = 0.02 in/rev.673 ‘Thus according ro Eq, (22.1), the material removal rate is MRR = (77}(0.490}(0.010)(0.02)(400} = 0.123 in.?/min. is 0.75 min, The actual time to cut, according to Eq. (2 6/(0.02)(400) We can calculate the power required by referring to Table 20.1 and taking an aver- age value for stainless steel as 4 W + s/mm? = 4/2.73 = 1.47 hp « min/in2. Thus power dissipated is t Power = (1.47)(0.123) = 0.181 hp, and since 1 hp = 396,000 in.-Jb/min, the power dissipated is 71,700 in.-lb/min. The cutting force F. is the tangential force exerted by the tool. Since power is the product of torque Tand rotational speed in radians per unit time, we have T = (71,700)/(400}(27) = 29 Ib-in, Since T = (F)(D..,/2), we have F, = (29)(0.490/2) = 118 Ib. gg TABLE 22.4 SUMMARY OF TURNING PARAMETERS AND FORMULAS N= Retational speed of the workpiece, ram f= Feed, mm/rev or in.frov ‘eed rate, or linaar speed of the tool along workpiece lenath, mm/min orin./min N surface speed of workpiece, m/min or f/min = 7 DN (for maximum speed) = 1 Dy_N {for average speed) 1 Length of cut, mm or in ‘D, = Original diameter of workpiece, mm or in, D, = Final diameter of works Werage diameter of workpiece, mm or in = (D.+ Dy d= Depth of cut, em or in, (0, = Die Cutting time, s or min =14N MAR = mm?/min or in.2/min = 2 Dygd #N Torque = Nm or tb ft =F (Dagl2) Power = kW or hp. = (Torque) (w), where w = 27Nradians/min 1ce, mm or in. ‘Note: Thewrite given ate tMoae tat ae cernooniy however sppropristeunite mux be use and shocked in the formu674 22» Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes 22.3 Lathes and Lathe Operations Lathes are generally considered to be the oldest machine tools. Although woodwork- ing lathes were first developed during the period 1000-1 B.C, metalworking lathes with lead screws were not built until the late 1700s. The mos: common lathe, shown schematically in Fig, 22.5, was originally called an engine lathe because it was pow- ered with overhead pulleys and belts from nearby engines. Today these lathes are equipped with individual electric motors, Although simple and versatile, an engine lathe requires a skilled machinist because all controls are manipulated by hand. Con- sequently, i isinefficient for repetitive operations and for large production runs. How- ever, various types of automation can be added to improve efficiency, as described in the rest of this section Hea Spindle _-—Headstock ‘speed selector _Spindle Ways ‘Tool post Feed cha gear bor Compourd rest and slide (swivels! FIGURES — Schematic illustration of the components of a lathe,22.3. Lathes and Lathe Operations 675 22.3.1 Lathe components Lathes are equipped with a variety of components and accessories, The basic compo- nents of a common lathe are described in the following paragraphs. Bed. The bed supports all the other major components of the lathe, Beds have a Jarge mass and are built rigidly, usually from gray or nodular cast iron. (See also Sec Hon 24.3 on new materials for machine-tool structures.) The top portion of the bed hhas ewo ways, with various cross-sections, that are hardened and machined accurately for wear resistance and dimensional accuracy during use (see also Fig. 24.13). Carriage. The carriage or carriage assembly slides along the ways and consists of an assembly of the cross-slide, tool post, and apron. The cutting tool is mounted on the coal post, usually with a compound rest that swivels for tool positioning and adjustment. The cross-slide moves radially in and out, thus controlling the radial posi- tion of the cutting tool, as in facing operations. The apron is equipped with mecha- nisms for botk manual aad mechanized movement of the carriage and the cross-slide, by means of the lead screw: Headstock, The headstock is fixed co the bed and is equipped with motors, pul- leys, and V-belts that supply power to the spindle at various rotational speeds. The speeds can beset through manually controlled selectors. Most headstocks are equipped with a set of gears, and some have various drives to provide a continuously variable speed range to the spindle. Headstocks have a hollow spindle to which workholding devices, such as chucks and collets, are attached, and long bats can be fed through for various turning operations. Tailstock. The talstock, which can slide along the ways and be clamped at any position, supports the other end of the workpiece. It is equipped with a center that may be fixed (dead center), or it may be free to rotate with the workpiece (live center). Drills and reamers can be mounted on the tailstock quill (a hollow cylindrical part with a tapered hole) to produce axial holes in the workpiece. Feed rod and lead screw. ‘The feed rod is powered by a set of gears from the headstock. It rotates during operation of the lathe and provides movernent to the car- riage and the cross-slide by means of gears, a friction clutch, and a keyway along the length of the rod. The lead screw is used for cutting threads accurately (see Sec- sion 22.5), Closing a split mut around the lead screw engages it with the carriage 22.3.2 Lathe speci A lathe is usually specified by its swing, that is, the maximum diameter of the work- piece that can be machined (Table 22.5), by the maximum distance between the head- stock and tailstock centers, and by the length of the bed. Thus, for example, a lathe may have the following size: 360 mm (14 in.) (swing) by 760 mm (30 in.) (between ns676 22 * Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes, TABLE 22.5 TYPICAL CAPACITIES AND MAXIMUM WORKPIECE DIMENSIONS FOR MACHINE TOOLS ‘Maximum Dimension Power Maximum Machine Too! (mn) thw) rpm. Lathes (swing/length) Bench 03 <1 3000 Engine 35 70 4000 Turret Obs 60 3000 ‘Automatic screw 0.1703 20 10,000 Boring machines (work diameter/length) Vertical spinate 43 200 300 Horizontal spindle 1592 70 1000 Drilling machines Bench and column (drill diameter) ot 10 12,000 Radial (column to spindle distance! 3 = = Numerical control (table travel} 4 = = ‘Note: Lager capacives or avaabe fr speci appieations. centers) by 1830 mm (6 ft) (length of bed). Lathes are available in a variety of styles, types of construction, stffnesses, and power. Bench lathes are placed on a workbench; they have low power, are usually oper- ated by hand feed, and are used for precision machining small workpieces. Toolroom lathes have high precision, thus enabling the machining of parts to close tolerances. Engine lathes are available ina wide range of sizes and are used for a variety of turning operations. In gap bed lathes, a section of the bed in front of the headstock can be removed to accommodate larger-diameter workpieces. Special-purpose lathes are used for applications such as railroad wheels, gun barrels, and rolling-mill rolls, with work- piece sizes as large as 1.7 m in diameter by 8 m long (66 in, X 25 ft), and capacities of 450 kW (600 hp). Maximum spindle speeds are usually 2000 rpm, although they may ange from 4000 rpm to 19,000 rpm for special applications, but may be oaly about 200 rpm for large lathes. Cost of engine lathes ranges from about $2000 for bench types to over $100,000 for larger units. 22.3.3 Workholding devices and accessories Workholding devices are very important in machine tools and machining operations. Ina lathe, one end of the workpiece is clamped to the spindle by a chuck, collet, face plate, or mandrel. A chuck is usvally equipped with three or four jaws. Threesjaw chucks generally have a geared-scroll design that makes the jaws self-centering and hence are used for round workpieces, such as bar stock, pipes, and tubing. Workpieces can be centered within 0,025 min (0,001 in.) Fowr-jaw chucks (independent chucks) have jaws that can be moved and adjusted independently of each other and thus can be used for square or rectangular, as well as odd-shaped, workpieces. They are more ruggedly con- structed than three-jaw chucks and hence are used for heavy workpieces or for work22.3 Lathes and Lathe Operations 677 requiring multiple chuckings where concentsicity is important. The jaws in some types of chucks can be reversed to permit clamping of che workpieces on either out- side surfaces or on inside surfaces of holiow workpieces, such as pipes and tubing Also available are jaws that are made of lovr-carbon steel (soft jaws) which can be machined into shapes, and because of their low strength and hardness conform to small irregularities on workpieces for better clamping. Chucks are available in various designs and sizes. Their selection depends on the type and speed of operation, workpiece size, production and accuracy requirements, and the jaw forces required. The magnitude of jaw forces is important to ensure that the part does not slip in the chuck during machining. High spindle speeds can reduce jaw forces significantly because of centrifugal forces. Chucks are actuated manually with a chuck wrench or they are power actuated. Because it takes longer to operate them, manually actuaced chucks are generally used for toolroom and limited produc- tion runs. To meet the increasing demands for stiffness, precision, versatility, power, and high cutting speeds in modern machine tools, major advances have been made in the design of workholding devices. Power ebucks, actuated pneumatically or hydrauli- cally, are used in automated equipment for high production rates including loading of parts using industrial robots. Also available are several types of power chucks with lever or wedge type mechanisms to actuate the jaws, These chucks have jaw move- ‘ments (stroke) that are limited to about 13 mm (6.5 in) A collet is basically a longitudinally-split tapered bushing. The workpiece (gen erally 1 in. maximum diameter) is placed inside the colle, and the collet is pulled (drain collet; Fig. 22.62) or pushed (push-oue colles; Fig. 22.66) into the spindle by mechanical means. The tapered surfaces shrink the segments of the collet radially, tightening the workpiece. Collets are used for round workpieces as well as other shapes such as square or hexagonal, and are available in a wide range of sizes, An advantage to using collet overa three- or four-jaw chuck is thatthe collet grips nearly @ Spindle nose eap te ZX LE RS hn ©) Spiit segments ‘Spring collet Collet sleeve Headstock spindle sleeve Spindle FIGURE 22.6 {@) Schematic illustrations of a draw-in type collet. The workpieces placed in the collet hole, and the conical surfaces ofthe collet are forced inward by pulling it with a draw bar into the sleeve. (b) A push-out type collet678 22 * Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes (ay Sold mand! vy Gang mands (©) Cone mandrel /Tapered Straight Workpiece wéfiace _// marl (Zit ZA t TT at ef oO ~ 5 Ft Lod Fie Litt Lot Woripace Mandel FIGURE 22.7 Various types of mandrels to hold workpieces for turning. These mandrels are usually mounted between centers on @ lathe. Note that in (a) both the cylindrical as well as the end faces of the ‘workpiace can be machined, whereas in (b) and (c) only the cylindrical surfaces can be machined. all the circumference of the part, and is particularly suited for parts with small cross- sections. Because the radial movement of the collet segments is small, workpieces should generally be within 0.125 mm (0.005 in.) of the nominal size of the collet. Face plates are used for clamping irregularly shaped workpieces. ‘The plates are round and have several slots and holes through which the workpiece is bolted or clamped. Mandrels (Fig. 22.7) are placed inside hollow or tubular workpieces and are used to hold workpieces that require machining on both ends or their cylindrical sur~ faces, Some mandrels are mounted berween centers on the lathe, Accessories. Several devices are available as accessories and attachments for lathes. Among these devices are (1) carriage and eross-slide stops with various designs to stop the carriage at a predetermined distance along the bed; (2) devices for turn ing parts with various tapers or radii; (3) milling, sawing, gear-cutting, and grinding attachments; and (4) various attachments for boring, drilling, and thread cutting. 22.3.4 Lathe operat Ina typical turning operation, the workpiece is clamped by any one of the workhold- ing devices that we have described. Long and slender parts ave supported by a steady rest and follow rest placed on the bed; otherwise the part will deflect under the cutting forces. These rests are usually equipped with three adjustable fingers or rollers which, support the workpiece while allowing it to rotate freely. Steady rests are clamped directly on the ways of the lathe (see Fig. 22.5), whereas follow rests are clamped on the carriage and travel with it. The cutting tool, attached to the tool post and driven by the lead screw, removes material by traveling along the bed. A right-hand tool travels toward the headstock and a left-hand tool toward the tailstock. Workpiece facing is done by moving the tool radially, with the cross-slide, and clamping the carriage for better dimensional accuracy, Form tools are used to produce various shapes on round workpieces by turning (see Fig. 22.1g). The tool moves radially inward to machine the part. Machining by22,3. Lathes and Lathe Operations 679 form cutting is not suitable for deep and narrow grooves or sharp corners. To avoid vibration and improve surface finish, the formed lengch should not be greater than about 2.5 times the minimum diameter of the part, cutting speed should be reduced, and cutting fluids should be used. Several other operations are performed on « lathe, as described in greater detail throughout the rest of this chapter. The boring operation on a lathe is similar to carn ing, Boring is performed inside hollow workpieces or in a hole made previously by drilling or other means. Boring can straighten out-of-shape holes. The workpiece is held ina chuck or some other suitable workholding device. Boring of large workpieces is described in Section 22.6. Drilling can be performed on a lathe by mounting the drill in a drill chuck into the tailstock quill (a tubular shaft). The workpiece is placed in a workholder on the headstock, and the quill is advanced by rotating the hand wheel. Holes drilled in this manner may not be concentric because of the drill’s radial drifting. The concentricity of the hole is improved by subsequently boring the drilled hole. Drilled holes may be reamed on lathes in « manner similar to drilling, with improved hole tolerances. The tools for parting, grooving, thread cuiting, and various other operations are specially shaped for the particular purpose or are available as inserts. Knurling is pec- formed on a lathe with hardened rolls (see Fig. 22.1(1)). The surface of the rolls is a replica of the profile to be generated. The rolls are pressed radially against the rotating workpiece, while the tool moves axially along the part. 22.35 Tracer lathes Tracer lathes are machine tools with attachments that are capable of turning parts with various contours. Also called duplicating lathes or contouring lathes, the cutting tool follows a path that duplicates the contour of a template, similar to a pencil following the shape of a plastic template used in engineering drawing. A tracer finger follows the template and, through a hydraulic or electrical system, guides the cutting tool along the workpiece without operator intervention. Operations performed on a tracer lathe are now being replaced by numerical-control lathes and turning cencers (see Section 24.2). 22.3.6 Automatic lathes Lathes have been increasingly automated over the years. Manual machine controls have been replaced by various mechanisms that enable cutting operations to follow a certain prescribed sequence. In a fully automatic machine, parts are fed and removed automatically, whereas in semiautomatic machines these functions are performed by the operator. Automatic lathes, which may have a horizontal or vertical spindle and do not have tailstocks, are also called chucking machines, or chuckers. They are used for machining individual pieces of regular or irregular shapes and are available in either single or multiple spindle types. In another type of automatic lathe, the bar stock is fed periodically into the lathe and a part is machined and cut off at the end of the bar. ‘Automatic lathes are suitable for medium- to high-volume production.680 22 » Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes 22.3.7 Automatic bar machines Formerly called automatic screw machines, these machines are designed for high- production-rate machining of screws and similar threaded parts. Because they are capable of producing other components, they are now called automatic bar machines. All operations on these machines are performed automatically, with tools attached to a special turret. The bar stock is fed forward automatically after each screw or part is machined to finished dimensions and cut off. These machines may be equipped sith single or multiple spindles. Capacities range from 3-mm to 150-mmn (S-in, to 6-in.) diamecer bar stock, Single-spindle automatic bar machines are similar to turret lathesand are equipped with various cam-operated mechanisms. There are two types of single-spindle machines, In Swiss-type automatics (Fig. 22.8), the cylindrical surface of the rod is cut by a series of tools that move in radially, and in the same plane, toward the workpiece. The bar stock is clamped close to the headstock spindle, thus minimizing deflections. ‘These machines are capable of high-precision machining of small-diameter parts. The other single-spindle machine (also called American type) is similar to a small auto- matic turret lathe. The turret is on a vertical plane, and all motions of the machine components are controlled by cams. Automatic bar machines are now equipped with computer numerical controls whereby the use of cams is eliminated and the operation, is programmed for a particular product (see Chapter 38). Multiple-spindle automatic bar machines have from four to eight spindles, arranged ina circle on a large drum, each carrying an individual workpiece. The cutting tools are arranged in various positions in the machine and move in both axial and radial directions. Each part is machined in stages as it moves from one station to the next. Because all operations are carried out simultaneously, cycle time per partis reduced. Met — ‘Schematic illustration of a Swiss-type ‘automatic scrow machine. Source: George Gorton Machine Company.22.3 Lathes and Lathe Operations 681 22.3.8 Turretlathes Turret lathes ace capable of performing mukiple cutting operations on the same work- piece, such as turning, boring, drilling, thread cutting, and facing (Fig. 22.9). Several cutting tools—usually as many as six—are mounted on the hexagonal main turret, which is rotated for each specific cutting operation. Also, che lathe usually hasa square turret on the cross-slide, with as many as four cutting tools mounted on it. The work- piece, generally a long round rod, is advanced a preset distance through the chuck. After the part is machined, itis cut off by a tool mounted on the square turret, which moves radially into the workpiece. The rod is then advanced the same preset distance into the work area, and the next part is machined. Turret lathes, which can be bar type or chucking type, are versatile, and operations may be carried out either by hand, using the tarnstile (capstan wheel), or automati- cally, Once set up properly by a setup person, these machines do not require highly skilled operators. The turret lathe showa in Fig, 22.9 is known as a rams-type turret lathe in which the rara slides in a separate base on the saddle, The short stroke of the turret slide limits this machine to relatively short workpieces and light euts, in both smal] and medium quantity production. In another style, called the saddle type, the main turret is installed directly on the saddle, which slides directly on the bed. Hence the length of che strake is limited only by the lengch of the bed. This type of lathe is more heavily constructed and is used to machine large workpieces. Because of the large mass of the components, saddle-cype lathe operations are slower than ram-type lathe operations, Vertical turret lathes are also available that are more suitable for short and heavy workpieces, with diameters as large as 1.2 m (48 in). FIGURE 22.9 —ee Schematic illustration of the components of a turret lathe. Source: American Machinist and Automated Manufacturing. Longitudinal feediever Carriage Turnstile handiwheet | J800, Feed selectors camtan wheel) Crossstide fandvheel682 22 + Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes Round vurzet for ODoperations FIGURE22.10 — Acomputer numerical control lathe. Note the two turrets on this machine, Source: Jones & Lamson, Textron, ine. FIGURE 22.11 {a) Turret with six different tools for inside-diameter and outside-diameter cutting and threading ‘operations. (b) Turret with eight different cutting tools. Source: Monarch Machine Tool Company.22.3 Lathes and Lathe Operations 683 22.3.9 Computer-controlied lathes. In the most advanced lathes, movement and control of the machine and its compo: nents are actuated by computer numerical contvols (CNC). The features of such a larhe are shown in Fig, 22.10. These lathes are usually equipped with one or moze turrets (Figs. 22.112 and b). Each curret is equipped with a variety of tools and performs several operations on different surfaces of the workpiece. These machines are highly automated, the operations are repetitive and maintain the desired accuracy, and less- skilled labor is required (after the machine is set up). They are suitable for low to medium volumes of production. The details of computer controls are presented in Chapters 38 and 39 (see also Section 24.2) ¢ Example: Typical parts made on computer numerical control turning machine tools ‘The capabilities of CNC turning machine tools are illustrated in Fig, 22.12. Material and number of curting tools used and machining times are indicated for each part. Although not a effectively or consistently, these parts can also be made on manual o: turret lathes. Source: Monarch Machine Tool Company. (sh using bane Votener bearing race ‘eT edusor ir F QF rT ‘| btemm SS aes 674mm [984 mm T aaa ose ons Ts amt fi sean 8 tb L LL Lda TL Lege) t 35.7 mm 3.975") : seat Taner | seme | Ivulmochinngtme Materia 52300 Material: 1020 Carbon Se (te operations» Aly Stel Matera: 1020 Carton Ste $28 mintes Tal machining tine SNS Atal meshing ne (ew operationst 75 mye (stoop Ba2mintes LTB Samm | é FIGURE 22.12 22.3.10 Turning process capabilities Relative production rates in turning, as well as other cutting operations that are dis- cussed in the rest ofthis chapter and Chapter 23, are shown in Table 22.6, These rates have an important bearing on productivity in machining operations. Note that there are major differences in the production rate among these processes, These differ.684 22 * Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes EE ————— NR TYPICAL PRODUCTION RATES FOR VARIOUS CUTTING OPERATIONS Operation Rate Very low to low Tracer lathe Low to medium Turrat lathe Low to medium Computar-controliathe Low to medium Single-spindle chuckers Medium to high iple-spir High to very high Boring Very low Dailling Low to medium Mi Low to medium Planing Very low Gear cutting Low to medium Broaching Medium to high Sowing Very low to low ‘Nove: Production mis Inceated oe rlative: Very low a about one oF mare parte per how: Umnactumisapprosieraly 10 pts por howe vary highs 100 er more pats er hou ences are not only due to the inherent characteristics of the processes and machine tools, but are also due to various other factors such as setup times and the types and sizes of the workpieces involved. The proper selection of a process and the machine tool for a particular product is essential for minimizing production costs, as is also discussed in Section 24.5 and Chapter 40. 'As stated above, the ratings in Table 22.6 are relative and there can be significant variations in specialized applications. For example, heat-treated high-carbon east steel rolls (for rolling mills, Section 13.4) can be machined on special lathes at material removal rates as high as 6000 cm!/min (370 in.2/min) using multiple cermet tools. The important factor in this operation (also called high removal rate machining) isthe very high rigidity of the machine tool (to avoid tool breakage due to chatter; see Sec- tion 24.4) and its high power, which ean be up to 450 kW (600 hp). ‘The surface finish and dimensional accuracy obtained in turning and related opera~ tions (Figs. 22.13 and 22.14, see also Summary Table at the end of Chapter 25) depend ‘on factors such as the characteristics and condition of the machine tool, stiffness, vibration and chatter, process parameters, too! geometry and wear, cutting fluids, machinability of the workpiece material, and operator skill. As a result, a wide range of surface finishes can be obtained, as shown in Fig. 22.13 (see also Fig. 26.4). 22.311 Design considerations for turning operations Certain considerations are important in designing parts to be manufactured economi- cally by turning operations. Because cutting (in general) takes considerable time (hence increases cost), wastes material, and is not as economical as forming or shaping parts22.3. Lathes and Lathe Operations 685 Roughness A, km 50 25 125 63 32 18 OS 0.40 020 010 0.05 025 0012 in. 2000 1000 800250188 Process Flame cutting EEE Average application ‘Snagging (coarse grinding? ae (7 Less frequent application Sawing Planing, shaping Drilling Chemical machining Blectrica!-discharge machining Milling Broaching Reeming Electzoa-beam machining Laser machining Blectrochemical machining ‘Turning, boring Barrel finishing Electrochemical grinding Roller burnishing Grinding Honing Electropolishing Polishing Lapping Superfinishing FIGURE 22.13 Range of surface roughnesses obtained in various machining processes. Note the wide range within each group. See also Fig. 26.4, to final dimensions, machining should be avoided as much as possible. Whea turning operations are necessary, the following general design guidelines should be used: a) Parts should be designed so that they can be fixtured and held in workholding devices with relative ease, Thin, slender workpieces are difficult to support prop- erly to withstand clamping and cutting forces. b) Dimensional accuracy and surface finish specified should be as wide as permis- sible for the part to function properly.686 22 * Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes: 5 we 300 250. ‘Tolerance in. FIGUE2. ——— Range of tolerances obtained in various machining processes as a function of workpiece size. Source: ‘Adapted from Manufacturing Pian- ning and Estimating Handbook, oF 05 10 1020 MeGraw-Hill, 1963. Diameter orlength tin.) ©) Sharp corners, tapers, and major dimensional variations in the part should be avoided. 4) Blanks to be machined should be as close to final dimensions as possible, so as to reduce production cycle time. ©). Parts should be designed so that cutting tools can travel across the workpiece without obstruction, £) Design features should be such that standard, commercially available cutting tools, inserts, and toolholders can be used. ) Materials should, as much as possible, be selected for their machinability (see Sec- tion 20.9).22.3 Lathes and Lathe Operations: 687 TABLE 22.7 qememesneee e GENERAL TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR TURNING OPERATIONS Problem Probable Causes Too! breakage Tool material lacks toughness; improper toal angles; machine tool lacks stifiness: worn bearings and machine components; cutting paramaters too high. Excessive too! wear Cutting parameters too high; improper tool material; ineffective cutting fluid: improper tool angles. Rough surface finish Built-up edge on too|; feed too high; too! too sharp, chipped or worn; vibration and chatter. Dimensional variability Lack of stiffness; excessive temperature rise; ool wear. Tool chatter Lack of stiffness; workpiece not supported rigidly: excessive toot overhang. 22.3.12 Guidelines for tur 19 operations A general guide to the probable causes of problems in turning operations is given in Table 22,7. Recall that Chapters 20 and 21 described the factors influencing the parameters listed. In addition to the various recommendations concerning tools and process parameters that have been described thus far, an important consideration is the presence of vibration and chatter. Vibration during cutting can cause poor surface finish, poor dimensional accuracy, and premature tool wear and failure. Although this subject is discussed in greater detail in Section 24.4, the generally accepted guidelines are briefly outlined here. Because of the complexity of the problem, however, some of the guidelines have to be implemented on a trial-and-error basis. The guidelines are briefly: a) Minimize tool overhang, b) Support workpiece rigidly. ©) Use machine tools with high stifiness and damping capacity. 4) When tools begin to vibrate and chatter, modify one or more of the process parameters, such as tool geometry, cutting speed, feed rate, depth of eut, and cut- ting fluid. 223.13 Chip collection systems All material-removal processes produce chips which must be collected and disposed of properly. The volume of chips produced can be very high, particularly in high- speed and high-removal-rate operations. Sometimes called chip management, the pro- cess involves collecting chips from their source in the machine tool in an efficient manner and removing them from the work area. As described previously, long stringy chips are more difficult to collect than short chips (obtained with the use of chip- breaker features on cutting tools; see Figs. 20.9 and 21.2). Thus the type of chip pro- duced (chip control) is an integral aspect of the chip collecting system.$388 22 + Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes Chips can be collected by allowing gravity to drop them on a steel conveyor belt, dragging the chips from a settling tank, using magnetic conveyors (for ferrous chips), or using vacuum methods of removal. Ie should be noted that there is 2 considerable amount of cutting fluid mixed in with the chips produced, and proper filtration or draining is important, These systems usually require considerable floor space; conse- quently, modern machine tools are designed with automated chip handling features. The collected chips may be dumped! (provided they are free of harmful chemical components or fluids) or chey may be recycled, Prior to their being hauled away from a manufacturing plant, the large volume of chips can be reduced to as little as one-fifth of the loose volume by compaction (crushing). Dry chips are more valuable for recy- cling in foundries, The final method of chip disposal depends on economics as well as ‘meeting local, state, and federal regulations. od 22.4 High-Speed Machii Macl ing, Ultrapres ing, and Hard Turning Important and relatively recent developments in cutting processes involve the imple~ mentation of high-speed machining, ultraprecision machining, and hard turning. These developments ate reviewed below. 22.41 High-speed machining With increasing demands for higher productivity and lower production costs, inves- tigations have been carried out since the lave 1950s to increase the material removal rate in machining, particularly for applications in the aerospace and automotive indus- tries. As we have seen, one obvious possibility is to increase the surface cutting speed. The term high speed is relative. As shown in Table 22.2, general recommendations for typical applications state that aluminum alloys, for example, should be machined a much higher speeds than titanium alloys or stainless steels. As a general guide, however, an approximate range of speeds may be defined as follows. High speed: 600-1800 m/min (2000-6000 ft/min); very high speed: 1800-18,000 m/min (6000— 60,000 ft/min); ultrahigh speed: greater than 18,009 m/min. Much research and development work has been carried our on high-speed machining (turning, as well 2s milling, boring, and drilling) of aluminum alloys, tita- nium alloys, steels, and superalloys. Considerable data have been collected regarding the effect of high speeds on the type of chips produced, cutting forces, temperatures enerated, tool wear, surface finish, and the economics of the process. These studies Fave indicated that high-speed machining can be economical for certain applications, and consequently, it is now implemented for machining aircraft turbine components and automotive engines with ive to ten times the productivity of traditional machining.22.4 High-Speed Machining, Ultraprecision Machining, and Hard Turning 689 Important factors in these operations ace the selection of an appropriate cutting tool, the power of the machine tools and their stiffness, the stiffness of toolholders ard the workholding devices, spindle design for high power and high rotational speeds, the inertia of the machine-tool components, fast feed drives, and the level of automation, Itis important to note, however, that high-speed machining should be considered basically for situations in which cutting time is a significant portion of the floor-to- floor time of the operation. As we describe in Section 38.6 and Chapter 40, other factors such as noncutting time and labor costs are important considerations in the ‘overal assessment of the benefits of high-speed machining for a particular application, 22.42 Ultraprecision machining Beginning with the 1960s, increasing demands have been made on precision manufac- turing of components for computer, electronics, nuclear energy, and defense applica- tions. Examples are optical mirrors, computer memory disks, and drams for photo- copying machines, with surface finish in the tens of nanometer (10? m or 0,001 um; 0.04 yin.) range and form accuracies in the um and sub-um range. ‘The cutting tool for these ultraprecision machining applications is exclusively a single-erystal dia- mond (hence the process is aso called diamond turning), with a polished cutting-edge with a radius as small as in the tens of nanometer range. Wear of the diamond can be a significant problem, and recent advances include cryogenic diamond turning in which the tooling system is cooled by liquid nitrogen to a temperature of about ~ 120 °C (~ 184 °F). ‘The materials for ulteaprecision machining to date include copper alloys, alumi- sum alloys, silver, gold, electroless nickel, infrared materials, and plasties (acrylics). ‘The depths of cut involved are in the nanometer range. In this range, hard and brittle materials produce continuous chips (known as ductile-regime cutting, sec also ductile- regime grinding in Section 25.5.6); deeper cuts produce discontinuous chips. The machine tools for these applicationsare built with very high precision and high machine, spindle, and worksholding-device stiffness. These ultraprecision machines, parts of which are made of structural materials with low thermal expansion and good dimensional stability (see also Section 24.3), are located in a dust-free environment (clean rooms) where the temperature is controlled within a fraction of one degree. Vibrations from external and internal (machine) sources are also avoided as much a6 possible. Feed and position controls are made by laser metrology, and the machines are equipped with highly advanced computer control systems and with thermal and geometric error compensating features. 22.4.3 Hard turning We have seen that as the hardness of the workpiece increases, its machinability decreases accordingly and tool wear and fracture, as well as surface nish and integrity, can become a significant problem. As described in Chapters 25 and 26, there are sev. eral other mechanical (particularly grinding) processes and nonmechanical methods of690 22 « Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes. removing material economically from hard or hardened metals, However, it is still possible to apply traditional cutting processes to hard metals and alloys by selecting an appropriate tool material and machine tools with high stiffness. ‘One common example is finish machining of heat-treaved steel machine and auto- motive components using polycrystalline cubic boron nitride (PCBN) cutting tools Called hard turning, this process produces machined parts with good dimensional accuracy, sueface finish, and surface integrity. It can compete successfully with grind- ing the same components, from both technical and economic aspects. A comparative example of hard turning ws. grinding is presented in Section 25.6.9. 22.5 Cutting Screw Threads Screw threads are among the most important machine elements, as you can note by observing screws, bolts, and other threaded components in machines and various products. A screw thread may be defined as a ridge of uniform cross-section that follows a spiral or helical path on the outside or inside of a cylindrical (straight thread) or tapered or conical surtace (tapered thread), Machine screws, bolts, and muts have straight threads, as have threaded rods for applications such as the lead screw in lathes Threads may be right-handed or left-handed. Tapered threads are commonly used for water or gas pipes and phimbing supplies so as to develop a watertight or airtight connection. Threads may be produced basically by forming (shread rolling; see Section 13.5.2), which constitutes the largest quantity of threaded parts produced, or by cutting, Cast- ing threaded parts is also possible, although dimensional accuracy and production rate are not as high as those obtained in other processes. As shown in Fig, 22.1k, turning operations are capable of producing threads on round bar stock. When threads are produced externally or internally by cutting with a fathe-type tool, the process is called thread cutting or threading. When cut internally with a special threaded tool (cap), itis called tapping, which is described in Section 22.10. External threads may also be cut with 2 die or by milling. Although it adds considerably to the cost, threads may be ground for improved accuracy and surface finish 225.1 Screw-thread nomenclature Standardization of screw threads began in the middle 1880s, and several thread forms have since been standardized. Figure 22.15 shows the nomenclature for screw threads. Unified screw-thread forms (Fig. 22.16a) based on the American National thread sys- tem were adopted in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom in 1948 to obtain interchangeable screw threads. This standard has been revised periodically, par- ticularly with regard to tolerances, In 1969, the ISO general-purpose screw-thread form was developed, with a wide range of metric sizes, and has been adopted by many countries (Fig. 22.16b). Other types of threads are shown in Fig. 22.17,22.5 Cutting Screw Threads 691 Helix angle i FIGURE 22.15 ems Standard nomenclature for screw threads. In the Unified system, thread tolerances are specified as Class 1, 2, and 3, in decreasing order of looseness. In the ISO. system, tolerance classes are a combination of tolerance grades and positions and are based on crest and pitch diameters. The tolerance grade is expressed by numerals ranging from 3 to 9, in order of increasing coarseness (loose tolerance). Comparatively, grade 6 in the ISO system is roughly equivalent to grade 2 in the Unified system. The letters represent tolerance positions a L a p—j o10sr— a 258 Neck—o]_ LEMS Hetianate pS Chet PN Shank F _ ‘Straight. SS * > aps diameter} ‘hank a x { \ [--Shank length—-| | __— Flute length. Margin,” |+——____— Body —- Lip’ \ — Ovenailength —— (by Crankshaf-point dnl FIGURE 22,24 (a} Standacd chisel-point drill indicating various features. The function of the pair of margins is to provide a bearing surface for the drill against walls of the hale as it pene- oy trates into the workpiece; drills with four margins (double-margin} are available for improved dil guidance and accuracy. Drils with chip-bresker features are also avall- able. {b) Crankshaft-point aril and optimize drill life. Various other drill-point geometries have been developed to improve drill performance, but they require special drilling techniques and equipment. Small changes in drill geometry can have a significant influence on the drill’s perfor- mance. For example, too small lip relief angle (see Fig, 22.24) increases the thrust force, generates excessive heat, and increases wear, Conversely, too large an angle can cause chipping or bresking of the cutting edge. Other types of drills. Several rypes of drills are shown in Figs. 22.23 and 22.25. A step drill produces holes of two or more different diameters. A core drill is used to make an existing hole larger. Counterboring and countersinking drills produce depres- sions on the surface to accommodate the heads of screws and bolts. A center drill is a short drill and is used to produce the hole at the end of a piece of stock so that it may be mounted between centers in a lathe (between the headstock and the tailstock, Fig. 22.5). A spot drill is used to spot (to start) a hole nearer the desired location. Spade drills have removable tips or bies and are used :o produce large and deep holes. They have the advantages of higher stiffness (because of the absence of flutes in the body of the drill), ease of grinding the cutting edge, and lower cost. Crankshaft700 22 » Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes TABLE 22 8 teams ee A AEE AT TASES GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DRILL GEOMETRY FOR HIGH-SPEED TWIST DRILLS Various types of drills and Workpiece Point Lip-Reliel __Chisel-Edge Helix Material Angle Angle Angle Angle Point ‘Aluminum alloys 90-178 118 125-135, 24-48 Standard Magnesium alloys 70-118 12-18 120-135 30-45 Standard Copperatloys 118 1215 128-135 10-30 Standard Steels 18 10-15 125-135 24-32 Standard High-strength steels, 118-135 7-10 125-196 24-32 Crankshaft Stainless steels, 118 10-12 125-135 24032 Standard low strength Stainless steels, 118-135 7-10 120-130 4-32 Crankshaft high strength High-temp. alloys 118-135 9-12 125-135 15-30 Crankshaft Refractory alloys 118 7-10 128-135 24-82 Stonderd Titanium alloys 118-135 7-10 125-135 15-92 Crankshart Cast irons 118 a-12 128-135 24-32 Standard Plasties 60-80 7 120-135 29 Standard drills (Fig. 22.24b) have good centering ability, and because chips cend to break up easily these drills are suitable for drilling deep holes. Gun drilling. Developed originally for drilling gun barrels, hence the name, ‘gun drilling requires a special drill (see Figs. 22.23¢ and 22.25) and is used for drilling deep holes. Hole depth-to-diameter ratios can be 300 or higher. The thrust force (the radial force chat tends to push the drill sideways) is balanced by bearing pads on the drill that slide along the inside surface of the hole (Fig. 22.26). Thus a gun drill is self centering—an important factor in drilling straight, deep holes, The cutting fluid is x = ~-iiaid,;: Beep? : Be ¢ € & § a6 § g@ § § & igh pressure pa pe drilling and reaming ope- rations.22.7 Drilling and Drills 704 Outer point ange Margin! Cating Plate ‘id a passage - Wear pads FIGURE 22.26 oe Toner point. ‘Agun drill showing various features. ‘angie forced under high pressure through a longitudinal hole in the body of the drill (Fig. 22.27). In addition to its lubricating and cooling functions, the fluid flushes out chips that otherwise would be trapped in the hole being drilled and interfere with the drilling operation, Cutting speeds are usually high and feeds are low. Trepanning. In trepanning the cutting tool (Fig. 22.28a) produces 2 hole by removing a disk-shaped piece (core), usually from flat plates. Thus a hole is produced without reducing all the material removed to chips. The process can be used to make disks up to 150 mm (6 io.) in diameter from flat sheet or plate. Trepanning can also be used to make circular grooves in which O-rings are to be placed (see also Fig. 22.1f). ‘Trepanning can be done on lathes, drill presses (Fig, 22.28), or other machines, using single-point or multipoint tools. A variation of trepanning is gun-trepanning, which uses a cutting tool similar to a gua drill except that the tool has a central hole in it 22.7.2 Material removal rate The macerial removal rate (MRR) in drilling is the volume of material removed by the drill per unit time, For a drill with a diameter D, the cross-sectional area of the drilled hole is 7 D*/4. The velocity of the drill perpendicular to the workpiece is the product Rotating Cutting uid cutting fluid feed fine transorgland Drill bushing Ny spinate ‘= : |—worksisce FIGURE 2227 —m vit P Bestcanige Method of gun en Ing, Sours Ettore Bet Tool and Manufactur- ing Corporation702 22 © Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes Cutting tools FIGURE 22.28 {a) Trepanning tool. b) Trepanning with a drill-mounted single cutter. of the feed f (the distance the drill penetrates per revolution) and the rotational speed N where, using appropriate units, N= V/wD. Thus, MRR = (7D*/4)(fY(N). (22.3) ‘We can check the dimensional accuracy of this equation, as we did for Eq, (22.1), by noting that MRR = (mm:)(mm/rev)(rev/min) = mny/min, which is the correct unit for volume removed per unit time. 22.7.3 Thrust force and torque ‘The thrust force in drilling acts perpendicular to the hole axis. If this force is excessive, it can cause the drill to break or bend. An excessive thrust force can also distort the workpiece, particularly if the workpiece does not have sufficient stiffness such as sheet-metal structures, or it can cause the workpiece to slip in the workholding fixture. ‘The thrust force depends on factors such as the strength of the workpiece mate- rial, feed, rotational speed, cutting fluids, drill diameter, and drill geometry. Although some attempts have been made, accurate calculation of the thrust force on the drill has proven to be difficult. Experimental data are available as an aid in designing and using drills and drilling equipment. Thrust forces in drilling range from a few newtons for small drills to as high as 100 kIN (22.5 klb) in drilling high-strength materials with large drills. Similarly, drill torque can range as high as 4000 N- m (3000 lb-ft). ‘A knowledge of the magnitude of the torque in drilling is essential for estimating the power requirement, which is the product of torque and the rotational speed. Excessive torque can distort the workpiece or cause it to slip in the workholding fix- ture, The torque during drilling is difficult to calculate. We can obtain it from the data in Table 20.1 by noting that power dissipated during drilling is the product of torque and rotational speed. Thus by first calculating the MRR, we can calculate the torque on the drill.22.7 Drilling and Drills 703 ® Example: Material removal rate and torque in drilling A hole is being drilled in a block of magnesium alloy with a 10-mm drill at a feed of 0.2 mm/rev. The spindle is running at N = 800 rpm. Calculate the material removal rate and the torque on the drill, SOLUTION. We calculate the material removal rate from Eq. (22.3). Thus, MRR = [(1r)(10)?/4](0.2)(800) = 12,570 mm?/min = 210 mm*/s. Referring to Table 20.1, we take an average unit power of 0.5 W + s/mm? for magne- sium alloys. Hence the power required is Power = (210)(0.5) = 105 W. Power is the product of the torque on the drill and the rotational speed, which in this case is (800)(2)/60 = 83.8 radians per second, Noting that W = J/s and J = N-m, we have T = 105/838 = 1.25N-m. 22.7.4 Drill materials and sizes Drills are usually made of high-speed steels (M1, M7, and M10) and many are now coated with titanium nitride for increased wear resistance. Carbide-tipped (see Figs. 22.23f and g) or solid-carbide (C-2) drills are available for cast irons, steels, hard high-temperature metals, and abrasive materials, such as concrete and brick (masonry drills), and composite materials with abrasive fiber reinforcements, such as glass and graphite. Standard twist-drill sizes consist of che following series; ‘Numerical: No. 80 (0.0135 in.) to No. 1 (0.228 in.). Letter: A (0.234 in.) to Z (0.413 in). Fractional: Straight shank from in. to 14 in, (in & in. increments) to 1} in. (in arin. increments), and larger drills in larger increments. Taper shank from # in. to 1¥in. (ind in. increments) to 3} in. in fin, increments. Millimeter: From 0.015 mm, in increments of 0.01-0.50 mm. The capabilities of drilling and boring operations are shown in Table 22.9. 22.7.5 Dri Drills and similar holemaking tools are usually held in drill chucks which may be tightened with or without keys. Special chucks and collets, with various quick-change features that do not require stopping the spindle, are available for use on production machinery. Because a drill doesn’t have a centering action, it tends to “walk” on the ing practice704 22 + Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes TABLE 22.9. ummm eee eS CAPABILITIES OF DRILLING AND BORING OPERATIONS Diameter Hole Depth /Diameter Tool Type (mm) TYPICAL MAXIMUM Twist 05-180 8 50 Spade 25-150 30 100 Gun 2-50 100 300 Trepanning 40-250 10 100 Boring 5 8 workpiece surface at the beginning of the operation. This problem is particularly severe with small-diameter drills. To start a hole properly, the drill should be guided, using fixtures (such as a bushing) to keep it from deflecting sideways. A small starting hole can be made with a center drill, or the drill poine may be ground to an S shape (spiral point). This shape's self-centering characteristic eliminates center drilling, pro- duces accurate holes, and improves drill life. These factors are particularly important in automated production with computer qumerical control machines. Because of its rotary motion, drilling produces holes with walls that have cireum= ferential marks. In contrast, punched holes have longitudinal marks (see Fig. 16.5). This difference is significant in terms of the hole’s fatigue properties, which will be discussed in Section 30.5. Drills generally leave a burr on the bottom surface upon breakthrough, thus necessitating deburring operations (see Section 25.10). Recommended ranges for drilling speeds and feeds are given in Table 22.10. The speed is the surface speed of the drill at its periphery. Thus, a 0.5-in. (12.7 mm) drill rotating at 300 rpm has a surface speed of (0.5/2 in.)(300 rev/min)(2m rad/rev)(1/ 12 ft/in.) = 39 ft/min = 12 m/min. Rotational speeds in drilling holes smaller than 1 mm (0.040 in.) in diameter can range up co 30,000 rpm, depending on the workpiece material. The feed in drilling is the distance the drill travels into the workpiece per revolu- tion. For example, it is recommended in Table 22.10 that for most workpiece materials a drill 1.5-mm (0,060 in.) in diameter should have a feed of 0.025 mm/rev. Thus, if the speed column in the table indicates that the drill should rotate at, say, 2000 rpm, then the drill should travel into the workpiece at a linear speed of (0.025 mm/rev)(2000 rev/ min) = 50 mm/min = 2 in./min, Chip removal during drilling can be difficult, especially for deep holes in soft and ductile materials. The drill should be retracted periodically (pecking) to remove chips thar may have accumulated along the flutes; otherwise the drill may break because of excessive torque, or it may “walk” off location and produce a misshaped hole. A general guide to the probable causes of problems in drilling operations is given in Table 22.11, Drill reconditioning. Drills are reconditioned by grinding chem either manu- ally or using special fixtures. Proper reconditioning of drills is important, particu-22.7 Drilling and Drilts TABLE 22.10 GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR SPEEDS AND FEEDS IN DRILLING Feed, mm/rev lin./rev) 705 Surface Speed Drill Diameter Rem Workpiece Material mimin fr/rmin 18mm (0.060in.) 12.5mm(05in) 1.5mm 125mm Aluminum alloys 30-120 100-400 0.025 (0.001) 0.300.012) 6 400-26,000 800-3000 Magnesiumalloys 45-120 180-400 0.025 (0.001) 0,30(0.012) 9600-25,000 1100-3000 Copper alloys 15-60 50-200 0.026 (0.001) 0.25 (0.010) 3200-12,000 400-1500 Steels 20-30 60-100 0.028 (0.001) 9.300.012) 4300-6400 500-800 Stainless steels 10-20 40-60 0.025 (0.0011, 0.180.007} 2100-4300 250-500 Titanium alloys 6-20 20-60 0.010 (9.0004) 0.15 (0.008) 1300-4200 150-500 Cast irons 20-60 60-200 0.028 (0.001) 0.30 (0.012) ——-4300-12,000 500-1500 Thermoplastics, 30-60 100-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.130.005) —6400-12,000 ‘800-1800 Thermosets 20-60 60-200 0.025 (0.001) 0.1040.008) _4300-12,000 500-1800 ‘Nota: Aso éthincreasos, speeds and feeds shoud be roduc, Selacion of seeds an fase sto deperdson the specie aurfacefnah quired, larly in automated manufacturing on computer numerical control machines. Hand grinding is difficult and requires considerable skill in order to produce symmetric and accurate cutting edges. Grinding on fixtures is accurate and is done on special computer-controlled grinders. Drills coated with titanium nicride can he recoated dur- ing reconditioning, 22.7.6 Measuring drill life Dulling of drills and resharpening or replacing them are important, particularly in automated production. Use of dull drills increases forces, causes surface damage, and produces inaccurate holes. Life of drills, as well as taps (Section 22.10), is usually mea- sured by the number of holes drilled before they become dull. ‘The test procedure consists of clamping a block of material on a suitable dyna- mometer or force transducer, and drilling a number of holes while recording and ‘monitoring the torque or force during each successive operation. After a number of TABLE 22.11 GENERAL TROUBLESHOOTING GUIDE FOR DRILLING OPERATIONS. Problem Probable Causes Drill breakage Dull dril; drill seizing in hole because of chips clogging flutes; feed too high; lip relief angle too small Excessive drill wear Cutting speed too high; ineffective cutting fluid: rake angle too high; drill burned and strength lost when sharpened. Tapered hole Drill misaligned or bent; lips not equal; web not central. Oversize hole Same as above; machine spindle loose; chisel edge not central; side pressure on workpiece. Poor hole surface finish Dull dr ‘on drill margin: effective cutting fluid; welding of workpiece material ‘properly ground dril; improper alignment.708 22 = Mac! ing Processes for Producing Round Shapes Fereeor torque ‘Tool life 1 i FIGURE 2.27 + Determination of drill ife by monitoring tne i a function of the ‘ ig testis also used rise in force or torqui for determining tap lie, ‘Number of holes drilled or lapped umber of holes drilled. holes have been drilled, the torque and force begin to increase because the tool is becoming dull (Fig, 22.25). Drill lifes defined as the aumber of holes drilled until this transition begins. Other techniques, such as monitoring vibration and acoustic emis- sions, may also be used to determine drill life. These techaiques are particularly effec- tive in computer-controlied operations. ed 22.8 Drilling Machines Drilling machines are used for drilling holes, tapping, reaming, and other general~ purpose, small-diameter boring operations. These machine tools are generally vertical. ‘The most common vertical type is the drill press, the major components of which are shown in Fig. 22.30a. The workpiece is placed on an adjustable table, either by clamp- ing it directly into the slots and holes on the table or by using 4 vise, which in turn can be clamped to the table. The workpiece should be properly clamped, both for safety and accuracy, because the drilling torque can be high enough to rotate the workpiece. The drill is lowered manually by hand wheel or by power feed at preset rates. Manual feeding requires some skill in judging the appropriate feed rate. In order to maintain proper cutting speeds at the cutting edges of drills, che spindle speed on drilling machines has to be adjustable to accommodate different sizes of drills. Adjustments are made by means of pulleys, gear boxes, or variable-speed motors. Drill presses are usually designated by the largest workpiece diameter that can be accommodated on the table. Sizes typically range from 150 mm to 1250 mm (6 in. to 50 in.). Types of drilling machines range from simple bench-type units, used to drill small-diameter holes, to large radial drills (Fig. 22.30b), which can accommodate large workpieces. The distance between the column and the spindle center can be as large 2s 3 m(10 ft). The drill head of universal drilling machines can be swiveled to drill holes at an angle. Recent developments in drilling machines include numerically controlled three-axis machines in which various drilling operations ace performed automatically and in the desired sequence with the use of a surret (Fig, 22.31), Note that the turret holds several different tools (see also Section 24.2).22.8 Drilling Machines 707 ‘wy Fixed head (power head Columa Hand Adjustabte head wheel Spindle Chuck Table. Base FIGURE 22.30 Schematic illustration of the components of (al @ vertical drill press and (b! components of a radial diling machine. FIGURE 22.3] A three-axis computer numerical control drilling machine. The turret holds as much as eight different tools, such as drills, taps, and reamers.708 22 « Machining Processes for Producing Round Shapes Drilling machines with multiple spindles are used for high production-rate opera~ sions (gang drilling). These machines are capable of drilling as many as 50 holes of varying size, depth, and location in one step. Multiple-spindle machines are also used for reaming and counterboring operations. Special drilling machines, such as those used for producing holes in continuous hinges, use twist drills 1 mm (0.049 in.) in diameter. These machines are usually horizontal and produce holes in up to 3 m (10 ft) Jong segments on one cycle. Workholding devices for drilling are an important consideration in making sure that the workpiece can be located properly. They also help ensure that the workpiece does not slip or rotate during drilling, which might resule in a defective product or cause possible injury to the operator. Workholding devices exist in various designs, the important features being three-point locating for accuracy and three-dimensional workholding for secure fixturing, 22.9 Reaming and Reamers Reaming is an operation used to make an existing hole dimensionally more accurate than can be obtained by drilling alone and to improve its surface finish, The most accurate holes are produced by the following sequence of operations + Centering + Drilling + Boring + Reaming For even better accuracy and surface finish, holes may be burnished or internally ground and honed (see Sections 25.6 and 25.10). ‘A reamer (Fig, 22.32a) is a multiple-cutting-edge tool with straight or helically fluted edges, which removes very little material. For soft metals, a reamer typically removes a minimum of 0.2 mm (0.008 in.) on the diameter of a drilled hole, and for harder metals about 0.13 mm (0.005 in.). Attempts to remove smaller layers are detri- ‘mental as the reamer may be damaged or the hole surface may become burnished. In this case, honing would be preferred. In general, reamer speeds should be one-half that for the same-sized drill, and three times the feed rate. The basic types of reamers are hand and machine. Hand reamers are straight or hhave a tapered end in the first third of their length. Various machine reamers, also called chucking reamers because they are mounted in a chuck and operated by a machine, are available. There are two types of chucking reamers. Rose reamers have cutting edges with wide margins and no relief (see Fig. 22.322). They remove consid- erable material and true up a hole for flute reaming, Fluted reamers have small margins and relief, with a rake angle of about 5°. They are usually used for light cuts of about 0.4 mm (0.004 in.) on the hole diameter. Shell reamers, which are hollow and mounted22.10 Tapping and Taps 703 w Radial rake Ark Chamfer angle |. Chamfer length Margin width \ Land width y x Charner relief FIGURE 22.32 } Costing i After machining Synthesis and Design ns 22.53 Could the part showa on the left in Prob- lem 22.52 be made by processes other than casi~ ing? Explain. How does the number of parts required influence your answer? Would you still need machining operations to complete the part, as shown on che right? 22.54 Suggest remedies for the problems encountered in turning operations as listed in Table 22.7. Explain why you are making these suggestions. 22.55 Explain why che drilling problems listed in Table 22.11 have those particular causes. Sug- gest remedies and explain why you are making these suggestions, 22.56 With appropriate sketches, describe the prin- ciples of various fixturing methods and devices thar can be used for the processes described in this chapter. Include theee-poine locating and three-cimensional workholding for drilling and similar operations 2257 Make acomprehensive table of the process caps- bilities of the machining processes described in this chapter. Use several columas describing the machines involved, type of tools and tool materials used, shapes of blanks snd parts pro- duced, typical maximum and minimum sizes, surface finish, tolerances, and production rates 22.58 Based on the data developed in the foregoing problem, describe your thoughss regarding the procedure to be followed in determining what type of machine tool to select for & particular part to be machined.Machining Processes for Producing Various Shapes 23.1 Introduction 23.6 Sawing 23.2 Milling Operations 23.7 Filing and Finishing 23.3 ing Machines 23.8 Gear Manufacturing by Machining 23.4 Planing and Shaping 23.5 Broaching and Broaching Machines en 23.1 716 Introduction Chapter 22 described cutting processes and machine tools that produce parts having either external or internal round profiles. Many other parts are manufactured by vari- ous cutting operations (Fig. 23.1). In this chapter, you will learn about several cutting processes and machine tools that are capable of producing complex shapes with the use of multitooth, as well as single-point, cutting tools. This chapter will begin with one of the most versatile processes, called milling, in which a multitooth cutter rotates along various axes with respect to the workpiece; Then you will learn about planing, shaping, and broaching, in which flat and shaped surfaces are produced, and the tool or workpiece travels along a straight path. Next, this chapter will describe sawing processes, which are generally used to prepare blanks, usually from rods, flat plate, and sheet, for further operations by forming, machining, and welding, Also briefly covered will be fling, which is used to remove small amounts of material, usually from edges and corners. Recall that Part III described gear manufacturing by forming processes, in which gear teeth are produced by deformation of the metal, It was also stated that gears can be manufactured by casting and powder-merallurgy techniques. This chapter23.2 Milling Operations 17 @) FIGURE 23) ‘Typical parts and shapes produced by the machin- ing processes described in this chapter, describes gear production by machining processes that use special cutters. Because each gear-manufacturing process has its own characteristics, you will see comparisons of the quality and properties of gears made by all these processes. en 23.2 Milling Operations Milling includes a number of versatile machining operations, which are capable of producing a variety of configurations (Fig. 23.2) using a milling cutter, 2 multitooth tool zhat produces a number of chips in one revolution. Parts such as the one shown in Fig, 23.3 can be machined, with various milling cutters, efficiently and repeatedly. 23.2.1 Slab milling 1a slab milling, also called peripheral milling, the axis of cutter rotation is parallel to the workpiece surface to be machined (Fig. 23.22). The cutter, generally made of high- speed steel, has a number of teeth along its circumference, each tooth acting like a single-point cutting tool called a plain mil. ‘Cutters used in slab milling may have straight or helical eeth producing orthogo- nal or oblique cutting action. The helical teeth on the cutter shown in Fig. 23.2a are718 23 + Machining Processes for Producing Various Shapes: ()) Face milling ret Bod milting a) Slab nlling cutter FIGURE 23.2 Basic types of milling cutters and operations. Pocket Hole milling aritling FC 33 —- Atypical part produced on a milling machine equipped with computer controls. Such parts can be made efficiently and repetitively on compu- ter numerical control (CNC) machines, using litle labor. Source: Bridgeport Machines Division, Textron Inc. Perimeter milling232. Milling Operations ng ed over straight teeth because the load on the tooth is less, resulting in @ pref ig tool forces and chatter (see also Fig. 20.11) smoother operation and reduc Conventional milling and climb milling, In conventional milling, also called up milling, the maxiraum chip thickness is at the end of the cut (Figs. 23.4a and b). Advantages are that tooth engagement is not a function of workpiece surface charac- teristics, and contamination or scale on the surface does not affect tool life. This is the dominant method of milling. The curting process is smooth, provided that the cutter teeth are sharp, but there is 2 tendency for the tool to chatter. Also, the workpiece has a tendency to be pulled upward, thus proper clamping is important. In climb milling, also called doton milling, cutting starts with the chip at its thick- est location. The advantage is that the downward component of cutting forces holds the workpiece in place, particularly for slender parts. However, because of the result- ing high impact forces when the teeth engage the workpiece, this operation must have a rigid setup, and backlash must be eliminated in the table feed mechanism. Climb milling is not suitable for machining workpieces having surface scale, such as hot- worked metals, forgings, and castings. The scale is hard and abrasive and causes exces- ive wear and damage to the cutter teeth, thus tool life can be short. Climb milling is recommended, in general, for maximum cutter life when computer numerical con- trolled (CNC) machine tools are used. A typical application is in finishing cuts on aluminum. The cutting speed V in milling is the peripheral speed of the cutter, or V=aDN, (23.1) where D is the cutter diameter and N is the rotational speed of the cutter (Pig, 23.46). wo 1 © sv] Ce 5A, noes Ca | Conventional Climb ‘illing smiling FIGURE 23.4 {2} Schematic illustration of conventional milling and climb milling. {b} Slab milling operation, showing depth of cut d, feed per tooth # chip depth of cut t, and workpiece speed v. (c) Schematic illustration of cutter travel distance |, to reach full depth of cut.720 Example: 23 » Machining Processes for Producing Various Shapes Note that the thickness of the chip in slab milling varies along ies length because of che relative longitudinal motion becween cutter and workpiece. For a straight-tooth cutter we can determine the approximate undeformed chip thickness t, (chip depth of cut) from the equation d a ff (23.2) where f is the feed per tooth of the cutter, measured along the workpiece surface (chat is, the distance the workpiece travels per tooth of the cutter, in mm/tooth or in./tooth) and d is the depth of cut. As the value of t, becomes greater, the force on the cutter tooth increases. Feed per tooth is determined from the equation f= ofNn, (233) where v is the linear speed (feed rate) of the workpiece and n is the number of teeth on the cutter periphery, We can check the dimensional accuracy of this equation by using appropriate units for the individual terms; thus, (mm/tooth) = (m/mia) {10° mm/m)/(rev/min)(aumber of teeth/rev), which checks out correctly. The cutting time ¢ is given by the expression r=(l+ Dy, (23.4) where / is the length of the workpiece (Fig. 23.4c) and J, is the extent of the cutter’s first contact with the workpiece. Based on the assumption that /, <1 (although this is not generally so), the material removal rate is MRR = hed/t = wdv, (23.5) where w is the width of the cut, which for a workpiece narrower than the length of the cutter, is the same as the width of the workpiece. As stated in Section 22.2, the distances that the cutter travels in noncutting cycles of the milling operation are important economic considerations and should be minimized, Although we can calculate the power requirement in slab milling, the forces acting on the cutter (tangential, radial, and axial; see also Fig, 22.36) are difficult to calculate because of the many variables involved, particularly tool geometry, These forces can be measured experimentally for a variety of conditions. From the power, however, we can calculate the torque on the cutter spindle (see example below). Although the torque is the product of the tangential force on the cutter and its radius, the tangential force per tooth will depend on how many teeth are engaged during the cut, Calculation of material removal rate, power required, torque, and cutting time in slab milling ———————— A slab-milling operation is being carried out on a 12-in. long, 4-in, wide annealed mild-steel block at a feed f = 0.01 in./tooth and depth of cut d = Fin, The cutter is D = 2in. in diameter, has 20 seraight teeth, rotates at N = 100 rpm, and is wider than23.2 Milling Operations 724 the block to be machined. Calculate the material removal cate, estimate the power and torque required for this operation, and calculate the cutting time SOLUTION, From the information given, we can calculate the linear speed » of the workpiece from Eq. (23.3). Thus, v = fNn = (0.011020) = 20 in./min. Using Eq. (23.5), the material removal rate is MRR = (4)(8(20} = 10 in.!/min, Since the workpiece is annealed mild steel, let's estimate unit power from Table 20.1 a8 1st hp min/in.. Hence the power required in this operation can be estimated to be Power = (1.1)(10) = 11 hp. We can also calculate the torque acting on the cutter spindle by noting that power is the product of torque and the spindle rotational speed, in radians per unit time, Thus, Torque = Power / Rotational speed = (11 hp)(33,000 Ib-fe/min. hp) /(100 eprm)(2n) = 578 lb-ft. ‘The cutting time is given by Eq. (23.4) in which the quantity [. can be shown, from simple geometric relationships and for D > d, to approximate I= VDd = VB = 0.5 in. Thus the cutting time is t = (12 + 0.5)/20 = 0.625 min = 37.5 5, ee esssSsSSE"E 23.2.2 Face milling In face milling the cutrer is mounted on a spindle having an axis of rotation perpen- dicular to the workpiece surface (Fig. 23.2b) and removes material in the manner shown in Fig. 23.5a, The cutter rotates at a rotational speed NV and the workpiece moves along a straight path at a linear speed x, When the cutter rotates as shown in Fig. 23.5b, the operation is climb milling; when it rotates in the opposite direction (Fig. 25.5c), the operation is conventional milling. The cutting tools are usually car- bide or high-speed-steel inserts (see Table 23.4) and are mounted on the cutter body, as shown in Fig, 23.6. Because of the relative motion between the cutting teeth and the workpiece, a face-milling cutter leaves feed marks on the machined surface (Fig. 23.7), much as in turning operations (see Figs. 20.26 and 20.27). Note that surface roughness depends on insert corner geometry and feed per tooth.i loser wb FIGURE 235 ace-miling operation showing {a} action of an insert in face milling; {b} climb milling; (¢) conventional milling; {¢) dimensions in face mill- ing. The width of cut w is not necessarily the same as the cutter radius. Source: Ingersoll Cutting Too! Company. Warkpiece Machined surface IQUE — Face-milling cutter with indexa ble inserts. Source: Courtesy of Ingersoll Cutting Toat Company.23.2 Milling Operations 723 ‘a Comer radius (bi Corner fat ce) Wiper cet width Wiper / tne an > Lage Small dius radius Feed Small marks radius FIGURE 23.7 Schematic illustration of the effect of insert shape on feed marks on a face-milled surface: (a) small corner radius, {b) comer flat on insert, and (c} wiper, consisting of @ small radius followed by a large radius which leaves smoother feed marks, Source: Kennametal Inc. The terminology for a face-milling cutter and the various angles are shown in Fig. 23.8. The side view is shown in Fig. 23.9, where we note that, as in turning opera- tions, the /ead angle of the insert in face milling has a direct influence on the unde- formed chip thickness, As the lead angle (positive as shown) increases, the undeformed chip thickness (hence chip thickness) decreases and the length of contact increases The range of lead angles for most face-milling cutters is from 0° to 45°, thus influene- ing the axial and tangential forces. Note that the cross-sectional area of the unde- formed chip remains constant. The lead angle also influences forces in milling. We can see that as the lead angle decreases, there is less and less vertical force (axial force on the cutter spindle) component. A wide variety of milling cutters are available. The cutter diameter should be cchosen in such a manner that it will not interfere with fixtures and other components in the setup. In a typical face milling operation, the ratio of the cutter diameter D to the width of cut w should be no less than 3:2. End cutting edge angle Peripheral relief crodial relist Gorner anigle — End reliet axial relief FIGURE 23.8 mmc Terminology for a face-milling cutter.724 23 + Machining Processes for Producing Various Shapes FiGuE?29 ——V| The effect of lead angle on the undeformed chip thickness in face miling. Note that 38 the Undeforme chip hicks lead angle increases, the unde. Oo formed chip thickness (hence chip thickness) decreases, but the length of contact (hence chip width) increases. The in- sert must be sufficiently large to accommodate the contact length increase. Feed per tooth, f Lead angle Ansect, ‘The relationship of cutter diameter and insert angles and their position relative to the surface ro be milled is important, in that it will determine the angle at which an insert enters and exits the workpiece. Note in Fig. 23.56 for climb milling that if the insert has zero axial and radial rake angles (see Fig. 23.8), the rake face of the insert engages the workpiece directly. However, as we see in Fig, 23.10 and b, the same insert engages the workpiece at different angles depending on the relative positions of @ ° sit |Workpiece) 5 Re-entry, {a) Relative position of the cutter and of exit angles of insert, showing de- Milled dicular to the page. Desirable UndesirableExample: 23.2 Milling Operations 725 the cutter and the workpiece. In illustration (a) the tip of the insert makes the first contact, and hence there is a possibility for the cutting edge to chip off. In illustration (b), on the other hand, the first contacts (both at entry, reentry, and the two exits) are at an angle and away from the tip of the insert. There is, therefore, less tendency for the insert to fall because the force on the insert increases and decreases more slowly. Note from Fig. 23.8 that the radial and axial rake angles will also have an effect on this situation Figure 23.10c shows the exit angles for various cutter positions. Note that in the first two examples, the insert exits the workpiece at an angle whereby the force on the insert diminishes to zero at a slower rate (desirable) than in the third example, where the insert exits suddenly (undesirable). Calculation of material removal rate, power required, and cutting time in face ml, ——— Refer to Fig. 23.5 and assume that D = 150 mm, w = 60 mm, / = 500mm, d= 3 mm, v = 0.6 m/min, and N = 100 rpm. The cutter has 10 inserts, and the workpiece mate- rial is a high-strength aluminum alloy. Caleulate the material removal rate, cutting time, and feed per tooth, and estimate the power required. SOLUTION. The cross-section of the cut is (w)(d) = (60)(3) = 180 mm? Noting, that the workpiece speed 9 is 0.6 m/min = 600 mm/min, we calculate the material removal rate as MRR = (180)(600) = 108,000 mm/min. The cutting time is given by t= (1+ 2)j/v. We note from Fig. 23.5 that for this problem /, = D/2, or 75 mm. Thus the cutting times 1 = (500 + 150)/10 = 65 s = 1.08 min. We obtain the feed per tooth from Eq, (23.3). Noting that N = 100 rpm = 1.67 rev/s, we find f = 10/(1.67)(10) = 0.6 mm/tooth. For this material we estimate the unit power from Table 20.1 to be 1.1 W + s/mm’. Hence we estimate the power to be Power = (1.11800) = 1980 W = 1.98 kW.726 23 + Machining Processes for Producing Various Shapes TABLE 23.1 mmemeensseneeneerem eta e EEA ‘SUMMARY OF MILLING PARAMETERS AND FORMULAS. jotational speed of the milling cutter, rpm. f= Feed, mm/tooth or in.ftooth D = Cutter diameter, mm or in. n= Number of teeth on cutter Inear speed of the workpiece or feed rate, mmimin or in.min Surface speed of cuttar, m/min or fimin ON f'= Feed per tooth, marytooth or injtooth =yNo I= Length of cut, mm ot in. t= Cutting time, s or mia = (1+ Iv, where I, = extent of the cuttor’s first contact with workpiece MRR = mm*/min or in2imin = way, where wis the width of cut Torque = N-mor bf (FD) Power = KW or hp = (Torque (a, where w = 2A radiansimin [Note The uit ivan ae those that ar commanly ust hawevereporopato uit must ba used inthe formulas 23.2.3. End milling ‘The cutter in end milling is shown in Fig. 23.2c and has either straight or capered shanks for smaller and larger cutter sizes, respectively. The cutter usually rotates on an axis perpendicular to the workpiece, although it can be tilted to machine tapered surfaces. Flat surfaces as well as various profiles can be produced by end milling, The end faces of some end mills have cutting teeth, and these can be used as a drill to start a cavity. End mills are also available with hemispherical ends for producing curved surfaces, as in making dies. Hollow end mills have internal cutting teeth and are used for machining the cylindrical surface of solid round workpieces, asin preparing stock with accurate diameters for automatic machines. End mills are made of high-speed steels or have carbide inserts. High-speed end milling. We described high-speed machining and its applica- tions in Section 22.4.1. One of the more common applications is high-speed milling using an end mill and with the same general provisions regarding the stiffness of machines, workholding devices, etc. that have been described. A typical application is milling aluminum-alloy aerospace components and honeycomb structures (see Sec- tion 9.7), with spindle speeds on the order of 20,000 rpm. Chip collection and disposal can be a significant problem in these operations (see Section 2.3.13).23.2 Milling Operations: 727 FIGUAE 23.11 Various types of milling cutters with inserts. Source: Courtesy of Ingersoll Cutting Tool Company, 23.2.4 Other milling operations and cutters Several other types of milling operations and cutters are used to machine various sur- faces (Fig, 23.11). In straddle milling, two or more cutters are mounted on an arbor and are used to machine two parallel surfaces on the workpiece (Fig. 23.122). Form milling is used to produce curved profiles, with cutters that have specially shaped teeth (Fig. 23.12b), Such cutters are also used for cutting gear teeth (see Section 23.8.1), (a) Straddle milling (by Form milling FIGURE 23.12 ——— Cutters for (a) straddle milling ‘and (b) form milling.728 23 * Machining Processes for Producing Various Shapes (a) Slotting 4b) Slitting FIGURE —— a) Slotting and (b) slitting with milling cutters. Circular cutters for slotting and slitting are shown in Figs. 23.13a and b, respec tively. The teeth may be staggered slightly, as in a sawblade (see Section 23.6), to pro- vide clearance for the cutter in making deep slots. Slitting saws are relatively thin: usually less than 5 mm (fh in.). T-slot cutters are used to mill T-slots (Fig. 23.14a), such as those in machine-tool work tables for clamping workpieces. A slot is first milled with an end mill. The T-slot cutter then cuts the complete profile of the slot in one pass, Key seat cutters are used to make the semicylindrical key seats (Woodruff) for shafts, Angle milling cutters with 2 single angle or double angles are used to produce tapered surfaces with various angles. Shell mills (Fig. 23.14b) are hollow inside and are mounted on a shank, thus allow- ing the same shank to be used for different sized cutters. The use of shell mills is similar to that of end mills. Milling with a single curting tooth mounted on a high- speed spindle is known as fly cutting and is generally used in simple face-milling and boring operations. The tool can be shaped as a single-point cutting tool and can be placed in various radial positions on the spindle. First cut @ ‘slotting! wo FIGURE. — {a) T-slot cutting with a mill- ing cutter. (o) Shell mill23.2, Milling Operations 729 Milling cutter” cE — Mounting a milling cutter on an If atbor for use on @ horizontal mil- Arborbeuringsurfaoe for Drive key ing machine Outboard support 23.2.5 Tool holders Milling cutters are classified as arbor cutters or shank cutters, Arbor cutters are mounted on an arbor (Fig. 23.15), such as those for slab, face, straddle, and form milling. In shank-eype cutters, the cutter and the shank are one piece, The most com- mon examples of shank cutters are end mills. Whereas small end mills have straight shanks, larger end mills have tapered shanks for better clamping to resist the higher forces and torque involved. Cutters with straight shanks are mounted in collet chucks or special end mill holders; those with tapered shanks are mounted in tapered tool holders. In addition to mechanical means, hydraulic tool holders and arbors are also available, The stiffness of cutters and tool holders is important for surface quality and reducing vibration and chatter in milling operations. Conventional tapered tool hold- ers have a tendency to wear and bellmouth under the radial forces in milling. 23.2.6 Milling process capal In addition to various characteristics of milling processes that have been described, milling capabilities include parameters such 2s production rate, surface finish, toler~ ances, and cost considerations. Data on these capabilities are presented in ‘Table 22.6 and Fig. 40.8 (production rate and times), Fig. 22.13 (surface finish), Figs. 22.14, 406, and 40,7 (tolerances), Tables 23.2 and 23.3, and the summary table at the end of Chap- ter 23 (general characteristics). The conventional ranges of feeds and cutting speeds for milling are given in Table 234. Feeds range from about 0.1 mm per tooth (0.004 in. per tooth) to 0.5 mm (0.02 in.}. Depths of cut are usually 1-8 mm (0.04-0.30 in,). For cutting fluid recom- mendations, see Table 22.3. Cutting speeds, which as in turning operations vary over a wide range depending on workpiece material, cutting tool material, and process parameters, range from 30 m/min (90 ft/min) to 3000 m/min (10,000 ft/min).730 23 + Machining Processes for Producing Various Shapes TABLE 23,2 aati APPROXIMATE COST OF SELECTED TOOLS FOR MACHINING * Tools ize (in) Costs) Drills, HSS, straight shank Coated (TiN) Tapered shank Reamers, HSS, hand Chucking End mills, HSS Carbide-tipped Solid carbide Burs, carbi Milling cutters, HSS, staggered tooth, * wide Collets (6 core} 4.00~2.00 3.00-6.00 2.60-3.00 10-15 2.60-7.00 15-45 80-85, 250 950 10-15 10-15 5-10 20-25 40-55 10-15 15-30 30-35 45-60 30-70 180 10-20 50-60 35-15 130-260 10-20 * Cost depends on he partcwartypeotmatei purchases, ofteo is quality, and he aeouee E239 ‘TYPICAL CAPACITIES AND MAXIMUM WORKPIECE DIMENSIONS FOR SOME MACHINE TOOLS Maximum Dimension Power ‘Maximum Machine Tool m tt) ew) Speed Milling machines (table travel) Knee-and-column 14 (4.6) 20 4000 rprn Bod a3 (1a) Numerical control 5 (76.5) Planers (table travel) 10 (33) 100 17 mis Broaching machines (length) 2165) 03 MN Gear cutting (gear diameter) 5 165) ‘Not: Largercapectias re aviabe for specilaplistion,232. Milling Operations 731 TABLE 23.4 secant GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MILLING OPERATIONS: General-Purpose Starting Conditions Range of Conditions FEED ‘SPEED FEED ‘SPEED ‘mm/toath m/min mm/tooth m/min Workpiece Material Cutting Too! (in, tooth) (tes {in./tooth) txymin} Low-C and free- Uncoated carbide, 0.13-0.20 120-180 0.085 0.38 90-425 coated carbide, (0,005~0.008) (400-600) {(0.003-0.015) 1300-1400) cermets Alloy steels Soft Uncoated, 0.10-0.18 90-170 0.08-0.30 60-370 coated, (0.004-0.007) (300-550) (0.003-0.012) (200-1200) cermets Hard Cermets, PCBN —_0.10-0.15 180-210 0.08-0.25 75-480 (0.004-0.006) (600-700) (0.003-0010) (250-1500) Cast iron, gray Soft 0.10- 10.20 120-760 90-1370 (0.004-0.008) (400-2500) (300-4500) Hard 0.10-0.20 120-210 0.08-0.38 90-460 (0.004-0.008) (400-700) 10.003-0.075) (300-1500) Stainless steo!, Uncoated, 0.13-0.18 120-370 0.08-0.38 90-500 austenitic coated, (0.008-0.007) (400-1200) (0.030.015) (300-7800) cermets High-temperature Uncoated, 0.10-0.18 30-370 0.08-0.38 30-550 alloys, nickel base coated, cor- (0.040.007) (100-1200) 10,003-0.015) (90-1800) mets, SiN, PCBN Titanium alloys Uncoated, 0.13-0.15 50-60 0.08-0.38 49-140 coated, (©.005-0.006) (175-200) 40.003-0.015) (125-450) cermats Aluminum alloys Free machining Uncoated, 0.13-0.23 610-900 0.08-0.48 300-3000 ‘coated, PCD (0.008-0.009) (2000-3000) 40,003-0.018) —_(1000- 10,000) High siticon PCD 0.13 610 0.08-0.38 370-910 (0.005) (2000) (0.003-0.015) (1200-3000) Copper alloys Uncoated, 0.13-0.23 300-760 0.08-0.88 90-1070 coated, PCD (0.005-0.009) (1000-2500) ¢0.003-0.078) (300-3500) Thermoplesticsand Uncoated, 0.13-0.23 270-480 0.08-0.46 90-1370 thermosets coated, PCD (0.005-0.009) (900-1500) __(0.003-0.018) (300-4500) Source: Based on date rom knnnameta ne Nett Dopthsof et vaully ern the range Note: Se leo Table 222 fr range ot cutig spends within tol materi grou, im 8.04-03in. PCBN: polerstainecube oran nid: PCD: plyrvstalne éamond. A general troubleshooting guide for milling operations is given in Table 23.5. The last four items in this table are illustrated in Fig. 23.16. Back striking involves double feed marks made by the trailing edge of the cutter (the lower half of the cutters in Fig. 23.10). Note from this table that a study of the probable causes for the problems