Employability Skills – Revision Session May (03. May.

2016)

Introduction

This document provides summaries of some of the key theories, models and concepts that
underpin the employment skills that this Unit aims to develop in students. Under each task
you will find material that will help you focus your thoughts on the assessment tasks you are
required to complete.

The material is taken from my book Managing Public Services – Implementing Changes
(Doherty and Horne (2013). Routledge Francis Taylor).

Task 1 – Being able to determine your own responsibilities and performance

1. Develop a set of responsibilities and performance objectives
2. Evaluate your effectiveness against performance objectives in terms of your own skills and
personality
3. Make recommendations for improving your personal competencies and skills and
Applying Motivational techniques to improve quality of performance in your organisation.

WHY DO MANAGERS NEED SKILLS DEVELOPMENT?

Organisations increasingly realise that their staff, professionals and managers need personal
development (Fig 15.1).

Figure 15.1 Changes Which Create a Need for Personal Development

Away From....
One job for life
Formal qualifications
One professional career
Incremental promotions
Employers offer security
Steady career progression
Working for one employer
Sending employees away for training
Organisational training needs analysis
Towards.....
Many jobs in life
Portfolios of life long learning
Several careers in different professions
Leap frogging based on achievement
Employees need marketability
Progression by personal portfolio
Working for several employers
Employee responsible for own development
Self awareness and self development.

The following table should help you assess your skills and identify skills that you need to
develop.
Figure 15.3 Analysis of High Performing Managers (Doherty and Horne 2013)
Attribute Description of Attribute
Information Search Gathers many different kinds of information and uses a
wide variety of sources to build a rich picture.
Concept Formation Builds frameworks or models or forms concepts,
hypothesises or ideas on the basis of information;
becomes aware of patterns, trends, and cause/effect

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 relations by linking disparate information.
Conceptual Flexibility Identifies multiple options in planning; holds different
options in focus simultaneously and evaluates.
Interpersonal Search Uses open questions, summaries and paraphrasing to
understand the ideas, concepts and feelings of others.
Can comprehend issues and problems empathetically.
Managing Interaction Involves others and is able to build co-operative teams in
which group members feel valued and empowered.
Developmental Orientation Creates a positive environment in which staff increase
awareness of strengths and limitations; provides coaching
and developmental resources.
Impact Uses a variety of methods e.g. persuasion, modelling
behaviour, inventing symbols and forming alliances.
Self-confidence Takes own ‘stand’ or position on issues; takes decisions
when required and commits self and others; expresses
confidence in future success.
Presentation Presents ideas clearly, with ease and interest so that the
audience understands what is being communicated; uses
technical, non verbal and visual aids effectively.
Proactive Orientation Structures the task for the team; implements plans and
ideas; takes responsibility for all aspects of the situation.
Achievement Orientation Possesses high standards and sets ambitious, risky yet
attainable goals; measures progress against targets.
Figure 15.22 Performance Criteria for NVQ Key Skills

Here are some ways that you could improve your own skills

Self Management
 Ways of improving working relationships are implemented.
 Appropriate attitudes to work and colleagues maintained
 Self control is exercised when faced with difficulties
 Work is completed to timetable
 Willingness to seek advice
 Learns new skills

Managing Tasks
 Agreement of others about work to be done is obtained
 Progress is monitored and any corrective actions taken
 Appropriate time tables are developed
 Plans for work are provided
 Deadlines are met

Communicating with Others

 Written communications are accurate
 Spoken communications are clear and lucid

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 Style and manner of communication is appropriate
 Communications are effective and achieve the desired outcome

Relating to Others
 Working with and relating to others
 Good working relationships are maintained
 Appreciates the role and function of others
 Manner and approach to others are appropriate
 Ability to work well in groups is demonstrated
 Conflict is avoided and help is offered to overcome difficulties

Applying Knowledge
 Identifies, analyses and resolves problems in a professional way
 Uses course knowledge in dealing with customers and clients
 Uses knowledge of management when dealing with others
 Uses knowledge to develop new designs
 Can use a systematic approach

Showing Initiative
 Takes the lead when appropriate
 Takes the lead in problem solving
 Appropriate inventiveness is demonstrated
 Suggestions are made in appropriate ways
 Self-motivation and initiative is demonstrated
 An ability to provide new ideas and draw up plans is demonstrated

Reflection on Own Learning

 Ability to identify what has gone well or badly
 Critical evaluation of previous situations
 Can identify areas for improvement

Theories of Motivation
The following summaries some well know theories of motivation should help you to
identify ways in which you could increase your motivation

1. Response theories
2. Drive theories
3. Goal theories
4. Intrinsic - Extrinsic theories
5. Need theories.

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Response Theories
Many theories in this cluster refer to the work of Skinner. Skinner developed an ‘operant
theory’, based on the notion of reinforcement. In many experiments on animals, he
discovered that when responses are reinforced, for example by reward, then they recur more
frequently. When responses are punished, they recur less frequently. By rewarding desired
responses and punishing undesired responses, he concluded that behaviour could be
controlled or modified. Some of the ideas of scientific management, such as performance
related pay, are based on this principle. They seek to link pecuniary rewards or penalties
with assessed levels of performance.
There are a number of difficulties with this approach. It does not recognise intrinsic factors
which may motivate people, such as the challenge posed by the job. It assumes that the
employees only value the pecuniary rewards. Flynne suggests that:

Not all public sector employees are motivated primarily by material rewards.
Very often they wish to do as good a job as possible.

Employees may be indifferent to the consequences of the threatened punishments. They

may perceive attempts to control their behaviour in this way as disrespectful.

Drive Theories
Hull and Freud are two proponents of drive theories. Drive theories are based on the
perception that all behaviour is driven by different urges or drives. For example, Hull argued
that all behaviour could be explained on the basis of four drives: hunger, thirst, sex and
avoidance of pain. When we experience imbalance or disequilibrium, we are driven by urges
which energise our behaviour until our balance or equilibrium is restored. According to drive
theory, organisms learn to repeat behaviours and actions that are effective in restoring
equilibrium.

Freud's ideas on human drive enabled him to develop a framework for psycho-analysis. At
the root of these frameworks is the idea that all human behaviour is motivated by two basic
instincts, sex and aggression, and that these two instincts exert their influence at an
unconscious level. We are inclined to agree with Vroom and Deci's view that it is difficult to
relate drive theories to motivation at work. Whatever the ‘basic drives’ may be, it is hard to
see how they can be used by managers to motivate people who work in public services.

Goal Theories
In the 1940’s, a main proponent of goal theories was Kurt Lewin. He was a psychiatrist and
group psychotherapist who worked with soldiers who suffered from post traumatic stress.
Lewin’s work was widely taken up by management theorists, particularly in the area of
change management. Lewin relied on Gestalt psychology. The idea of ‘Gestalt’ refers to a
tendency to want to make a unified whole of inner world thinking and outer world actions. For
example, when we have business which we regard as unfinished, we experience a tension
which drives us to want to finish that unfinished business. The tension persists until the
‘Gestalt’ is completed. People set themselves goals, or devise plans, so as to decrease the
gap between some existing state and some future state that they think is more desirable i.e.
people are motivated to move from perceived initial states to desired future states.
Goals, anticipated outcomes and desired future states are concepts that have been used by
managers to try to motivate people to improve their performance. Goal setting was a key
component of Management by Objectives as advocated by Drucker, Humble and others.
They concluded that specific goals were more motivating than general ones. Motivation was

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increased by specifying a time by when goals were to be achieved, by reviewing progress
towards goal attainment, and by giving employees as much choice as possible about the
way in which they thought the goals might best be achieved. Goal theories provide a
plausible framework for enabling us to describe the way people move themselves and others
towards desired future states. Goal theorists, however, offer no explanation as to why people
choose the future states that they desire. Until we understand ‘why’ people choose their
future goals, it is hard to offer managers consistent advice on how they can increase the
frequency and speed with which people will move towards them.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Theories

Intrinsic motivation refers to an innate psychological need for competence and self
determination. The implication is that a great deal of our behaviour at work might be
determined by a desire to be proactive in our dealings with the outer world, rather than to be
a pawn reacting to the control of other people. Extrinsic motivators are concerned with
concrete rewards such as pay and conditions of service. Some writers have suggested that
optimal conditions for motivating performance might be a combination of intrinsic and
extrinsic motivators.7 Intrinsic motivators, such as making work more challenging and
offering opportunities for personal and professional growth, might be combined with extrinsic
motivators, such as good rates of pay, job security and promotion. One problem is that some
sources of extrinsic motivation counteract some sources of intrinsic motivation. For example,
meeting the requirements of systems designed to monitor achievement often cancel the
intrinsic motivation that could come from the achievements themselves.

Needs Theories
McClelland developed a needs theory in relation to achievement. He postulated that need for
achievement is a learned need rather than an innate need. That being so it should be
possible to increase an employee's need for achievement and hence their level of
motivation. Following extensive empirical studies, he identified three characteristics of
people with high achievement needs:
(1) They prefer personal responsibility and control over the completion of tasks.
(2) They set moderate achievement goals which pose some risk and challenge but which
are not so difficult as to lead to failure.
(3) They need clear and unambiguous feedback in order to enjoy the satisfaction of knowing
what has been achieved.
McClelland suggested that people could be trained to increase their achievement motivation.
Some of the ways managers can do this included:

 Encouraging employees to emulate role models

 Encouraging people to think more positively about themselves

The best known of the needs based theories of motivation is Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
Maslow proposed that human beings were driven by five basic needs which could be
represented as a hierarchy ranging from lower physiological needs to higher needs for self
actualisation. (Figure 7.15 and 7.16). Maslow's theory postulated that once a need had been
met it was no longer a motivator and that only a need at a higher level could be a source of
motivation.

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 Self
Actualisation

Status Needs

Social Needs

Safety Needs

Physiological Needs

Figure 7.15 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Figure 7.16 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

 Physiological needs, such as the need for food, water, heat.

 Safety needs, such as the need for freedom from pain, physical attack,

deprivation, insecurity, chaos and uncertainty.

 Social needs, such as the need for affection, the giving and receiving of love,

closeness, friendship and a sense of belonging.

 Status needs, such as the need for self esteem and the esteem of others -

recognition, reputation, respect and reward.

 Self actualisation, the need to realise fully one's own potential.

Maslow's work has been widely adopted by writers on management. Commonly they use
Maslow's work to explain why, for example, a manager with a good income may not be
motivated by the prospect of higher pay but might be motivated by the prospect of meeting
new challenges which would satisfy needs for esteem and prestige. There are a number of
problems with the application of Maslow's model to the work of a manager. Work is not the
only situation in which people can obtain satisfaction of their needs. A manager cannot
control what happens outside work. While managers seek to motivate employees towards
higher performance, the employees may obtain satisfaction of their needs through activities
that are incidental to, or even counter to, the achievement of improved organisational
performance. People may attribute different values to their needs, for example, they may

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prefer the security of a predictable bureaucratic job to a better paid, more challenging job,
which is less secure. Creative or artistic people are often motivated to realise their artistic or
creative potential long before their lower needs are met. For some, lower needs for safety or
status never become a major source of motivation. Flynne points out how values and
motivation can conflict amongst employees in public service organisations. They are likely to
be motivated by a mixture of factors, such as:

job security and/or a desire to work in an environment where profit is not the
primary motive either for themselves or the organisation. Or they may feel
that what they are doing is ‘just a job’ to which they have no special
commitment. It is very likely that they will have conflicting values which
cannot be resolved.

Maslow’s model fails to account for changes in people’s needs which occur over time, as
employees go through life’s predictable transitions. Nor is there any explanation for the
observed phenomenon that some people seem to have very much more motivatable energy
than others.

Motivation Theories – Summarising the Limitations

Needs based theories go furthest in alleviating the limitations of response theories, drive
theories, goal theories and intrinsic theories when trying to understand motivation in public
services. Some residual limitations of need based theories have been addressed, in part, by
Alderfer,51 who has condensed Maslow’s hierarchy into three groups of needs. Alderfer
represents these needs as a continuum rather than a hierarchy. Alderfer’s work still has in
common with all the theories we have considered so far, a failure to take into account the
employee’s life outside work. A theory of motivation is needed which helps us to understand
why employees become demotivated in public service organisations and which offers us
hope that we can still find ways of raising their motivation. We offer a theory of motivation on
which we have based our own practice in UK local government, the national health service,
higher education and Crown Agency Services in Africa, Malaysia, India and Pakistan.

Task 2 - Be able to develop interpersonal and transferable skills

2.1 Identify and resolve a problem while working with others
2.2 Communicate the problem and the solution in a variety of ways
2.3 Identify effective time management strategies used in your organisation

A MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
The following model and summary of the advantages and disadvantages of different
channels of communication should help you identify channels of communication that could
be used to communicate the problem and the solution you have looked at in a variety of
ways.
Communication is an attempt to transmit information in such a way that the recipient
understands what the transmitter meant. (Figure 12.8)

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 Encoding Perceptual Perceptual
Filter Filter Decoding

Selected Channel
Transmitter Reciever

Feedback

Figure 12.8 A model of Communication

In this model, a transmitter sends a message to a receiver, selecting a channel such as, e-
mail, fax, telephone or one-to-one conversation. The transmitter chooses the words and the
manner in which the message will be encoded. In one-to-one communication, the choice of
words, the style of sentence structure, the tone and the loudness of voice are an important
part of the way the message is coded. Communication is successful when the feedback
confirms that the receiver has understood the message in the way that the transmitter
intended. No matter what communication media is being used, the ability to code the
message in a way that can be interpreted accurately by the receiver will determine whether
or not communication succeeds or fails.

Barriers to Communication
Anything that interferes with any of the steps shown in Figure 12.5 is a barrier to
communication. The model shows the presence of perceptual filters. These filters include
prejudices, values, frames of reference and past experiences. Figure 12.5 also shows the
role of feed back in communication. When we speak face-to-face, it is usually possible to
identify non verbal as well as verbal feedback which indicates whether what is being
transmitted is being heard, acknowledged, accepted or understood. Nodding of the head,
avoidance of eye contact, the way arms are folded can all provide feedback. In telephone
conversations, tone of voice or speed of response can indicate how a message is being
received. The richer the information on the feedback loop, the greater the likelihood that
the transmitter will persist until a shared understanding has been achieved. There follows
extracts from a conversation with an ex-army officer who became the chief executive of a
public service organisation employing 200 people in the North of England. Peter Williams
was interested in the history of military failures and we have collected here, Peter’s
knowledge of the kinds of failures that can be traced to the mismanagement of information.
We were curious to see whether there were lessons to be learned by Peter for his new job
as Chief Executive of a public service.

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SIX CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

Figure 12.2 Six Channels of Communication in Public Services

 Hierarchy
Information is imparted upwards and downwards, through a chain of command.
 Representatives
Information is given to representatives who are responsible for distributing it
to people they represent. Representatives collate the response and feed it back.
 Team Briefings
All members of the organisation are allocated to a briefing group. Regular written
briefs are devised and read out to the briefing groups. There is no debate.
Reactions are noted and fed back.
 Networks
People with similar interests, or similar backgrounds, or similar status meet to
share experiences. Sometimes they meet to agree ‘best practice’. Often informal
networks develop. The activities of such networks are often supported by public
service organisations.
 Mass Methods
These include notice boards, news letters, annual reports, recorded messages
and e-mail.

 One-to-One Conversations
In one-to-one conversations we can recognise individual differences between
people. We can recognise preferences which individuals might have for the way
they receive and interpret information. It is easier to check that one person has
received what you sent, heard what you said and understood what you meant.

COMMUNICATION CHANNELS – ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Using the Management Hierarchy – Advantages and Disadvantages

 Senior managers know the reasons for their decisions. They can explain why as well as
how. People will sometimes accept what they don't like if someone senior explains the
reasons to them.
 It increases the authority and standing of managers if they are seen to be ‘in the know’.
 Managers should know their staff and be able to couch communications in appropriate
language. Subsequently, they can be around - in their departments or on their patch - to
deal with questions which people might prefer to raise individually.

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 The cost of bringing staff together
 Some questions may be asked, but many people are reluctant to look ignorant, foolish
or ‘not in the know’, in front of others.
 Bringing people together in groups raises anxiety (Chapter 6). This makes it more
difficult for people to give attention, remember, or think of questions to ask.
 The use of memos, faxes, or e-mails can overcome some of these disadvantages but
there is no check that the message sent is the one understood.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Representatives

 It is not so costly in management time - they only have to explain things once.
 Formal contact creates opportunities for informal conversations.
 Creating groups creates problems (Chapter 7).
 Representatives can be reluctant to pass on managers ‘good reasons’ with enthusiasm.
After all, it is not their job. It's the manager’s job.
 The use of representatives for downward communication bi-passes junior managers and
front-line supervisors. This reduces their status and disempowers them.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Briefing Groups

 The same information can be given to more than one person at once.
 It is more economical and more efficient than individual communication.
 It is not more effective. Not everyone attaches the same meaning to what is said.
 Not everyone will ask questions or seek clarification in a group setting.
 Group reactions and group phenomena are complex and require more interpretation
than the body language of individuals. (Chapter 6).

The Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Networks

 Quick and self motivated. Require little support or management time.
 Biased and can lead to sectional self interest.
 Puts some groups in a privileged position, knowing things that others do not know.
 Can fuel bad feelings between rival groups.
 It annoys managers when they hear things for the first time from the people they are
managing.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Mass Communication

Notice Boards
These should be where people congregate and wait - rest rooms, cafeterias, photocopiers.
There should be two separate notice boards, or one clearly divided by coloured tape, one
for urgent or new notices; the other is for notices that are left for reference until their
expiry date. It should be somebody's job to manage the board and keep it looking good -
free from graffiti and unauthorised notices.

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Newsletters
Frequency and flexibility are more important than prestigious production. Four weekly
columns, on one side of A 4, are sufficient. Reserve approximately one column for new
developments or changes; one column for social or learning events and one column for free
personal ads – ‘For Sale’, ‘Wanted’, ‘Share a flat’, ‘Rent a house’, ‘Lift to work’.
Annual Reports
These tell the world and the staff what has been achieved during the year. How many clients
have been seen how many times, compared with last year. They report on new
developments and on achievements that reflect credit on individuals, departments or
teams. Pictures of satisfied clients should punctuate the report.
Recorded Messages
The messages are pre-recorded on video or audio tapes. By pressing touch buttons,
employees can obtain information on a menu of topics. If the recording is audio it can be
used via a telephone help line.
E-mail
Electronic mail can be sent to all addresses simultaneously announcing, for example,
meetings to attend or the need for volunteers for new projects or working groups. We deal
later with wider issues related to electronic communication in public services.
 Mass communication cheap.
 The information transmitted can be controlled.
 It is not possible to ask questions of a notice board, a news letter, or an annual report, a
TV screen or a recorded message.
 Although it is possible to control the message transmitted, it is not possible to check that
it has been accurately understood.
 It cannot deal with specifics.
Social Media
 Very wide audience
 Receivers can communicate directly with the sender
 Visual support easily included
 Increasingly common form of communication
 Not usually seen as related to work
 Can be a distraction
Using the Telephone
The telephone is immediate, personal and one-to-one. Queries can be raised and
understanding can be checked. However, there is no permanent record of the conversation.
The major drawback of the telephone is the absence of body language. Sensitive listening to
the modulations of tone, volume and pace of speech, can greatly aid the attachment of
meaning to what is said. The telephone can make it easier to listen to the music as well as
the words. Sometimes the emotional meaning conveyed by the music is as important as the
factual meaning.

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 Figure 11.2 Guidelines for Effective Communication
 Chunking: Divide your message into small ‘chunks’. Limit each chunk to no more than
three new pieces of information. Work with this new information. Make connections
with existing knowledge. Give examples. Ask questions. Check acceptance and
understanding, before moving to the next chunk of new information. A total of nine new
pieces of information is usually the limit of what people can handle at any one time.
Their ability to concentrate on what you are saying may be limited to 20 minutes.
 Empathy: Put yourself in the receiver's position and anticipate what they will see or hear
 Jargon: Avoid pitching language too high or the pace too fast
 Prejudice: Be aware that your background or culture can bias the way you interpret
information
 Status: Be aware that the status of the transmitter distorts communication. Staff
commonly read more than was intended into a manager's message.
 Emotion: Pay attention to the emotional overtones - emotional music can sometimes be
a more important than the words themselves.
 Meaning: Check what the message has been taken to mean.


3. Task 3 – Understand the dynamics of working with others

3.1 Explain various roles in groups and explain how teams can work together to achieve
tasks and goals
3.2 Analyse team dynamics in your organisation
3.3. Suggest alternative ways of achieving tasks and goals

The Tuckman and Jenson7 model helps to explain why some groups work well and why
some groups do not work at all. It also explains why some projects fail. Not all groups get
through all of the stages. Some groups never get to the ‘storming’ phase. They remain
inefficient and ineffective. Discussions about what is to be included in the work of the group
can be a useful occasion for early ‘storming’. Tuckman and Jenson regarded all five stages,
including the ‘storming’, as necessary stages in the development of working groups that
work. (Figure 6.6).
Figure 6.6 Five Stages in the Life of a Group
Stage 1. Forming refers to the initial formation of the group. Tasks to be carried out are
discussed. Members get to know each other. The resources available to the group are
identified. The group seeks reassurance about what is required of them. At this stage,
groups often develop high dependency on a leader.
Stage 2. Storming occurs when group members question the task and challenge the way
of doing things. The conflict is uncomfortable. Individuals may be confronted and emotive
issues raised. Leadership challenges may occur. The ability to surface and manage conflict
is important.

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Stage 3. Norming represents a settling down of the group following upheavals in stage 2.
Conflicts are resolved and shared norms and values are established. Roles are ascribed to
group members and working rules are agreed. Group members begin to co-operate. The
group becomes more cohesive.
Stage 4 Performing describes the group becoming productive and getting on with
achieving its objectives. By this stage its members may be happy working alone, in pairs,
or in sub-groups as well as in the large group.
Stage 5. Parting marks the final stage in the life of the group, when the group is about to
disband. Before they part, the group members reflect on their time together.

GROUP STRUCTURES AND GROUP PROCESSES

Group structures are identifiable patterns of relationships (Figure 6.8).
Figure 6.8 The Six Main Dimensions of Group Structure 9
 The status of the members.
 The relative power of the members.
 The liking of the members for each other.
 The roles played by the different members.
 The quality of communication between members.
 The style and the quality of the leadership in the group.

Status and Power in a Group

Status is concerned with ranking within a group. Most groups have leaders and
subordinates. Informal groups bestow status on members who meet the expectations of the
group. In formal groups, status is often based on hierarchy. As we saw in Chapter 1, staff in
bureaucratic organisations have positions which are arranged in an order of increasing
authority. The trappings of authority - office size, parking spaces, the quality of furnishings -
all inform members of the organisation about where someone stands in order of authority.
The power which a person has is linked to their status. There are different forms of power
within a group. French and Raven10 define power in terms of the potential influence a
person has over others. They identified five different types of power exercised in groups:
reward power, coercive power, referent power, legitimate power and expert power
(Chapter 7). Power is not the same as authority. A manager may have the right to expect
subordinates to carry out instructions but may lack the ability to make them do it. They are
powerless. On the other hand, a person without formal authority may have the ability to get
people to do things. They are powerful.

Likes and Dislikes in a Group

The clustering of people who like each other and who do not like each other, within a group,
is sometimes called the affective structure of the group. Identifying affective structure
within a group can reveal the roots of particular problems within the group. Moreno11

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invented a technique called sociometry to reveal the affective structure of a group. A
sociogram is produced by asking group members a number of questions concerning their
preferences regarding the members within a group. For example, with whom would they
like to work or spend time, or study? These preferences are then mapped by linking lines
which determine different people’s popularity. (Figure 6.9). A sociogram can quickly reveal
patterns of relationships within a group, for example, who is isolated and who is popular
and unpopular. It can also identify sub-groupings within a group or team.

E G J K M O

A B
H P

F L N
D C

A, B, C and D are a sub-group linked to the main group by B

G, J, and M are the most liked members and are likely to have leadership roles
P and H are the least liked members and are likely to be isolated from the main group.

Figure 6.9 A Sociogram Mapping Revealing the Structure of a Group

Playing Roles in a Group

The role of someone within a group is the set of behaviours that are expected of them.
Meridith Belbin13 created nine roles based on the way people behaved and thought.

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 Figure 6.10 Nine Roles for a Successful Team

Team Role Main Characteristics Allowable weaknesses

Company Conservative, dutiful, predicable, Inflexible, slow to
Worker implements ideas respond to new ideas
Chairman Self-confident, controlled. Can be seen as
Clarifies goals manipulative
Shaper Challenging, dynamic. Provokes others, can hurt
Plant people’s feelings
Thrives on pressure
Ignores detail, poor
Resource Individualistic, creative problem communicator
Investigator solver, highly intelligent
Over-optimistic, loses
Monitor – Extrovert, enthusiastic, inquisitive, interest easily
Evaluator develops contacts
Lacks drive, doesn’t
Team Worker Sober, prudent, cautious, motivate others, critical
discerning, judges accurately
Sociable, mild, diplomatic, averts
Completer friction, listens, calms Indecisive, easily swayed
Finisher
Specialist
Orderly, conscientious, anxious A worrier, reluctant to
delegate, nit-picky
Single-minded, self-motivated,
provides specialist knowledge A narrow contribution,
misses the ‘big picture.’

After Belbin M (1981) Management Teams – Why they success or fail. Butterworth.

Task 4 – Be able to develop strategies for problem solving

3.1 Evaluate different tools for problem solving
3.2 Apply tools to resolve the problem
3.3 Critically evaluate potential impact of the strategy for solving the problem i.e.
implementing a change

Problem Solving Methodology

There are many models and approaches to problem solving. We have discussed
Root Cause analysis; Stella Cotterall’s OPAL Model; Force field analysis
brainstorming, etc.

Here is a simple but effective model for you to consider.

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There are several stages to
solving a problem:

1) Evaluating the problem

Clarifying the nature of a problem

Formulating questions

Gathering information systematically

Collating and organising data

Condensing and summarising

information

Defining the desired objective

2) Managing the problem

Using the information gathered effectively

Breaking down a problem into smaller, more manageable, parts

Using techniques such as brainstorming and lateral thinking to consider

options

Analysing these options in greater depth

Identifying steps that can be taken to achieve the objective

3) Decision-making

deciding between the possible options for what action to take

deciding on further information to be gathered before taking action

deciding on resources (time, funding, staff etc) to be allocated to this problem

See our page on decision-making skills

4) Resolving the problem

Implementing action

Providing information to other stakeholders; delegating tasks

Reviewing progress

5) Examining the results

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Monitoring the outcome of the action taken

Reviewing the problem and problem-solving process to avoid similar

situations in future

At any stage of this process, it may be necessary to return to an earlier

stage – for example, if further problems arise or if a solution does not appear to
be working as desired.

A final thought …
"For every complex problem, there is a solution that is simple, neat, and wrong"
(H.L. Mencken)

Managing resistance to changes that may be part of solutions to work

based problems

When you implement changes that inevitably are part of solutions to problems it
is likely that people will resist your attempts to change things for the better. This
section explores some of the ways that you can deal with resistance to change
that are part of your attempt to improve things in the work place.

Acceptance
High Anger
Negotiation

Hysteria

Testing

Denial
Depression
Low Shock

Announcement Time Implementation

Figure 2.4 The Phases of Resistance to Change (Doherty and Horne. 2013)

As we can see from Figure 2.5, most people - even those favourably disposed to a
change - are likely to have adverse reactions at some stage. They may not see the
point of a particular step or they may temporarily ‘lose the plot’. They may be very
busy with other things and suffer temporary overload or ‘change fatigue’. They may
perceive themselves incorrectly to be threatened by some aspect of the change.
They may perceive themselves quite correctly to be threatened by some aspect of
the change. They may be feeling anxious or aggrieved at the prospect of having to
negotiate. They may be psychologically or politically averse to the change. The
change may involve a culture clash - threatening strongly held beliefs or values.

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 Whether people’s initial response is resistant or co-operative, they are likely to need
support and information to help them manage the various stages in their response to
change. At each stage people will need to know what is happening and why. They
are entitled to be given good reasons for what is happening, or at least the best
reasons that management can give. The good reasons given will not necessarily
prove acceptable to all the people to whom they are given.

ANTICIPATING AND OVERCOMING RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

In Chapter 1 we discussed the difference between mechanistic and organic

organisation structures. We concluded that organic structures aid organisational
change. Despite evidence of some moves towards organic structures, most public
service organisations still tend to be mechanistic and resistant to change.
McConkie,7 explores why. (Figure 2.8).

Figure 2.8 Reasons for Resistance to Change

 Adherence to bureaucratic ‘habits’ – related to delegation, legalism, procedural

regulation; the need for caution and security, scepticism - often legitimate - about
management.
 Difficulties due to multiple levels of authority, accountability and reporting.
 Tendency to push decision making upwards. This conflicts with approaches
which seek to increase self-control and self-direction of those affected.
 Relationships are guided by the interests of many stakeholders (Chapter 4).
 Conflicting interests, agendas, alliances, reward structures and values.
 Financial support for change management programmes is difficult to obtain.
Funding for consultants is limited because many people have to agree spending.

Forms of Resistance

Outright opposition is rare. Extreme cases might necessitate disciplinary action

(Chapter 7). We are concerned here with more common forms of resistance (Figure
2.10).

Figure 2.10 12 Common Forms of Resistance

 Apathy
 Lateness
 Sabotage
 Sick leave
 Absenteeism
 Procrastination
 Working-to-rule
 Looking for another job
 Embarrassing leaks to press and media
 Undermining through behind-the-back criticism

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Resistance sometimes involves what seem like supportive suggestions e.g. offers to
set up a working party. Tread carefully. These may be intended to thwart the
implementation of change, rather than support it. It can be hard to spot the difference
between a positive desire to participate and a negative intention to delay and
obstruct. In any case, the creation and use of groups should be avoided where
possible (Chapter 7). One-to-one conversations are preferable. Bringing a group
together is time consuming. It involves a lot of ‘storming’ before the group gets
around to ‘performing’ (Figure 2.11). It can be hard to separate the difficulties that
groups are having in coming together, from the difficulties they are having with the
proposed changes.

Overcoming Resistance to Change - Force Field Analysis

Force field analysis, was developed by Kurt Lewin.12. Force field analysis enables
managers to identify the forces which are likely to restrain a particular change.
(Figure 2.14).

Figures 2.14 Force Field Analysis - An Example

Current State Desired State

Hierarchical structure Flatter structure

Inflexible job descriptions Multi skilled teams

Driving Forces Restraining Forces

More career/? Opportunities Devalues professions

More responsiveness Long standing power

Reduced costs Increased work loads

Excessive stress

Figure 2.14 Force Field Analysis

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The size of the arrows reflects the strength of the forces they represent. Forcefield analysis
is sometimes used with groups in order to structure an open discussion about what is
blocking a change. Having identified the potential sources and levels of resistance, Lewin
suggested that managers should act so as to reduce the restraining forces, rather than to
intensify the forces driving the change. Lewin, like Newton, argued that to every action
there was an equal and opposite reaction. Increasing the forces for change increases the
forces resisting it.

Figure 2.16 Eight Approaches to Managing Resistance

Approach Situation Advantage Drawbacks
1. Coercion Where the change is Speed Risky when it creates
urgent and the enemies.
change initiator is
powerful.

2. Manipulation Where all else fails. Quick and Causes resentment.

inexpensive
3. Persuasion Where the change Inexpensive, can be At later stages those
initiator is in a strong quickly implemented who have been
position and those persuaded may claim
affected by change they were
are easily persuaded. pressurised.

4. Negotiation Where a powerful A relatively easy way Can be expensive.

group may lose out. to avoid resistance May encourage
others to seek
negotiation.

5. Delegation Where there is Shares workload and Can be time

support for the responsibility. Can consuming. Requires
change and people empower and close monitoring and
know that they can develop. may be dependent on
benefit. training or coaching.

6. Facilitation Where individuals Best method for Can be time

have problems. dealing with problems consuming, expensive
of adjustment to and still fail.
change.

7. Participation Where information is Gains commitment, Time consuming.

missing or where relevant information. Change may not be
there is strong enough.
opposition.
8. Learning Where new Motivation, Time consuming.
information or involvement, new Involves many
competence needed. ideas, commitment. people.
Can be costly.

Tony L Doherty Senior Lecturer ICON College April 2016

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Bibliography

Doherty L and Horne T (2013) Managing Public Services -Implementing Changes.

Routledge Francis Taylor.

Skinner B. F. (1974) About Behaviourism New York Knopf.

Hull C. L. (1943) Principle of Behaviour . An Introduction to Behaviour Theory. Appleton -

Century - Crofts. Freud S. (1962) The Ego and the Id. New York Norton. (Originally
published 1923).

Lewin K. (1951) Intention, Will and Need. In Rapaport (ed.) Organisation and Pathology of
Thought. Columbia University Press.

Drucker P. F. (1984) Management Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices Harper Row.

See White R. W. (1959) Motivation Reconsidered: The Concept of Competence.

Psychological Review See for example, Porter L. H. and Lawler E. E. (1968) Managerial
Attitudes and Performance. Irwin

McClelland (1961) The Achieving Society Princetown N. J. Van Nostrad.

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96.

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